Meaning in Context
1. shared attitude, beliefs, knowledge between the speaker and the hearer
a. The mayor denied the criminal’s request because he is cautious. (he – mayor)
b. The mayor denied the criminal’s request because he is dangerous. (he –criminal)
Note: Exactly the same sentence except for the adjective
which defines the antecedent of ‘he’ in (a) and (b).
Pragmatics
Linguistics for language teachers/Dr. Jessie Grace U. Rubrico
2. Presupposition
• assumption on belief/knowledge implied
by a particular word
a. Have you stopped exercising?
> stopped presupposes . . .
b. Ninoy Aquino was assassinated in 1983.
> assassination presupposes. . .
Linguistics for language teachers/Dr. Jessie Grace U. Rubrico
• speaker (S) assumption of the utterance to be true or known by the hearer (H)
When did you stop smoking? –you used to smoke
- you no longer smoke
• Constancy under negation My car is a wreck
My car is not a wreck
presupposition: you have a car
3. DEIXIS – forms used and interpreted based on the location of the speaker or hearer
• this, here – near the speaker
• that, there – near the listener
• come – go
a. The cobra is coming into the tent
- towards the speaker
b. The cobra is going into the tent
- away from the speaker
Linguistics for language teachers/Dr. Jessie Grace U. Rubrico
a) spatial deixis– here, there
b) temporal deixis
– now, then, today, yesterday, tomorrow
c) person deixis – him, them, etc.
d) things – it, this, these, that, those
4. Inference
- connection between what is said and what must be meant
a. Jennee is wearing a Calvin Klein.
b. Can I borrow your O’Grady?
Note: (a) Calvin Klein signature design or accessories
(b) O’Grady book on Contemporary Linguistics
Linguistics for language teachers/Dr. Jessie Grace U. Rubrico
5. Anaphora – referring back a. We saw a lady washing a puppy in a small
bath. When she let go, it jumped out of the
small bath.
• lady, puppy – antecedents
• she, it - anaphora
b. I was waiting for the cab, but he just drove
by without stopping.
• antecedent – bus ; anaphora – he
• If X is a bus, then X has a driver – inference
6. Speech Acts
• type of action performed by speaker with the utterance
• command
• request
• promise
• question
• information
Direct speech act
• asks information • Did you dine out last night?
• Are they coming?
• Can they sing well?
Performatives
• direct speech act with verbs whose action is a speech act
• I assert that UM will beat USM in the ranking.
• I promise to take her to the resto?
• I order John to eat the meal.
• declarative, interrogative, imperative
Structure Function
You can drive a car
Declarative Statement
Can you drive a car?
Interrogative Question
Drive the car (please)
Imperative Command/ Request
Linguistics for language teachers/Dr. Jessie Grace U. Rubrico
Identifying performatives Which of these use the verb promise as PERFORMATIVE?
1. I promise to take Zoe to dinner tonight.
2. Zoe promises to take me to dinner tonight.
3. I will promise to take Zoe to dinner tonight.
Hints
(a) subject of the verb must be “I”; performative
is about an interaction between speaker
and hearers.
(b) Performatives must take place in the present.
Felicity Conditions
• allow us to determine under when it is appropriate to ask questions, give commands, and so forth.
S questions H about X (a mutual friend) 1. S does not know the truth about X.
2. S wants to know the truth about X.
3. S believes H may know the truth about X.
Assumptions: 1. if someone asks a question, s/he doesn't know the answer to
the question > inherent in condition #1.
2. If someone asks, s/he actually wants to know the truth. (#2)
3. If someone asks you, they think you may know the truth
(or answer). (#3)
Felicity Conditions: Asking Questions
Felicity Conditions: Promise
S promises H to do Y: 1. S believes H wants Y done.
2. S is able to do Y.
3. S is willing to do Y.
S requests H to do Z (action): 1. Speaker believes that Z has not yet been
done.
2. Speaker believes that Hearer is able to do Z.
3. Speaker believes that Hearer is willing to do Z-type things for S.
Felicity Conditions: Requests
Indirect speech act
a. Can you meet me tonight?
• structure: interrogative
• function: request
b. You left the door open.
• structure: declarative
• function : request
c. Can you open the door for me? - the speaker is requesting, not asking about the ability of the listener to open the door d1. Do you know where the bus stop is? d2. Yes, I know where it is (and walks away)
(1) request for help in finding the bus stop
(2) reads the speech act of (1) as a question, not as a request.
7. Politeness
• awareness of and consideration for another person’s face
• FACE : person’s public image
• emotional and social sense of self everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize
• face-threatening act - threatens a person’s image
Give me that book! – S conveys he/she has social power over the H
• face-saving act -lessens the possible threat
Could you give me that book? – less threatening - removes the assumption of social power
Negative face
• the need to be independent and free from imposition
• face-saving act: show concern about imposition
– I’m sorry to bother you, but …
Positive face
• the need to be connected, to belong • face-saving act
• show solidarity
• rally to a common goal • let’s do this together. . .
• we have the same problem
References
• O'Grady, William D., Archibald, John, [eds.] (2009). Contemporary Linguistic Analysis: An Introduction, 6th edition. Ontario: Pearson Education Canada.
• Yule G. 2006. The study of language. Cambridge: CUP.