ThisdocumentismadepossiblebythegeneroussupportoftheAmericanpeoplethroughtheUnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment(USAID).ThecontentsaretheresponsibilityoftheGSLEPSecretariat,WWFandSLT,anddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsofUSAIDortheUnitedStatesGovernment.
ParticipationinConservation
AdviceDocumentAddendumtotheGeneralGuidelinesforClimateSmartSnowLeopardLandscapeManagementPlanningLeadAuthor:YashVeerBhatnagar,PhD,([email protected]),NatureConservationFoundation/SnowLeopardTrust,WWF,3076/5IVCross,GokulamPark,Mysuru,570020,IndiaContributingEditors:NilangaJayasinghe([email protected]),ChrisCzarnecki([email protected])
1. Background…………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………….2
2. PrinciplesofParticipation……………………………..…………………………………………………………………………..4
3. StakeholderAnalysis……………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………..5
4. TypesofParticipation….……………………………….……………………………………………………………..…………….5
4.1. PassiveParticipation……………………………………………………………………………………………………….………….5
4.2. ConsultativeParticipation…………………………………………………………………………………………………..………5
4.3. BoughtParticipation……………………………………………………………………………………….…………………….……6
4.4. FunctionalParticipation…………………………………………………………………………………………….…….………….6
4.5. InteractiveParticipation……………………………………………………………………………………………………..………6
4.6. Self-Mobilization……………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………….……7
5. ToolsforAssessments…………….……………………………..……………………………………………………….……….…8
6. StepsinParticipatoryEngagement…………….………………………………………………………………….……….….9
6.1. Pre-planning…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………9
6.2. Strategicplanning……………………………………………………………………………..………………….…………………...9
6.3. Actionplanning………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….…………10
6.4. Implementation……………………………………………………………………..…………………………………….……....…10
7. LimitationsofParticipatoryEngagement…………….……………………………………………………….……….…11
8. KeyResources……………………………………….…………….……………………………………………………….……….…11
8.1. Participatoryapproachesandphilosophy………………….…………………………………………………….……….11
8.2. Toolsandtechniques………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………11
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1.Background
InthisAdviceDocument,wehopetohighlighttheimportanceofusingparticipatoryapproachesforsnowleopardconservation,particularlyforlandscapelevelmanagementplanning.Weintroducesomeoftheprinciplesandtoolsforenablingsuchplanning,stepsforstakeholderengagement,andprovidesuitablelinksandresourcesforexploringtheseapproaches.Thisdocumentisnotpreparedasamanualforparticipatoryconservation,forwhichsomesuitablereferencesareprovidedattheend.
Participationistheactoftakingpartinanactivityofevent(OxfordAdvancedLearner’sDictionary2000).Aparticipatoryapproachtoconservation,isthus‘…aprocessthroughwhichstakeholdersinfluenceandsharecontrolover…initiativesandthedecisionsandresourceswhichaffectthem”(TheWorldBank1996)’,Untilafewdecadesago,theconservationmovementfollowedhighlyprotectionistandtop-downmodelsofconservationbasedonexclusionaryProtectedAreas(PA).Whilethesemodelsdidworkinsomeplaces,theyoftenservedtofurthermarginalizelow-incomecommunitiesthatdependonnaturalresourcesindevelopingcountries.Thus,conservationanddevelopmentagenciestookinitiativesinthelate1980stounderstandstakeholderdependenciesandpromotesustainabledevelopmentmodelswithlocalparticipationinconservationanddevelopment(Chambers2007).Thismodelhasalsoreceivedsubstantialmomentumwithdevelopmentalagenciesofteninsistingonparticipationwhenfundingprojects.
Photo1.AsnowleopardlooksintoacameratrapinChina'sSanjiangyuanNationalNatureReserveinQinghaiprovince.PhotoCredit:ShanShui/Panthera/SnowLeopardTrust
Recognizingtheimportanceofparticipatoryapproachesthe‘BishkekDeclaration’[http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/eca/Bishkek-Declaration-on-the-Conservation-of-Snow-Leopards.pdf]signedbytheleadersofthetwelvesnowleopardrangecountriesundertheGlobalSnowLeopardEcosystemProtectionprogramstatesthatallcountries:
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“Understandthattheconservationofthesnowleopardmustbeachievedbysecuringtheinvolvement,livelihoods,andbalanceddevelopmentofhumancommunitieswhosharethehabitat,strivingtoreconciletheconflictbetweeneconomicgrowthandenvironmentalsustainability”
Itfurtherresolvestoworktogetherto:
“Enhancetheroleoflocalcommunitiesinsnowleopardconservationeffortsbyadoptingandimplementingpoliciesandlawsthatfavourtheinvolvementofsuchcommunitiesasstewardsofbiodiversityandchampionsofconservation.
and,
Ensurethatindustry,mining,infrastructure,andruraldevelopmentprogramsandprojectsarefullysensitivetotheconservationneedsofsnowleopardsandtheirecosystems,donotadverselyaffectorfragmentkeypopulationsorcriticalhabitats,andemploywildlife-friendlydesign,offsets,andothermitigationtools….”
Thesnowleopardisaspeciesthatisspreadoverlargelandscapes,oftenoccurringfarbeyondPAs,inareasmanagedbycommunities,companiesorGovernmentagencies.Thereare,thus,numerousstakeholdersinanysnowleopardlandscapewithtraditionalorlegalrights.Withdifferentstakeholders,theperceptions,interests,needsandexpectationstowardsconservationanddevelopmentcandiffersubstantially.
Example:Avalleyadjacenttoaprotectedarea,hasgoodsnowleopardandpreypopulation,andhashighvaluesforecosystemservices.Itmayhaveafewvillageswithagriculture,somepasturesandareasforfuelcollection.Avillagefromanadjacentvalleyclaimsmostofthepastures.Further,thereistheanimalhusbandrydepartmentthatcomeswithamandatefortriplingsheepproductioninafewyears;ahorticulturedepartmentthatwantstoconvertalargepatchofmoistmeadowbythestreamintoanappleplantation;atourismdepartmentthatwishestocreatealargecampingsitenearthepastures,andsoon.
Photo2.TheUkokPlateaunaturalpark,RepublicofAltai,providescriticalhabitatforthesnowleopardandmanyotherendangeredspecies.©DenisBogomolov/WWF-Russia
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Itmaybeclearthatwithalltheseactivitiesorsomesuchasintensetourismthevalley’s,valueforsnowleopardmaydiminish.Conservation,livelihoodandhumanwelfareconcernsareoftenintertwinedclosely.Therefore,conservationandmanagementinitiativeswillneedtoincludeallperspectivesandplansthataresensitivetootherconcerns,yetaremanagedtosecurewildlifeinthearea.Thiswillrequiresustaineddialoguewithstakeholderswithdisparateinterestsinordertocomeupwithsolutions.
Participatoryconservationis,thus,ameansofusinglocalinsightsandinputsanddevelopingconsensustotakeupactivitieswithlocalpeopleandagenciestosustainconservationinterventionsovertime.
2.PrinciplesofParticipationSomekeyprinciplesforthisprocess(excerptedandmodifiedfromPrettyetal.(1995)andTMI(2000))are:
• Multipleperspectives:Likementionedabove,atypicallandscapehasstakeholderssuchaslocalcommunities,governmentdepartments,NGOs,communitybasedorganizationsforprofitcompanies,allofwhomarelikelytoseethelandanditsresourceswithdifferingviewsandexpectations.Further,thecommunity,too,isnotamonolith,butmayhavedifferingwaysofusingthelandscape.Thisprinciplerecognizesthefactthatdifferentstakeholdergroupsmakedifferentassessmentsofsituationsleadingtodifferentexpectationsandactionsregardingconservationanddevelopment.
• Adefinedsetofmethodsandsystematiclearningprocess:Thefocusisoncumulativelearningbyallparticipants,includingfacilitators,traineesandlocalpeople.Allparticipantshavesomethingtoofferandlearnbasedontheirownknowledge,beliefsandperceptions.ParticipatoryLearningandAction(PLA)toolsoftenhelpintheseassessments(seebelow).
• Facilitatorattitudesandskill:Thisiscritical,asthefacilitatorshouldtrytomaintainanunbiasedandappreciativesenseofenquiry.Thefacilitatorshouldideallyensureequity,fairnessandtransparencyinthediscussionsandagreedactions.Thefacilitatorshouldhelppeoplecarryouttheirownlearningtoachievegoalsandobjectives.
• Consensusonissuesandactions:Actionablepointsneedtoemergefromdiscussionanddebatethathelpinresolvingtheconservationissue(s)underconsideration.Actionplansneedtobepreparedthathelpclarifytheissue,theactivitytoaddressit,whowilldowhatandwhen.Howpartnerswillpooltheresourcesisanimportantstep.Incorporateco-financingincashorkindbypartnersforimplementationoftheplans.Thiscanoftenenhancesenseofownershipandhelpsinmakingtheimplementationofworksmorecosteffective.
• Localinstitutionbuildingandcapacitybuilding:Activitiesshouldbetakenupthatleadtoleadership,enhancedlocalcapacityandstructurestosustaintheseactivities(seeAddendum4.IntegratedManagementandGovernance).
Further,itshouldbenotedthatwhensustainablemanagementofthelandscapeistheprimarygoal,facilitatorsshouldbeawareofthatfromtheonsetoftheprocess.Communitydevelopmentcanbeaddressed,butensurethatconservationandecosystemmanagementlinkagesarecloselyintegratedandmaintainedforaholistic,sustainableapproach.Insomecases,strategicinterventionsintheareasofhealth,education,livelihoodsandlocalinfrastructuremayneedtobemadeinitiallytoaddressurgentneedsofcommunities,aswellasbuildtrustengagement.Thesearesometimesreferredtoas‘entrypointactivities’thatcan,atalaterstage,evencontinuealongwithconservationactivities.Forexample,ifacommunityisseasonallycutoffforwantofasmallbridge,itisdifficulttoengagewiththemstraight
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awayonaconservationissue.Itmaybegoodtoconsideraparticipatoryprocess,tofirstjointlybuildthisbridgeandthenbeginengagementontheconservationissue.
3.StakeholderAnalysis
Beforedetermininghowthevariousstakeholdersinasnowleopardlandscapewillparticipateinconservationandthelandscapemanagementplanningefforts,theymustfirstbeidentified,andaninitialanalysisshouldtakeplacetodetermineareasofconvergenceanddivergencewithsnowleopardconservationgoals.Astakeholderisanindividual,grouporinstitutionthathasaninterestinorisimpactedbyaproject.Stakeholders,particularlyinfluentialonessuchasgovernmentdepartmentsorindustries,canplayadecisiveroleinhowalandscapeismanaged.Mostoftheseagenciesareactiveinthelandscapeduetolong-standingandlegitimatemandates.Theirrolemaycomplementconservation(e.g.protectedareas,fulfillingsustainablelivelihoodrequirements),orconflictwithit(e.g.largeinfrastructureorunsustainableresourceextractionprojects),butineithercasecanbeseenascrucialforlocalornationalinterestbylocalpeopleand/orpolicymakers.Forthelandscapemanagementplanningprocesstobesuccessful,itiscrucialnotonlytoworkcloselyinaparticipativemannerwithlocalcommunities,butalsotoidentifyandengagewiththeotherstakeholdersinthelandscape.DetailedinformationonhowtoconductaStakeholderAnalysiscanbefoundinAddendum3:StakeholderAnalysis.
4.TypesofParticipation
Therearevariouswaysoflookingatparticipation.PrettyandSmith(2004)provideausefuldescriptionofthetypologyofparticipation.Simpleexamplesusingpeople-wildlifeconflictmitigationareprovidedforsometypesofparticipation:
4.1PassiveParticipation
Peopleparticipatebybeingtoldwhathasbeendecidedorhasalreadyhappened,andprojectimplementersproceedwithoutseekingtheirinputsortakingtheirneedsintoconsideration.Thisapproachmayoftennotleadtodesirableactionbasedontherealneedsofbothmanagementandpeople.
Example:Livestockislosttosnowleopardsinavillagewithjustfivehouseholds,butthesearespreadoutwidelyonamountainslope.Damageprimarilyoccursintheage-oldcorralsplacednearthehousesandfieldsbasedonsomeseasonalcriteriaofusingthem.Aconservationagencywithfundsforcorralimprovementdecidestohelpinconstructingonesinglelargecorralnearthecenterofthevillagetohelpreducelossesandgoesaheadwiththeimplementationusinghiredlaboranddiscussionswithjustthevillagehead.Unfortunately,peoplerefusetousethiscentralizedcorral,asitisinefficientforfeeding,milking,takinganimalsoutforherdingeverymorningandreturningthembacktothecorralintheevening.Thecorral,thus,remainsunusedand,induecourse,thevillagersdismantleusablepartslikemeshfenceandironrodsforotheruses.
4.2ConsultativeParticipation
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Peopleparticipatebyansweringquestions,withnoshareindecision-making,buttheirviewsmaybeincorporated.Thevarietyofquestionsaskedbytheofficialteamduringtheconsultationcanraiseexpectations,butcanbedisappointingifsubsequentactionsarenotbasedontheresponses.
Example:Aconservationagencyarrivesinavillageandholdsalargemeetingtohelpreduceconflicts.Aftertheinteraction,however,theyimplementacentralcorralbasedontheirdonorfunding,somethingthatwasclearlynotthepreferredsolutioninthemeeting.Inaddition,theyuseoutsidelaborformoreefficientandcheaperconstruction.Theexpectationswereraisedduetothesizeofthemeetingandthepotentialinvestment,buttheconservationbenefitintheendwasnegligibleorevennegative.
4.3BoughtParticipation
Peopleparticipateinreturnforfood,cashorothermaterialincentives,butwithouttheirdecisions.Thisisequivalenttopaidlaborandwouldn’tqualifyasparticipation.Thisshouldbedistinguishedfromanycasewhereacommunityispaidbasedonitsroleindecision-makingandawork-planwheretheywereinvolvedalongwithotherstakeholders(seebelow).
Example:Intheaboveexamplefor‘consultativeparticipation’,iftheconservationagencypayscommunitymembersforbuildingthecentralizedcorral,itcanbecalled‘boughtparticipation’.Here,thecommunitystilldon’thaveanydecisionmakingroleorconservationbenefitsbutcanearnsomemoney.
4.4FunctionalParticipation
Participationisseenbyexternalagenciesasameanstoachievetheirgoals,andpeoplemayformgroupstomeetpredeterminedobjectives.
Example:Anagencyarrivesinavillagewiththeintentionofsettingupaninsuranceprogramforhighvaluehorses.However,onarrivaltheyrealizethattherecentlossesaremoreincorralsandthatsincethepasttwoyears,thevillagershavemovedmoretowardsstall-fedcattlethanhorses.Theagencyis,however,boundbytheirfundingtosetupaninsuranceprogramandtheysomehowmanagetosetoneupwithafewvillagers.Theprogramisn’tsustainedsinceitwasnotviablewithonlyfewparticipantsandaproblemthatwasn’tsignificant.
4.5InteractiveParticipation
Peopleparticipateinjointanalysis,developmentofactionplansandformorstrengthenlocalgroupsandinstitutions.
Example:Agencyknowsthatthereisanissuewithsnowleoparddepredationinavillage.Theyarrivewithanopenmindandafewoptionsformanagingtheconflicts.Theyusetheirpriorinteractionswithkeyinformantsandmultiplediscussionsonrecentpatternsofconflictstoworkonthesolutionswiththecommunity.Itemergesthatsincetheimportanceofhorseshasreducedduetoroadaccess,thethreatislimitedtocattleandasmallstockiskeptinunprotectedcorralswithafewhorsesandyakslostduringtwomonthsofspringinacertainpasture.Theteamandlocalcommunityidentifythetwoprioritycorralstobeimprovedandworkonclearresponsibilitiesandtimelinesfortheworktobedone.Thecommunityalsotakesontheroleofdeputingtwoherderstotakecareoftheyaksandhorsesduringthetwovulnerablemonthsofspringbasedonanequalcontributionfromallhouseholds.Theconservationagency,too,contributes5%ofthetotalcostofhiringtheherdersforthefirstthreeyears.Thisprogram
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sustainsoveralongperiod.Thecommunityhasalsodevelopedthecapacityforadaptingtheprogramandruleswithchangingherdingpatterns.
Photo3.Wirefencingisusedtoimproveacorralandpreventhuman-wildlifecontactinIndia.PhotoCredit:NatureConservationFoundation/SnowLeopardTrust
4.6Self-Mobilization
Peopleparticipatebytakinginitiativeindependentlyandretaincontroloverhowresourcesareused.
Example:Basedontheaboveexample(InteractiveParticipation)–ontheirown,thecommunityidentifiesanothertwocorralsupinthepastureswithincreaseddepredation.Theyrealizethatinsteadoflosingtensoflivestock,theentirecostofexternalgoodsneededforthecorralimprovementwasequivalenttothecostof5sheep.Theydecidetopoolthiscash,alongwiththeirlaborandcompleteimprovingthecorralontheirown,ataskthatisultimatelyusefulfortheirlivelihood.
Positiveoutcomesareassociatedprimarilywiththelastthreetypes,i.e.,Functional,InteractiveandSelf-Mobilizedparticipationsoitisbesttousethesemethodsinthedevelopmentoflandscapemanagementplans.ItisimportanttonotethatthePassive,ConsultativeorBoughtparticipationdoesn’tgetintotheGSLEPmanagementplanningprocessasthiscanbedamagingtothecauseofconservationaswellasrelationshipswiththecommunity.
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Photo4.StakeholdermeetinginPakistan.Photo:SnowLeopardTrust/SLF-Pakistan.
5.ToolsforAssessments
Themethodstounderstandlocaldependenciesinspaceandtime,understandingtheirconcerns,livelihoodthreats,etc.canoftenbelearntthroughtheParticipatoryLearningandAction(PLA)tools,whichcanbebroadlyclassedinthesefourcategories(seeresourcesgivenbelowunderToolsandTechniquesformoredetailsregardingthemethods):
1. InterviewsandDiscussions:e.g.Semistructuredinterviews,key-informantdiscussions,brainstormingsessions
2. MappingandDiagrammaticrepresentation:e.g.Resourcemapping,trendlines,Venndiagrams,mobilitymaps
3. Directobservations:e.g.Transectwalks,participantobservations4. Rankingandclassification:e.g.Matrixranking,pair-wiseranking
Thesetoolsareveryhandyandoftenleadtoinformationusableforlandscapelevelplanning.Whiletheneedformoreaccurateandacademicstudiesonaspectsofecologyandhumansocietyareusefulforplanning,often,thesearenotavailable,especiallyovervastareas.Well-designedPLAtoolsare,thus,helpfulfordataandinformationthatmaynotbetotallyrobust,butisusuallyconsideredenoughforplanningpurposes.Literaturereferstoitwithtermssuchas‘optimalignorance’and‘appropriateimprecision’(Chambers1981).
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6.StepsinParticipatoryEngagement
Asstatedabove,andintheAddendumXXX(StrategicPlanning),weproposeaddressingcommunitylevelthreatstogetherwiththecommunitytounderstandthethreat,workonpossiblesolutionsthroughplanningandthenimplementtheaction.Thefourphasesofparticipatoryengagementforthefacilitatorsoftenare1)pre-planning,2)strategicplanning,3)action-planningand4)implementation.Furtherdetailsonthesethreephasesareprovidedbelow:
6.1Pre-planning
Thisisforthefacilitatorstounderstandthebroadcontextoftheareaanddeveloptheirownteam.
1. Preparation:Collateandreviewavailableliterature,statisticandmaps.Trytounderstandthreatstowildlife,aswellaslocallivelihoods.
2. Vision:Basedontheavailableinformation,thefacilitatorsdeveloptheirtentativevisionofchangeforthecommunityandotherstakeholders.
3. Approachandprocessdetermination:Compositionoftheteam,giventhenatureofthecommunity,expectationsoflevelofparticipation,timingofworkshops,durationofinvolvementoftheagency(shortorlongterm).Identifyoneortwowell-informedlocalpersonswhocancomplementtheteam.Willbeusefultoincludealocalladywhocanbringinwomen’sviewsmoreeffectively.
4. StakeholderSensitization:Sensitizethestakeholdersabouttheparticipatorymeetingandthegeneralthrustofthemeeting(naturalresourcemanagementissuesinourcase)sothatdiscussionscanbekeptmorefocused.
Informaldiscussionsandtimespentsocializingwiththecommunity(aswellasotherstakeholders)isastrongmeanstodevelopamorenuancedunderstandingoftheirissuesandconcerns.However,suchtimeismostoftennotavailableforthemanagementplanningteam.Itis,thus,valuabletoincludeanyfacilitatorswithlong-terminsightsfromthearea.Itisimportanttoinvestinthecapacityofthefacilitatorssothattheygetprofessionalandonthejobtrainingformoreeffectiveassessmentsandengagement.
AusefulcommentbyChambersmadeearlyonin1997warnsoftheimportanceoffacilitatorattitudes.Quotingfromhisbook:“AsPRAapproachesandmethodsspread,theprimeimportanceoffacilitators’behaviourandattitudesbecameclear.Againandagain,outsiderswaggedtheirfingers,criticized,lectured,interrupted,suggestedwhatshouldbedone,putforwardtheirownideas,andcontradictedandputdownlocalpeople.Allthesewereinhibiting.Allmadelocalpeopleappear,tooutsidersandthemselves,incapable.Sothenewimperativesbecametoestablishrapport,tositdown,listenandlearn,tobepatient,torespect,tofacilitate,tobenicetopeople,tolearnnottointerview,toknowwhennottospeakandwhennottobepresent.Thetaskforoutsidersbecametohandoverthestick,toempowerlocalpeople,toenhancetheirconfidence,toenablethemtodefine,expressandanalysetheirreality,andnottoreflectthatoftheoutsider.”
6.2Strategicplanning
Thisisforthefacilitatorstorevisetheirunderstandingifneeded,throughstructuredengagementswiththestakeholders.
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1. Stakeholders’Vision:Understandinganddocumentingthecommunity’svisionofchange.Aseparate‘institutionalanalysis’willhelpinunderstandingthemandatesoftheotherstakeholders(seeAddendum3.StakeholderAnalysis).Thisengagementwillalsotrytoinformthemaboutthemanagementplanningprocessandunderstandtheirexpectationsfromtheprocess.
2. Situationanalysis:Gainanoverviewofsocio-ecologicalstateofthecommunityusingvarioustools,forexample:
a. Mappingofspaceandtime(resourcemapping,trendlines),oralhistories,calendarsb. Diagrammaticrepresentationofrelationships(Venndiagrams,flowcharts)c. Representationofpreferences(rankingexercises)andrelativeproblems(Pairwise
rankingisausefultoolhere)3. Problemidentification:Thesituationanalysisleadstoidentificationofproblems.Thiscan
includealistofissuesandtheirlinkages.A‘ProblemTree’isusefulinlookingattheproblems,theircausesandconsequencestoconservation(seeSutherland2000).
4. Prioritizeproblems:Prioritizeproblemsintermsoftheneedtotacklethem,anddefinetheobjectivesoftheplan(Consideringtheinternalheterogeneityofcommunities,differentsegmentsmayhavedifferentpriorities.).TheProblemTreecanbeusedtopreparean‘ObjectiveTree’.Theobjectiveswithinthescopeofthemanagementplanningexercisecanbeselectedforthenextsteps.
5. Solutions:a. Communityprovidesitsownsolutionsandmayneedassistanceinimplementation.
Alternatively,facilitatorsmaysuggestsolutionsbasedonknow-hownotpresentinthecommunityorbasedontheirexperiencesfromothersimilarsituations.
b. Identifyactivitiesfromallpossibleoptions.6. Prioritizeactivities:Prioritizetheactivitiesidentifiedforsolvingproblem.Differencesregarding
rankingofactivitiesmayarisewithinthecommunityandwillrequireresolution.7. Spatialplan:LocationofeachoftheactivitiesareputonaresourcemaporGISmap,ifavailable.
6.3Actionplanning
1. Allocationofactivities:Activitiesareassignedtodifferentstakeholders.Thereisclarityontheroles,responsibilitiesandprivileges.
2. Timeline:Timelinesforeachactivityisdeterminedandagreed3. Resources/Budget:availabilityofresources(skilledhumanresource,labor,rawmaterial.etc.)
andfundsaredeterminedandallocated.Itisidealthatallinvolvedstakeholdersco-financeincashorkindasthatbuildsgreaterownership
4. Evaluatesuitabilityformarginalgroups:Theeffectoftheplanonmarginalgroupsandweakersectionsaredeterminedandifnecessary,stepsaremodified
5. Monitoringandevaluation:Asystemofmonitoringandevaluationisputinplace
6.4Implementation
Implementandevaluatetheactivity(s)aspertheactionplan.Thisisakeystepwherethedeliveryoftheprocesstakesplace.Properandtransparentimplementationandevaluationhelpsgenerategoodwillandbettertrust.Ifplanningisnotfollowedbyactionattheagreedtime,itcanleadtomistrusttowardstheprocess.
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7.LimitationsofParticipatoryEngagement
In1996,theInternationalInstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment(IIED),London,issuedalistofpotentialproblemsfacingtheincreaseduseofparticipatorytoolsathugescales.TheywelcomedtheeffortstomainstreamparticipationindonoragenciessuchastheWorldBank,andtheincreasingstressonparticipationbyGovernmentsandGovernmentdepartmentsbutpointedtothefactthatthequalityofparticipatoryworkwasimpededbythesheerscale,poorcapacityoffacilitators,donordrivenprogramsandshorttimeforassessments(FromPLANotes27[http://pubs.iied.org/G01664/],fromaworkshopinBangalorein1996).Itisstressedherethatlikeanyotherideaandtool,participationhasitsmeritsbutneedstobecarriedoutbymotivatedfacilitatorswithgoodunderstandingoftheprocesses,andwithenoughtimeandresources.Theaimofthisdocumentistoprovidesomehelpfulguidance.
8.KeyResources
Therearenumerouscredibleresourcesavailableonline(seeforexamplehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_action_research),onthephilosophy,approachesandtoolsforensuringgoodparticipationofstakeholders.Mostdevelopmentfunders,too,oftenpropagateacertaintypeofwell-researchedandusedparticipatoryapproach.Usersofthisdocumentareadvisedtosearchfortheseresources.Here,averybriefselectionhasbeenprovided,whichisbynomeanscomprehensive.
8.1Participatoryapproachesandphilosophy
• Chambers,R.(1997).WhoseRealityCounts?PuttingtheFirstLast.IntermediateTechnologyPublications,Bradford,UK.
• Chambers,R.(1981).Rapidruralappraisal:rationaleandrepertoire.PublicAdministrationandDevelopment.Vol.1(95-106).
• Chambers,R.(1994).Participatoryruralappraisal(PRA):Analysisofexperience.WorldDevelopment22:1253–1268.
• Chambers,R.(2006).Participatorymappingandgeographicinformationsystems:whosemap?Whoisempoweredandwhodisempowered?Whogainsandwholoses?TheElectronicJournalonInformationSystemsinDevelopingCountries25:1–11.
• Chambers,R.(2007).FromPRAtoPLAandPluralism:PracticeandTheory,IDSWorkingPaper286.
• Sutherland,W.(2000).ConservationHandbook:Research,ManagementandPolicy.BlackwellPublishing.Oxford,UK.(seeChapter7:ConservationPlanningandChapter14:IntegratingConservationandDevelopment)
• Pretty,J.N.,Gujit,I.,Scoones,I.,Thompson,J.,(1995).ATrainer’sGuideforParticipatoryLearningandAction.SustainableAgricultureProgramme.InternationalInstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment,3EndsleighStreet.LondonWCIHODD,UK
8.2Toolsandtechniques• Anonymous(2009).ParticipatoryToolsHandbook,HKKHPartnershipforEcosystem
Management,CESVI,ProjectActivityCode(s):A.1.5.4,June2009,EvK2CNR,ICIMOD,CESVI,IUCN.
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• TheMountainInstitute(2000)Community-BasedTourismforConservationandDevelopment:AResourceKit,TheMountainInstitute[http://mountain.org/sites/default/files/attachments/community_based_tourism_for_conservation_and_development.pdf]
• ParticipatoryMethods,InstituteofDevelopmentalStudies,UniversityofSussex,UK[http://www.participatorymethods.org]
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