cHaPtertWelve
Paying Attention to Moving Americans
Migration Knowledge in the Age of Internal Migration, 1930s–1970s
James N. Gregory
Twomass-marketbooksreachedbookstoresinlate1972andearly1973:A Na-tion of StrangersbyVancePackard,ajournalistandpopsociologist,andThe Moving AmericanbyGeorgePierson,ahistorianatYale.Bothcalledattentiontowhattheauthorsconsideredveryhighratesofgeographicmobility,echo-ingapatternofjournalisticandacademicliteraturethatforseveraldecadeshadfocusedoninternalmigration,relocationsofAmericansacrossstatelinesandfromfarmstocitiestosuburbs.Packard,achroniclerofsocialtrends,con-sideredmobilityaphenomenonthatAmericansneededtowatchandworryabout,asthetitle’sreferenceto“strangers”indicates.Usingtermslike“rest-less”and“uprooted,”hearguedthatgeographicmobilityhadthepotentialtoharmcommunities,families,andpersonalitiesandtoproduceloneliness,dis-orientation,andsocialfragmentation.1ThehistorianPiersoncelebratedthemobilityofAmericans,emphasizeditscontinuityovertime,andarguedthatitwaspartof“theAmericancharacter.”Ocean-andmountain-crossingpio-neershadbuilthisAmerica,andtohimgeographicmobilityshowedaspiritofyearning,ambition,andself-reinventionthatbodedwellforthenation’sfuture.2 Reflectingtwodifferentdisciplinarytraditions—sociologyandsocialdis-location,historyandAmericancharacter—thesebookscappedalongperiodofpublicandacademicinterestinmovingAmericans.Toreadthemistore-visitatimewheninternalmigrationcompetedwithcross-borderimmigrationforheadlinesandwhenmultipleinstitutionsofknowledgeproductionandknowledgecirculationfocusedontheproblemofmobility.Theperiodfromthe1930stothe1970swasthegoldenageofmigrationresearch,whenpublicfundsandpublicinterestfueledstudiesbysociologists,demographers,econo-
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mists,andhistorians;andwhen journalists,novelists,andmassentertain-mentindustriesspreadscholarship’sresultsbeyondcampuswalls.Theinter-facebetweenscholarsandpublicsatthattimeisworthyofourconsideration.Migrationscholarstoday—atamomentwhenmorepeoplearoundtheworldareinmotionandlivingoutsidenatalcountriesthanatperhapsanytimeinhumanhistory—seemlesscapableofinfluencingbroadpublicsthanintheageofinternalmigration. Thischapterexplorestherhythmsofmigrationstudies.Ittracestheshiftsthat have occurred in the relationship between producers of migration re-searchandtheinstitutionsofcommunicationthatcangiveaddedsocialandpoliticalsignificancetothisresearch.Itwillalsodiscusstherelationshipbe-tweentwoofthedisciplinesthatproducemigrationstudies.Historiansandsocialscientistshavenotonlydifferedinmethodsandfindingsbutalsointer-actedondifferenttermswiththepopularmedia.Analyzingthedifferencescanhelpusthinkaboutwhatmightbedonetowidenthechannelsofpublicaccessforcurrentstudies.Doingsoisimportant,becausemigrationknowl-edgeisitselfsignificantinthesocialsystemsthatconditionandrespondtomigration.Whenitcirculateswidely,migrationresearchhelpssetthetermsformigrationdecisions,migrationreceptions,migrationpolitics,andalsomi-grantidentityformation.3
The Age of Internal Migration
Migration was once front-page news. In nearly every mass medium, fromnewspaperstomagazines, toradioandtelevision, tofilmandfiction,evenpopularmusic,thetopicofmovingAmericanscaptivatedthepublic.Thefic-tionisperhapsbestrememberedtoday.NovelslikeThe Grapes of Wrath,Native Son, Invisible Man,Go Tell It on a Mountain,The Dollmaker,andOn the Roadremindusofatimewhenmigrationwastreatedasacomplexsocialandper-sonalissueandwhenmobilitywasthoughttobeemblematicofsomecen-tralpartoftheAmericanexperience.4ThepatternsofpopularityshowupintheReaders’ Guide to Periodical Literature,whichhasbeenindexingmagazinearticlessincethe1890s. Figure 12.1 shows the number of articles indexed in five-year intervalsunder twosubjectheadings:U.S. immigration/emigrationand internalmi-gration.5Notice thefluctuating interest in immigrationversus internalmi-gration,whichfollowsreasonablycloselychangesinAmericanimmigrationlawsandmigrationpatterns.TherewerefewarticlesaboutinternalmigrationuntilthedebatesoverimmigrationwereresolvedwiththepassageoftheIm-migrationRestrictionActof1924.Thelittlehumpofarticlesoninternalmi-
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grationarticlesduringtheFirstWorldWarandearly1920sis largelyaboutblackmigrationoutof theSouth.Butas thedoorsshutandthevolumeofimmigrationfromEuropeandAsiaplummeted,popularmagazinesshiftedtheirfocus.Inthe1930sdomesticmobilitybecameanimportantsubject,withthenumberofarticlesexceedingimmigrationarticlesduringthetenyearsof1935to1944.WiththeendoftheSecondWorldWarasurgeofarticlesaboutwarrefugees,braceros,andtheMcCarranActtemporarilyrenewedinterestinborder-crossingmigrants,althoughattentiontointernalmigrationalsore-mainedstrongandbecamedominantagaininthe1960sand1970s.Thegraphconfirmsthatthehalf-centuryfromthe1930sthroughthe1970swaswhenin-ternalmigrationheldthepublic’sattention. Thesameperiodwasalsotheheydayofinternalmigrationstudiesforso-cialscientists.Figure12.2displaysthenumberofarticlespublishedinthirty-sevensociology journalscataloguedby the JSTORConsortium.Theyaredi-videdbetweenarticlesthatappeartobeaboutimmigrationoremigrationandthosefocusedoninternalgeographicmobility.6 Figure12.3expressesthesedataasapercentageofallarticlesinthesejour-nals.Itshouldbeemphasizedthatthisdatabaseisfarfromcomplete.Itin-cludesonlyaselectionofsociologyjournals.Anotherindicationofthevolumeofinternalmigrationresearchbysociologists,economists,anddemographersisfoundinthebibliographyRural- Urban Migration Research(1974),whichlists1,232articlesandbooksonthesubject,mostofthempublishedbetween1955and1973.7 Historianswereequallycommittedto internalmigrationstudies.Figure
Figure 12.1 Popularmagazines:ImmigrationandinternalmigrationarticlesindexedbyReaders’ Guide,1900–1984
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Figure 12.2 Sociologyjournals:Immigrationversusinternalmigrationarticles,1900–1999
Figure 12.3 Sociologyjournals:Immigrationandinternalmigrationarticlesaspercentageofallarticles,1900–1999
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12.4isbasedonthirty-fourhistoryjournalscataloguedbyJSTOR.Thenumbersarelessreliablethaninthefieldofsociology,becausehistoriansoftenusecre-ativeandidiosyncratictitlesthatinterferewithkeywordsearches.ThusImayhavemissedarticlesthatwouldbecountedasbeingaboutinternalmigration.Iwonderinparticularaboutthesmallnumberofarticlesondomesticmobilitythemesindicatedinfigure12.4fortheperiod1940–64,becauseitconflictswiththeimpressiongivenbytheHarvard Guide to American History,1954and1974editions.Alsonoteworthyisthatthegraphshowsasurgeofhistoricalwritingaboutimmigrationstartinginthe1950s,wellaheadofthesociologists,whodonotwarmtothatsubjectuntilthe1980s.8
Migration Research
Letusbeginbybrieflyexaminingthedifferentkindsofresearchundertakenbysocialscientistsandhistorians,beforeturningtotheinteractionsbetweenthemassmediaandacademicmigrationresearchthathelpedkeeptheissuebeforethepublic.Migrationstudieshadbeenaconcernofresearcherssincethelatenineteenthcentury,formingpartoftheemergingfieldsofdemogra-phyandsociology.ForAmericanacademicsmuchoftheworkdonebeforethe1930scenteredonimmigrationfromEuropeandAsiaandtwoformsofinter-nalmigration:migrationfromfarmstocities;andtramping,orcasuallabormigration.Theformerreflectedconcernsaboutcountrylifeandruraldepopu-
Figure 12.4 Historyjournals:Immigrationandinternalmigrationarticles,1900–1999
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lationandthewell-fundedfieldofruralsociology,thelatteranancientfasci-nationwithtrampsandfearsofthemenacethattheyposedtostablesociety.CarletonParker’sThe Casual Laborer and Other Essays(1919)andNelsAnder-son’sThe Hobo: The Sociology of the Homeless Man(1923)werethemostfamousofthisgenerationofmobilitystudies.9 Migration research exploded in resources and significance during theGreatDepression,helpedbypublicanxietyabouttransientslookingforjobsandreliefassistance.Federalagencies—notablytheDepartmentofAgricul-ture,FederalEmergencyReliefAdministration,andWorksProgressAdmin-istration—fundedscoresofstudiesfocusingontransientfamilies,migratoryfarmworkers,theDustBowlexodus,andotherexamplesofpoverty-inducedlabor migration. But scholars also seized the opportunity to think morebroadlyaboutpatternsofinterstatemobilityandtofinddataandmethodsthatimprovedunderstandingsofwhomoved,when,where,andwhy.C.War-renThornwaite’sstudyInternal Migration in the United States(1934)andthefollow-upMigration and Economic Opportunity(1936),withCarterGoodrichasleadauthor,markedtheemergenceoffull-blown,massivelyfundedresearchonnationalpatternsofmobility.Basedonworkbyhugeteamsofresearcherswhogathereddatafrompublicandprivatesourcesacrossthecountry,theyalsodevelopednewstatisticalmeasuresandnewformsofpresentation,in-cludingmapswithdotsandmapswitharrows.Anotherteam,ledbyDorothySwaineThomasfortheSocialScienceResearchCouncil,expandedthesearchfordataandimprovedmethods.10 All of this set the stage for changes in government data collection: firstwitharevisedquestionnaireforthe1940census,featuringasetofquestionsaboutwherepeoplehadlivedfiveyearsearlier, thenwiththedevelopmentofCurrentPopulationSurveysstartingin1941.Theculminatingpublicationof thisdrive to improvedataandmapcontemporaryandhistoricalmigra-tion patterns may have been Population Distribution and Economic Growth: United States, 1870–1950 (1957–64),athree-volumecompendiumfundedbytheRockefellerFoundationandproducedbyateamledbySimonKuznetsandDorothySwaineThomas.11 Anotherresearchdirectionfocusedonthesocialandpersonaldimensionofmigration.Thisworkwasgroundedintheoriesofdislocationandassimi-lationthatsociologistsattheUniversityofChicagohaddevelopedtoexplaintheadjustmenttrajectoriesofimmigrantsfromeasternandsouthernEurope.Starting in the 1920s and continuing through the next four decades, soci-ologistswould ineffectdraw together thefigureof the immigrantand thefigureof the internalmigrant,applyingRobertPark’sconceptof the“mar-ginalman”caughtbetweentwocultures,andthebroadertheoryofsequential
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adjustmentthatbecameknownas“race-relations”theory.ItisimportanttoclarifythatChicagorace-relationstheorywasfundamentallyatheoryofmi-gration.Especiallyinitsearlyformulations,raceandethnicitywerelesssig-nificantthanthetransitionfrompeasantcommunitytocomplexurbanen-vironment.Thepeasant,whetherfromPolandorAmerica,whetherJewish,black, orAnglo-American Protestant, wasunderstood to experience a trau-maticsetofchallengesinthecitythatwouldtakeplaceingroupcontextsandfollowapredictablesetofstages,fromconflictandsocialdisorganizationtosocialreorganizationandeventualassimilation.12Inhundredsofurbanad-justment studies that centered on black migrants, Appalachian and othersouthernwhites,andalsoonnorthernwhiteswhomovedfromfarmtocity,socialscientistsfromthe1930stothe1970sunderstooddomesticmigrationasadislocatingexperiencenotmuchdifferentfromimmigrationacrossbor-dersandnationalcultures.Usingtheconceptof“uprooting”andlookingforsymptomsoftrauma,theycollectedevidenceof“maladjustment”andevalu-atedpotentialsforeventualassimilation.13 HistorianswerealsowritingaboutmovingAmericans,butindifferentways.Formuchoftheperiodtheydidnotevenusethesameterminology—rarelymentioning“migrants”until the1960s,writingaboutpioneersandsettlersinstead.Theonesubgenreofhistoricalliteraturethatdidusetheterm“mi-gration”showsjusthowmuchthedisciplineswereatvariance.Whenhisto-riansbefore1960usedthelabel“theGreatMigration”inthetitlesofbooksandarticles,theyrarelyreferredtoAfricanAmericansleavingtheSouth.TheirGreatMigrations involvedEnglishpeoplecomingtoAmerica in theseven-teenth and eighteenth centuries or their descendents moving west on theOverlandTrail.14 Thedifferingterminologyreflectedotherdisjuncturesbetweenthedisci-plines. Anglo Americans were the usual migrants of interest to historiansthroughoutmuchofthisperiod.AlthoughCarlWittkehadaddedotherEuro-peanstothefieldofimmigrationhistorywithWe Who Built Americain1939,followed by Marcus Lee Hanson’s The Atlantic Migration (1940) and OscarHandlin’sBoston’s Immigrants (1941),andalthoughCarterG.WoodsonandtheJournal of Negro Historyhadinitiatedasubgenreofwritingbyblackschol-arsaboutblackmigrationevenearlier,neitheroftheseenterprisesregisteredstronglywithmainstreamhistoriansuntilthe1950s.Thehistoricalprofessionremainedriveted to themigrationdramasof thedistantpast, thesagasofmovementacrossspacethatconnectedtoissuesofAmericanfoundationsandAmerican expansion. Explorers, settlers, and colonizers who moved acrosstheAtlanticintheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies;andfrontiersman,goldrushers,landrushers,farmbuilders,townbuilders,andotherwestward-
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moving(mostlyAnglo-American)pioneersofthenineteenthcentury—thesewerethemovingAmericansmostinterestingtothehistoricalprofessionuntillateintheageofinternalmigration. Yetthequestionsthathistoriansaskedwerebroaderthanthoseofsocialscientists.Thehistorians’projectwasusuallygroundedinthefrontiertheoryoftheturn-of-the-centuryhistorianFrederickJacksonTurner.Turner’sthesisemphasizedaparticularkindofspace—thefrontier—asazoneofcontinu-ousmigrationandcommunitybuilding.TheexistenceofafrontiershapedAmericanpoliticaldevelopment,sustainingopportunity,individualism,anddemocracythroughoutthefirstcenturyofthenation’shistory.ForhistorianswritingaboutearlyAmericanmigration,settlementbecamethechiefanalyticconcern,andithadseveraldimensions.Assettlers,migrantswereunderstoodtohavenotonlyapersonalstakeinrelocationbutalsoacommunity-buildingandsociety-buildingstake.Historiansineffectfollowedtheirmigrantsfur-therthansociologistsdid,connectinggeographicmovementtohistoricalout-comesinawaythatthesocialscienceswouldnotdo. TheTurnerianagendaalsomeantthathistoriansmostlyemployedadif-ferenttoneandvaluationscheme.Themigrantsappearinginhistoricalre-searchenduredhardshiptransitionsandcameoutoftheexperiencenottrau-matized,asthesociologistsworried,butreinvented.Theywerelessapttobeunderstoodasvictimsofmigrationexperiencesandmorelikelytobemastersoftheirownfate.Ashistorianstoldit,migrationinearliercenturieshadbeenanempoweringexperience,keytothemakingofAmerica.
Journalism and Mass Circulation
Scholarsnowadaysunderstandthattheproductionofanideaortextissepa-ratefromitscirculationandimpact,thatifagreattheoryremainsunreaditisprobablynotverygreatatallinitsowntime,oratleastthattherearediffer-encesbetweenideasthatcirculatewidelyandthosethatdonot.Journalism,popularfiction,andtheentertainmentmediaarekeymechanismsofcircula-tion;theyarecapableofspreadingideasbothtobroadaudiencesandtoinflu-entialelitesandalsoareoftenresponsiblefortranslatingcomplexideasintonewforms,changingthemintheprocess.Journalism(broadlydefined)andacademicresearchhavelongbeenpairedinthisway.Someofthefoundingscholarsinthefieldsofsociology,politicalscience,andeconomicsworkedasnewspapermen,aprimeexamplebeingRobertPark,theleaderoftheUniver-sityofChicago’sfamousSociologyDepartment.Parkhadearlierspentelevenyearsasanewspaperreporterandeditorand,asRolfLindnerargues,hisChi-
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cagobrandofsociologydevelopedasetofmethodsandorientationsthatre-flectedacommitmentto“urbanreportage.”15 Itwasatwo-wayrelationship.Journalistsmonitoredkeyareasofsocialsci-ence,harvestingcompellingstoriesandissues.Theyinturnflaggedsomeoftheissuesinwaysthatsetagendasforresearchers.Agoodexampleisthecir-culationthatbeganwithPaulTaylor,thelaboreconomistatBerkeleywhodis-coveredandnamedtheDustBowlmigration.HisarticleinSurvey Graphic,“Again the Covered Wagon” (1935), noted the movement into California ofthousandsof“droughtrefugees”lookingforworkinthecottonfieldsofSanJoaquinValley.16Magazinesandnewspapersjumpedonthestory,attractedbyandreplicatingTaylor’sdramaticallycontrastingmetaphors:refugeeandcovered-wagonpioneer.Thatinturnopenedthedoorfordozensofresearchprojects, includingamassiveoneby theBureauofAgriculturalEconomicsthatsurveyedthechildrenofrecentmigrantsinthousandsofschoolsinCali-fornia.Congressgotintotheact,establishingtheTolanCommitteein1939toinvestigate“theInterstateMigrationofDestituteCitizens,”accompaniedbymorefunding,morestudies,morejournalism,andoneextraordinarynovelthatworkedthetensionbetweenrefugeeandcoveredwagonintooneoftheclassicsofAmericanliterature.TheroadtoThe Grapes of WrathhadbegunwithPaulTaylorandgonebackandforthbetweenthelinkedworldsofsocialscience,history,andjournalism. Whilejournalistsinthe1930sandearly1940shadinteractedreadilywithsocialscientistsstudyingthepovertymigrationsoftheDepressionandthedefensemigrationsofthewaryears,itwasnotuntilthe1950sthatotheras-pects of social-science-based migration research began to move out of theacademyandintojournalismandpopulardiscussion.Beforethenmigrationwasalmostalwaysjournalisticallyframedasasocialproblem,linkedeitherto poverty, the decline of farming, or challenging impacts on cities. In the1950sand1960s thenewdemographicdatahelped fuelasurgeofpopularinterestinthehighratesofmobilityamongallsortsofAmericansandinthesocialandpsychological implicationsofrelocation.Wecanseethesubjectshift infigure12.5,whichshows thechangingdistributionofarticlescata-loguedunderthreesubcategoriesofmigrationintheReaders’ Guide:(1)blackmigration,(2)migrantlabor,and(3)themoregeneralcategoriesof“mobility,”includingthesubjectterms“moving”and“internalmigration.”Noticethatnotuntilthe1950sdidthegeneral“mobility”categoriesbecameimportant.Muchofwhatwaswritteninthe1930sand1940swasindexedunderthelabel“migrantlabor”andincludedarticlesonOkies,farmworkers,otheritinerantworkers,andthedefensemigrantsoftheSecondWorldWar. The ups and downs of “black migration” articles are revealing. Initially
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dominatingmagazinepublishingabout internalmigrationduringtheFirstWorldWarandtheearly1920s, thissubjectheadingalmostdisappearsbe-tweenthe1930sandthelate1950s.Thisdoesnotmeanthatjournalistshadstopped writing about black migrants, but it does indicate a different wayofwritingandindexingthatreflectstheinfluenceofsociologicalthinking.17Sociologicalresearchinthe1930sand1940sdeemphasizedrace,particularlyinconnectionwithmigration.AfricanAmericanswereunderstoodtobeex-periencingatransitionfrompeasantry,aswerewhitefarm-to-citymigrants.Thisperspectiveseemstohaveinfluencedjournalism.Insteadofwritingdi-rectlyaboutthesecondGreatMigrationthatbeganduringtheSecondWorldWarandhadsuchpowerfuleffectsoncitiesacrosstheNorthandWest,maga-zines usually folded black migrants into stories about “defense migrants,”coveringwhitemigrantsaswell,ofteninwaysthatdeemphasizedracialdiffer-ences.Typicalheadlinesinthe1940sinclude“WhithertheMigrants”(News-week),“StrangersinTown”(Survey),and“RollingTideofWarMigrants”(New York Times Magazine).Itwasnotuntilthelate1950s,ascivilrightsstrugglesheatedup,thatstoriesonblackmigrationreturnedtothemagazineheadlines.Herearesomefrom1958,thelasttwopromptedbyashort-livedsegregation-istproposaltodeportblackswhodemandedcivilrights:“RaceProblemMovesNorth” (U.S. News and World Report),“FarFlowingNegroTide” (Newsweek),“SenatorRussellWantsNegroestoMove”(U.S. News and World Report),and“TicketsforNegroes?”(Newsweek).
Figure 12.5 SubthemesofarticlesoninternalmigrationindexedbyReaders’ Guide,1900–1984
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Anewcategoryofpostwarjournalismmaybediscernedfromtheheadlinesofotherarticlesfrom1958,indexedunderthegenericheadingsof“mobility,”“moving,”and“internalmigration”:
—AmericansontheMovetoNewJobs,NewPlaces(Life)—40MillionontheMove(American Home)—Don’tMoveUntilYouReadThis(Good Housekeeping)—IfYouHavetoMove(House and Garden)—ChildinaNewNeighborhood(New York Times Magazine)—NewFamilyinTown(McCall’s).
ThissecondbatchofarticlesrevealsanewfascinationwithdemographicnumbersthatinthepostwaryearswerewidelyreportedinthenewsmediaandconvincedAmericansthattheirsocietyhasbecomehighlyanduniquelymobile. Second, they reveal an interest in the mobility of “ordinary” whitefamiliesandtheirmovementfromcitiestosuburbsandfromeasttowest.Third,andmostimportant,theyrevealthedimensionthatsustainedmuchofthepopularattentiontomigrationthroughoutthemiddletwentiethcentury:afascinationwithitspsychologicalimplications.
The Dislocated American
Migrationstudiesattractedmediaattentioninpartbecauseofperceivedso-cialproblems,inpartbecauseofexcitingnewdata,butalsoinpartbecauseofa setofexciting ideas—theories thatwerecaptivating in their logic andimplications.Amongtheseideaswerethesocialadjustmentandsocialdis-locationtheoriesmentionedearlier,whichwerepartofalargerfascinationwiththeinsightsofsocialpsychology.InThe Romance of American PsychologyEllenHermanexploreshowinthedecadesfollowingtheSecondWorldWar,psychological theory and psychological experts “carved out a progressivelylargersphereofsocialinfluence”thatextendedthroughmanyacademicdisci-plinesandpolicyarenas,andthatfundamentallyreshapeddiscourseandcul-ture,seeping“intovirtuallyeveryfacetofexistence.”18ForeducatedAmericansofthepostwargeneration,socialpsychologyofferedanentrancingtheoryoftheselfandsociety—anunder-the-hoodglimpseintothesocialmechanismsthat supposedly structuredpersonaldevelopment and into thepsychologi-calmechanismsthatsupposedlystructuredsocialproblems.Fascinationwiththeinsightsofsocialpsychologyanimatedanynumberofpublicdebatesandmediacrusadesinthepostwarperiod,includingcampaignsagainstracism,bigotry,andthe“authoritarianpersonality.”Migrationwasoneofthearenas
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wherethesedebatesandcrusadeswereplayedout,andanimportantone,asjournalistsandnovelistsjoinedsociologistsandpsychologistsinunderstand-ingmigrationasadisorientingprocessthatproducedstressfuladjustmentsatapersonalandsociallevel. Socialandpsychologicaladjustmenttheorieshadbeencrossingoverintomigrationjournalismandpopularliteratureforsometimebythe1940s,show-ingupinthewaysubjectswereframedandinthecirculationofkeytermslike“uprooted,”“socialdisorganization,”and“marginalman.”Thepopularizersoftenmisunderstoodthetheoryanduseditselectivelyandinwaysthatboth-eredtheexperts,andmuchofwhattheywereborrowingandtranslatingwasconsideredoutofdatebysocialscientists.Itisbesttothinkoftheprocessnotasaclosetranslationofideasbutasamediationthattransformedideasevenasitgavethemmuchwidercirculationandpotentiallygreatpotency.Thiscirculationandmediationcanbeseeninmanyofthemigrationnovelsoftheday,includingsuchclassicsasRichardWright’sNative Son,inwhichtheauthortriedtoincorporatemigrationtheoryoftheChicagosociologists.Hismaincharacter,BiggerThomas, isamigrantdisorientedbythetransi-tionfromruralcommunitytobewilderingbigcity,anddoublymarginalizedbecauseofhis race.RalphEllison’s Invisible Man also takeskeyconstructsfrommigrationandmarginalizationtheoryandmayhaveevenoweditstitletoPark’swell-traveledconceptofthemarginalman.Otherborrowingsareevi-dentinGo Tell It on a MountainbyJamesBaldwinandThe Dollmaker(1954),HarriettArnow’snovelaboutawhiteAppalachianfamilystrugglingandfail-inginDetroit.19 Thesebookswerepartofabroadersystemofpopularizationthatincludedjournalismandentertainmentmedia.Wemaynotrecognizethefinerpointsofacademictheoryintheproliferationofcomedicfilms,televisionsituationcomedies,andpopularsongsthatfocusedondislocatedAmericansintheeraof internalmigration,manyofwhichusedtheoldtropeof therube inthecitytoachievetheir laughs.Butit isnocoincidencethatsomeofthemostpopularentertainmentproductionsofthetimefeaturedmigrantsandtheiradjustmenttravails—fromAmos ’n Andyonradiointhe1930s,throughThe Beverly Hillbillies,themostpopulartelevisionshowofthe1960s,tocountrymusic’sendlesssongsaboutwanderersandhomesickness.Whatanimatedallofthiswasaconcernwithdislocation,uprooting,andbeingoutofplacethathadbeenelevatedoutofacademicpublishingandintopublicdiscourse.ThemovingAmericanwas thedislocatedAmerican,engaging inacomplicatedpersonaltransition.Thiswasthekernelofthesocialtheorythatartists,jour-nalists,andeventelevisionproducersseizeduponinthegreatageofmigra-tionwriting.BiggerThomaswasoutofplace,TheJoadswereoutofplace.The
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Real McCoysandThe Beverly Hillbillieswereoutofplace.Andallofthisout-of-placenesswasthoughttobeofgreatconsequence.20 VancePackardbroughtthedislocatedAmericanconversationtoapointofculminatingclaritywhenhepublishedA Nation of Strangersin1972.Through-outhiscareerPackardprofitedfromtheinteractionbetweenacademiaandjournalism. The most famous of the tribe of journalists who read, reinter-preted,andpopularizedtheworkofsocialscientists,Packardwasemblem-atic of the way ideas moved across the academic barrier. His biographerDanielHorowitzdetailsthetensionsintherelationship.AshecrankedoutasequenceofbestsellingbooksofsocialcriticismstartingwithThe Hidden Persuaders(1957),Packardfacedharshreviewsfromacademicswhoaccusedhim of sensationalizing, oversimplifying, and otherwise misusing researchandwhoresentedhisabilitytoreachaudiencesfarlargerthantheirown.21Packard’sbooksfedthepopularfascinationwithsocialpsychologyevenasheplunderedselectbitsofacademicresearch.Whetherhewaswritingabouttheanxiousmiddleclass(The Status Seekers),thecultureofaffluenceandcor-porate planned obsolescence (The Waste Makers), or threats to privacy andindividualityposedbygovernmentandcorporatesurveillance(The Naked So-ciety),hisbooksclimbedthebestsellerlistsbyidentifyingdisturbingtrendsandissuesincontemporarylifeanddeliveringamixofsharpcriticismandwhatreaderstooktobeup-to-dateresearch. In1968Packardturnedhisattentiontorecentreportsanddataoninternalmigration,especiallythestatisticthatclosetofortymillionAmericans,19per-centofthepopulation,changedresidenceeachyear.FouryearslaterA Nation of Strangersappearedwiththefanfarethatusuallygreetedhisbooksandim-mediatelymadethenonfictionbestsellerlistoftheNew York Times,reachingthenumbersixspotandremaininginthetoptenforeightweeks.22ThebookfocusedonwhatPackardtooktobehistoricallyhighratesofmobilitywhileworking with notions of the dislocated American that he culled selectivelyfromsocialadjustmentandmentalhealthstudies.Packard’sargumentwasthatexcessmobility,ofteninservicetocorporationsthatcasuallyshiftjobsandpeoplefromplacetoplace,disruptslivesandcommunities,creatingarootlessanddisorientedpeople,anationofstrangers. WhilefriendlyarticlesintheLadies’ Home Journalandsomeotherpopu-larvenueshelpedtopromotethebook,sociologistshammeredA Nation of Strangers and its author.23 The American Journal of Sociology invited threescholarstoevaluatethebookinaspecialsymposium.AmosHawley,ClaudeFischer,andBrianBerrywereunanimousindismissingitsconclusions,itsre-search,andespeciallyitscorelogic,pointingoutthattherewasnoreasonto
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believethatratesofmobilitywerehigherthantheyhadbeeninthepast,northat“becausewearemobile...wearea‘nationofstrangers.’”Invoicingthesecriticismstheyimplicitlydistancedthemselvesfromthebodyofscholarlylit-eraturethatPackardandotherjournalistshadbeenhighlighting.Hehadbor-rowedhisthesisofthedislocatedAmericanfromdecadesofsociologicalre-search,albeitwhiletakingitoutofcontext,twistingsomeofitsmeanings,andmilkingitsalarmistpotentials—allofwhichwerestandardconsequencesofthecomminglingofjournalismandsocialscience.24 GeorgePierson’sThe Moving AmericanachievednowherenearthesalesofPackard’sbookbutsufferedthesamesortofcriticismatthehandsofaca-demicreviewers,whofound itunderresearched, inconsistent inargument,andoutofdate.Pierson,theYalehistorian,hadbeenworkingonthisbookforyears,probablydecades.The Moving American,clearlyintendedforagen-eralaudience,iswritteninabreezystyleandconsistsofdiscreteessaysthatdonotreadilycohere,someofthembarelyrevisedversionsofarticlesthatPiersonhadbeenpublishingsincetheearly1940s.HesharesPackard’sviewthatexcessmobilitycanbedangerous.ButtheTurnerianAmericandominatesashemovesbackintohistory,showingthemigrantasapioneer,abuilder,thequintessentialAmerican.RowlandBerthoffandWilliamGottesmanwereharshintheirreviews,ridiculingPierson’sattempttofashionanewtheoryofmigration(whichhecalledthe“M-factor”)basedonprinciplesintroducedbythedemographersE.G.RavensteinandEverettLee.Thereviewerswereequallyimpatientwithhisresearch,notingthatheignoredtheworkofso-cialhistorianswhoformorethanadecadehadbeenrevisingunderstandingsofeighteenth-andnineteenth-centurymobilityandcommunitypatternsandwhonolongerembracedtheoverlypsychologizedandmonolithicconceptof“Americancharacter.”25 Bothbooksstandasend-of-an-eramarkers,highlightingandsummarizingperspectivesthatwerestillcirculatingoutsidetheacademybutwerenolongerfashionableinside.Theyalsomarktheendofarelationshipthatenabledsomeoftheresearchtoreachabroaderpublic,helpingagenerationofAmericanstoseemobilityasasubjectofinterestandofsomeimportance.
Losing Public Attention
Sincethe1970spublicawarenessofmovingAmericanshasfaded.Newsmediaandotherpopularvenueshavebeenlesseagerthanbeforetocirculateinfor-mationaboutmobility.Wenolongerseemagazinestorieslikethosethatranin1958aboutmovingday,strangersintown,ormillionsofAmericanschang-ingresidenceorleavingcities.Inpartthisreflectschangesinmigrationpat-
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terns.Americanshavebecomelessmobilesincetheearly1970s.Eachyearfrom1948,whentheCensusBureaubeganitsCurrentPopulationSurvey,until1970,roughly19percentofAmericanswouldreportachangeofresidenceintheprevious twelvemonths.Rates thenbeganaslowdecline, falling toanaverageof17percentmovingperyearinthe1980s,16percentinthe1990s,and14percentsince2000,droppingto11.9percentintherecessionyearof2008.26 Whiledomesticmobilityhasslowed,journalistshaverefocusedtheirat-tentiononthedramaticallyincreasedvolumeofcross-borderimmigration.TheImmigrationReformActof1965wasalmosttenyearsoldbeforemaga-zinesbegantocatchon.The“boatpeople,”refugeesfromVietnam,Cuba,andHaiti,wereoftenintheheadlinesinthe1970s,butconcernaboutillegalim-migrationandcuriosityaboutthenewdemographyofimmigration,largelyfromAsianandLatinAmericancountries,soonfollowed.AsetofheadlinesfromU.S. News and World Reportsuggeststhescopeofmagazinecoverageinthe1970s:
—NowaGrowingSurgeofImmigrantsfromAsia(1973)—HowMillionsofIllegalAliensSneakintoU.S.(1974)—RisingTideofImmigrantstoU.S.(1975)—LatestWaveofImmigrantsBringsNewProblemstoU.S.(1976)—U.S.OpensItsDoorstotheFloatingRefugees”(1977)—StillaLandofRefuge”(1979)—NowIt’sHaiti’sBoatPeopleCominginaFlood(1979).
Then in the 1980s media attention soared. Readers’ Guide Retrospectiveidentifiesalmostasmanymagazinearticlesonimmigrationinthefirstthreeyearsofthe1980s(131)ashadbeenprintedinthetwopreviousdecadescom-bined(160).27 Journalists did continue to write about certain internal migration se-quences, especially those involving rearrangements of political power andrace.TheSunbeltmigrationbecameastoryinthelate1970sandgainedim-portance through the 1980s and early 1990s, as the South reversed its his-toricroleasapopulation-sendingregionandstartedtopullmillionsofjobsandpeopleoutoftheNortheastandMidwest.Gentrificationmigrationsalsoearnedheadlinesinthesameperiod,aswhitesmovedbackintothebigcities,raisingpropertyvalues,transformingurbanspaces,andchangingbalancesofpowerwithintheurbanelectorate.Therewassomeattentiontothemove-mentofblackfamilies,focusingbothontheirrelocationfromcentralcitiesintothesuburbsandalsoonthereturnmigrationofAfricanAmericanstotheSouth,whichjournalistshighlightedasoneoftheironiceffectsoftheSunbeltsurge.28
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Buttherehavebeennoticeabledifferencesinthetoneaswellasthevolumeofinternalmigrationjournalismsincethemid-1970s.PopulationmovementswithintheUnitedStatesarereportedwithoutmuchsenseofurgency,mostlyascuriousphenomenathatreadersmayfindinteresting.Whensignificanceattachestothesedemographicchanges,itisprimarilyonthelevelofpoliticsandtheeconomy.TheSunbeltshiftistakentobeimportantfortheregionsthatwerelosingandgainingjobs,people,andvotingpower.Whathasbeenmissingisthetensepersonalandsocialdimensionthatanimatedjournalismduringtheageofinternalmigration.Theissuesofadjustmentarenolongeratthecenteroroftenevenpartofthestory.ThemovingAmericanisnolongerthedislocatedAmerican.Movingisnowtakentobeonlymildlyinterestingonbothapersonalandsociallevel.Peoplemove.Sowhat? The“sowhat”inearlierdecadeshadcomefromsociologicalandpsycho-logicaltheory,anditsabsencefromcurrentjournalismrevealsanimportantshiftinAmericanintellectuallife.ThepassingoftheageofbigsociologicaltheoryandparticularlysocialpsychologytheoryhasregisteredinAmericanjournalismsincethe1970s.IthaschangedthewayAmericansunderstandmi-grationandmuchmore.Academicsnowworkeitherwithsmaller theoriesthatlackthepowertointerestjournalistsoraresocomplexandunwieldy(aswithpoststructuralismofvariouskinds) that reporters ignore them.Socialscienceresearchstillfindsitswayintonewspapersandmagazines,butjour-nalistsseemmoreinterestedinnewdatathanintheanalysisthatscholarsdevelop.Especiallysincethe1980s,itseemsthatsocialresearchfindsfeweroutletsinthepopularmediaandthatthewallsbetweenacademicknowledgeandpublicknowledgehavegrownthicker.29 Doesitmatterthatmigrationresearchnolongseemstocirculateandthatimportant geographic mobility patterns remain unacknowledged in majormedia,andthusaremuchlessvisibletobroaderpublicsthantheywouldhavebeenthirtyorfortyyearsago?Itcertainlymatterstothosewhodomigrationresearchandtofundingagencies.ButitalsohasconsequencesformovingAmericansandforallAmericans. Immigrationpoliticshavealmostcertainlybeenaffectedbythenewisola-tionofacademicresearch.Journalistshavepaidscantattentiontothestudiesofnewimmigrantsproducedbysociologists,demographers,andanthropolo-gists. Newspapers will occasionally quote economists who debate whetherimmigrationproduceseconomicgrowthordrainspublicresources,butany-thing more complex is ignored. This includes work like Douglass Massey’swell-documentedfindingthatmilitarizedbordershaveanunintendedcon-sequence, turningtemporary illegal immigrants intopermanent illegal im-migrantswhoareafraidtogohomebecausetheywillnotbeabletoreturn.
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Despitetheobviousrelevancetocurrentpolicydebates,themassmediahavefailedtoexposeandexplorethisandotherresearch.30 Ontheotherhand,theloweredlightingthatnowaccompaniessomemi-grationsmayhavepositiveconsequences.Manyofthenewerpatternsofinter-nalmigrationwouldhaveattractedjournalisticattention,andwithitheight-enedcontroversy,agenerationago.Theblackfamilieswhohavebeenmovingsteadilyoutofcentralcitiesandintowhathadbeenlargelywhiteneighbor-hoods;theLatinofamiliesmovingintowhathadbeenblackneighborhoodsaswellaswhiteneighborhoods;thegayandlesbianredistributions—allofthesefundamental rearrangementsofcitiesandsuburbshavebeen takingplacewithoutthekindofmediaattentionthatinthemid-twentiethcenturymighthaverampedupanxieties. The media spotlight is dimmer now; journalists are writing less aboutdomesticmigration,andthismeansthatmostAmericansarethinkinglessaboutwhoismovingandwhatmovingmeans.Themobilityitselfcontinues,atratesthatarestillhighincomparisonwiththoseinmanyothersocieties.InmostyearsclosetofortymillionAmericanschangeresidences,movingshortdistancesorlongdistances,sometimesradicallyshiftingpersonalcontexts,sometimes rearranging neighborhoods or larger communities where theysettle.Thatwearenolongerpayingattentiontointernalmigrationdoesnotalterthebasicpatternsofmovementandsettlement,butitdoeschangesomeofthemeaningsandinteractions.
Notes
1 Vance Packard, A Nation of Strangers (New York: McKay, 1972). On Packard seeDanielHorowitz,Vance Packard and American Social Criticism(ChapelHill:Univer-sityofNorthCarolinaPress,1994).
2 GeorgeW.Pierson,The Moving American(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,1973). 3 SeeformoredetailJamesN.Gregory,The Southern Diaspora: How the Great Migra-
tions of Black and White Southerners Transformed America(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2005);AlexMorrow,“Studyingthe‘Problem’ofMigrantLabor:SocialScience,TransientWorkers,andtheDepression,”unpublishedpaper,PacificCoastBranchAmericanHistoricalAssociationmeeting,August28,2006;CarolH.WeissandEleanorSinger,Reporting of Social Science in the National Media (NewYork:RussellSage,1988);AliceO’Connor,Poverty Knowledge: Social Science, Social
Policy, and the Poor in Twentieth- Century America(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2001).
4 FarahJasmineGriffin,“Who Set You Flowin’”: The African- American Migration Nar-
rative (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); Lawrence R. Rodgers, Canaan
Bound: The African- American Great Migration Novel (Urbana:UniversityofIllinois
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Press,1997);ErinRoystonBattat,“Literature,SocialScience,andtheDevelopmentofAmericanMigrationNarrativesintheDepressionEra”Literature Compass4,no.3(2007),539–51.
5 CompiledfromH. W. Wilson Databases: Reader’s Guide Retrospective(April28,2006).Theinternalmigrationcategoryisacombinationofthefollowingsubjectheadings:“Migration, internal,”“migrant labor,”“blacks/migration,”“moving,”“socialmo-bility.”Ieditedtheresults,eliminatingscholarlyjournalsandarticlesthatdidnotappeartoberelatedtogeographicmobilityintheUnitedStates.Thedatabaseendsin1982.Tomaintainthefive-yearintervalIhaveextrapolatedtheperiod1980–84.
6 WhiletheReaders’ Guideindexesarticlesbysubjectheadings,Iamrelyingonkey-wordsthatappearintitlesorabstractsintheJSTOR Archive:versionsof“immigrant,”“emigrant,”“immigration,”“emigration,”“migrant,”“migration,”“mobility,”“ad-justment,”“migratory,”“floating,”“resettlement.”Ihaveeditedtheoutput,some-timesmovingitemsfromtheimmigrationtointernalmigrationorviceversaafterreadingtheabstract.
7 DanielO.PriceandMelanieM.Sikes,Rural- Urban Migration Research in the United
States: An Annotated Bibliography and Synthesis(Washington:NationalInstituteofChildHealthandHumanDevelopment,1974).
8 JSTORcatalogues158historyjournals.IincludedonlythosethatfocussubstantiallyonU.S.history.SomeimportantjournalsarenotpartofJSTOR,includingtheJournal
of American Ethnic History,whichbeganin1975,andJournal of Social History,whichbeganin1967.Keywordsusedwerethesameasabove,withtheadditionofvariantsof“settler”and“pioneer.”
9 Examining this literature are Frank Tobias Higbie, Indispensable Outcasts: Hobo
Workers and Community in the American Midwest, 1880–1930(Urbana:UniversityofIllinoisPress,2003);Morrow,“Studyingthe‘Problem’ofMigrantLabor”;KennethKusmer,Down and Out on the Road: The Homeless in American History(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2002).
10 JenniferPlatt, A History of Sociological Research Methods in America, 1920–1960(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1996),142–54;DorothySwaineThomas,Research
Memorandum on Migration Differentials(NewYork:SocialScienceResearchCouncil,1938).
11 Population Redistribution and Economic Growth: United States, 1870–1950,preparedunderthedirectionofSimonKuznetsandDorothySwaineThomas(Philadelphia:AmericanPhilosophicalSociety,1957–64);Platt,A History of Sociological Research
Methods in America,150–58;MargoJ.Anderson,The American Census: A Social His-
tory(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1988).12 SeminalworksincludeW.I.ThomasandFlorianZnaniecki,The Polish Peasant in
Europe and America(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,1927);andRobertEzraPark,“HumanMigrationandtheMarginalMan,”Race and Culture(Glencoe,Ill.:FreePress,1950).OntheinfluenceseeFredH.Matthews,Quest for an American Sociology: Robert Park
and the Chicago School(Montreal:McGill-QueensUniversityPress,1977).
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MovingAmericans 295
13 More than two hundred urban adjustment studies are listed in Price and Sikes,Rural- Urban Migration Research.
14 ExamplesfromWorldCat(oclc):NellisMaynardCrouse,Causes of the Great Mi-
gration(1932);EdwinClarenceGuillet,The Great Migration: The Atlantic Crossing by
Sailing- Ship since 1770(1937);EdmondS.Morgan,“ProvisionsfortheGreatMigra-tion,”New England Quarterly,March1939;PhilipParrishII,The Great Migration:1842(1943);AllenFrench,Charles I and the Puritan Upheaval: A Study of the Causes of the
Great Migration(1955).TheonlybookinWorldCattousethelabelinreferencetoAfricanAmericansbefore1960isWilliamMorganMarkoe,A Great Migration(1924).BlackjournalistslikeMarkoebeganusingtheterminthe1920s.Bythe1940sitwasappearinginthesocialscienceliteratureinreferencetoAfricanAmericanmigra-tion.
15 RolfLindner,The Reportage of Urban Culture: Robert Park and the Chicago School,transAdrianMorris(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1996).
16 SeealsoJamesN.Gregory,American Exodus: The Dust Bowl Migration and Okie Cul-
ture in California(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1989),80–113.17 Gregory,The Southern Diaspora,59–79.18 EllenHerman,The Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in the Age of Ex-
perts(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1995),2–3.19 CarlaCappetti,Writing Chicago: Modernism, Ethnography, and the Novel(NewYork:
ColumbiaUniversityPress,1993).20 Formoredetailoncomedicrepresentationsofhillbilliesandblacksouthernerssee
Gregory,The Southern Diaspora,54–79;AnthonyHawkins,Hillbilly: A Cultural His-
tory of an American Icon(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2004).21 Horowitz,Vance Packard,esp.185–95.22 Adult New York Times bestseller lists for 1972, Hawes Publications, http://www
.hawes.com(July24,2009).23 “ANationofStrangers,”Ladies’ Home Journal,September1972,104.24 American Journal of Sociology79(July1973),165–75.25 RowlandBerthoffreview:Journal of American History60(December1973),767–68;
WilliamGottesmanreview:American Historical Review79,no.1(1974),213–14.26 “CurrentPopulationSurvey:AnnualGeographicalMobilityRates,byTypeofMove-
ment, 1947–2008,” U.S. Bureau of the Census, http://www.census.gov (August 8,2009).OnhistoricmigrationratesseeLarryE.Long,Migration and Residential Mo-
bility in the United States(NewYork:RussellSage,1988).27 CompiledfromH. W. Wilson Databases: Reader’s Guide Retrospective(April28,2006).28 IhavetrackedthesesubjectsintheannualeditionsofReader’s Guide to Periodical
Literature.29 WeissandSinger,Reporting of Social Science in the National Media,175–207,didnot
findmajorchangesinthevolumeofnewsreportingofsocialscienceresearchbe-tween1970and1982.Otherreportsstressdecliningpolicyaccesswithoutlookingatjournalism:DavidL.FeathermanandMarisA.Vinovskis,eds.,Social Science and
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296 Gregory
Policy- making: A Search for Relevance in the Twentieth Century(AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,2001);CharlesE.LindblomandDavidK.Cohen,Usable Knowl-
edge: Social Science and Social Problem Solving(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1979);AndrewRich,Think Tanks, Public Policy, and the Politics of Expertise(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2004).
30 Masseyhasreportedthisstudyinnumerouspublications,mostcomprehensivelyinananthologyeditedwithJorgeDurand,Crossing the Border: Research from the Mexi-
can Migration Project(NewYork:RussellSage,2004).
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