Prepared for SHP 1313 at UTM Skudai, Johore, MALAYSIA by Siti
Rokiah Siwok, [email protected]@gmail.com
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First, a basic question: Is study of leadership important?
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Leadership What is leadership? Who are leaders? What do they
do? What are their characteristics? Any difference between
effective leaders and ineffective leaders? Do they have
similar/different styles of leadership? Etc
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An overview Define what leadership is. Identify traits of
effective leaders. Describe behaviors that effective leaders
demonstrate. Explain the concepts of contingency, transactional,
transformational, and charismatic leadership. Specify the contexts
in which various leadership styles are effective Develop your own
leadership skills.
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What is leadership?
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What is Leadership? Leadership is the ability to guide a group
toward the achievement of goals. Leaders can be formally recognized
by the organization, or individuals can emerge as informal leaders
within work groups because they have some characteristic that the
group members value.
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7 Leader and Leadership Leadership is an influence process that
includes any behavior that helps clarify a groups purpose or guides
the group to achieve its goals. A leader is a person who is
assigned or selected, or emerges from a group, to guide or provide
direction towards reaching the groups goal ( Sieler and Beall, 2011
page 431)
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Leadership Many questions are being asked related to
leadership, such as: Are leaders born? Are leaders
bred/developed?
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Leader emergence It is the idea that people who become leader
have traits or characteristics different from people who do not
become leaders.
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Universalist Theories of Leadership Universalist theories look
for the major characteristics common to all effective leaders. 1.
Great man/woman theory maintains that great leaders are born, not
made. 2. Trait theory attempts to discover the traits shared by all
effective leaders. Traits are enduring attributes associated with
an individuals personality or makeup. (Riggio, 2009)
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Universalist Theories of Leadership Research indicates that
extraversion, conscientiousness, openness to experience,
agreeableness, and emotional stability, in combination, are
associated with effective leadership (Bono and Judge, 2004 in
Riggio 2009). Possession of flexibility, charisma, and social
intelligence are also important for leadership (Riggio, 1986). The
major problem with the original trait approach is that it was too
general.
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Characteristics of Leaders Leaders have special
characteristics. Recent reviews show that : People high in
openness, conscientiousness, extraversion and low in neuroticism
are more likely to emerge as leaders (Judge, Bono, Ilies and
Gerhardt, 2002 in Aamodt 2010) High self monitors emerge as leaders
more often then low self-monitors. More intelligent
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Characteristics of Leaders Meta-analysis by Youngjohn (1999)
found that individual-difference variables were good predictors of
leadership performance: Charismatic Dominant Energetic High in self
monitoring
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14 Summary of Leadership Characteristics: Leader Emergence
Traits Intelligence Openness to experience Extraversion
Conscientiousness Emotional stability High self-monitoring
Leadership emergence seems to be stable across the life- span
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Traits and leadership: BIG 5 Personality Traits
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Traits and leadership: Intelligence General mental ability,
which psychologists refer to as g and which is often called IQ in
everyday language, has been related to a persons emerging as a
leader within a group. Specifically, people who have high mental
abilities are more likely to be viewed as leaders in their
environment We should caution, though, that intelligence is a
positive but modest predictor of leadership.
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Leadership and EQ In addition to having high IQ, effective
leaders tend to have high emotional intelligence (EQ) People with
high EQ demonstrate a high level of self- awareness, motivation,
empathy, and social skills. According to Goleman ( 1995), what
differentiates effective leaders from ineffective ones becomes
their ability to control their own emotions and understand other
peoples emotions, their internal motivation, and their social
skills
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Emotional intelligence Goleman (1995) identified the five
'domains' of EQ as: 1. Knowing your emotions. 2. Managing your own
emotions. 3. Motivating yourself. 4. Recognising and understanding
other people's emotions. 5. Managing relationships 18
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Looking at what leaders do
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Leader Performance/Behaviour Leader performance involves the
idea that people who perform well have certain characteristics that
poor performing leaders do not. Rather then thinking that a leader
emerge, we can look into the performance of the leaders. We see
what are the characteristics of leaders who perform well vis--vis
those not performing well.
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Behavioral Theories of Leadership Behavioral leadership
theories (derived from Ohio State and University of Michigan
studies) focus on the behaviors common to effective leaders. The
Ohio State Leadership Studies identified two important leader
behaviors: Initiating structure (defining, organizing, structuring
the work situation). Consideration (showing concern for feelings
and needs of followers).
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Behavioral Theories of Leadership The University of Michigan
Leadership Studies also identified two important leader behaviors.
In task-orientated behaviors, leader behaviors focused on the work
task. In relationship-oriented behaviors, leader behaviors focused
on maintaining interpersonal relationships on the job. Both types
of behaviors have been linked to effective leadership.
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23 Task Versus Person Orientation Person-Oriented Leaders act
in a warm, supportive manner and show concern for the employees
believe employees are intrinsically motivated Task-Oriented Leaders
set goals and give orders believe employees are lazy and
extrinsically motivated
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Task oriented leaders Task-oriented leaders see their employees
as lazy, extrinsically motivated, undisciplined etc, so task-
oriented leaders lead by giving directives, setting goals and
making decision without consulting their subordinates. Included in
the task oriented leaders are : Task-centred leaders Theory X
leaders High initiating structure
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Person oriented leaders Act in a warm, supportive manner and
show concern for the employees believe employees are intrinsically
motivated
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26 Consequences of Leaders Orientation
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Instruments The orientation of a leader can be measured by
several instruments such as: Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (
LOQ) Leader Behaviour Description Questionnaire (LBDQ)
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28 Unsuccessful Leaders (Hogan, 1989) Lack of training
Cognitive deficiencies Personality problems
paranoid/passive-aggressive high likeability floater
narcissist
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29 Unsuccessful Leader Behaviors Shen et al. (2008) Engaging in
illegal and unethical behavior Avoiding conflict and people
problems Demonstrating poor emotional control (e.g., yelling and
screaming) Over-controlling (e.g., micromanaging) Demonstrating
poor task performance Poor planning, organization, and
communication Starting or passing on rumors or sharing confidential
information Procrastinating and not meeting time commitments
Failing to accommodate the personal needs of subordinates Failing
to nurture and manage talent
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Leadership and Situation
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Interaction between leader and situation Leaders effectiveness
not only depends on traits that s/he posses but also on the
particular situation in which the leader is in. Several theories (
or models) have emerged to explain the situational nature of
leadership.
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32 Interaction Between the Leader and the Situation Situational
Favorability Organizational Climate Subordinate Ability
Relationships with Subordinates
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Leader and situation: Fiedlers Contingency Model Fiedlers
contingency model holds that any leader is effective only in
certain situations. Thus Fiedler argue that rather than change the
leadership style, leadership training should concentrate on helping
people understand their leadership style and manipulate the
environment to make a perfect match. Fiedler developed Least
Preferred coworker scale ( LPC) Fiedlers ideas supported by
researches Fiedlers training : Leader match
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35 LPC The least-preferred coworker (LPC) scale classifies
leadership styles. Describe the one person with whom he or she
worked the least well with. From a scale of 1 through 8, describe
this person on a series of bipolar scales: Unfriendly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 Friendly Uncooperative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cooperative Hostile 1 2 3
4 5 6 7 8 Supportive Guarded 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Open
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36 Relationship Between LPC Scores and Group Success High LPC
Score Low Performance High Performance Low Performance Low LPC
Score High Performance Low Performance High Performance
LowModerateHigh Situation Favorability
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38 Fielders Contingency Model: Implications The favorableness
of leadership situations should be assessed. Candidates for
leadership positions should be evaluated using the LPC scale. If a
leader is being sought for a particular leadership position, a
leader with the appropriate LPC profile should be chosen. If a
leadership situation is being chosen for a particular candidate, a
situation should be chosen which matches his/her LPC profile.
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Applying Fiedlers Contingency Theory Fill out the LPC Determine
whether you are task or relationship oriented. Think of a
leadership situation in which you were not optimally effective
and/or one in which you excelled Evaluate the situation(s) Does
your experience support Fiedlers theory?
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40 Contingency theory: Strengths Supported by a lot of
empirical research Looks at the impact of the situation on leaders
It is predictive It does not require that people be effective in
all situations It provides a way to assess leader style that could
be useful to an organization
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41 Contingency Theory: Weaknesses There is some doubt whether
the LPC is a true measure of leadership style It is cumbersome to
use Doesn't explain what to do when there is a mismatch between
style and situation Other situational variables, like training and
experience, have an impact in a leader's effectiveness
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Leader and situation: IMPACT Theory
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Leader and situation: IMPACT IMPACT theory, developed by Geier,
Downey and Johnson (1980). Leaders have 6 behaviour styles :
informational, magnetic, position, affiliation, coercive and
tactical. Each style is effective with only one particular
situation or organizational climate.
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IMPACT THEORY Informational style in climate of ignorance
Magnetic style in a climate of despair Position style in a climate
of instability Affiliation style in a climate of anxiety Coercive
style in a climate of crisis Tactical style in a climate of
disorganization
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IMPACT THEORY: STRATEGIES Find a climate consistent with your
leadership style Change your leadership style to better fit the
climate Change your followers perception of the climate Change the
actual climate
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Leader and situation: Path-goal Theory Leaders who can adapt
their behaviour to match the needs of their subordinates will be
more effective than leaders who stick to one leadership style (
Foster, 1999, in Aamodt, 2010) According to the path-goal theory (
House, 1971, in Aamodt, 2010), a leader can adopt one of the
leadership styles to manage different situations:
Instrumental/Directive Supportive Participative Achievement
-oriented
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Path-goal Theory Each style will work in certain situations and
also depends on the subordinates abilities and the extent the task
is structured. The higher the level of subordinates abilities, the
less directive the leader should be. On the contrary, the less
structured the situation, the more directive will the leader be (
Schriesheim and DeNisi, 1981 in Aamodt 2010)
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Path-goal Theory In addition, according to this theory, a
leader should : Recognize the needs of subordinates and work to
satisfy those needs. Reward subordinates who reach their goals.
Help subordinates identify the best paths to take in reaching
particular goals. Clear those paths so that employees can reach
their goals. As path-goal theory is behaviour based, the theory
could be used in training.
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Path-Goal Theory
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Path-Goal Theory: Leadership Behaviours Directive leadership
leader gives instructions, expectations, time lines, and
performance standards Supportive Leadership- leader is friendly and
approachable, attends to the well being of subordinates, and treats
everyone as equals Participative Leadership- leader invites
subordinates to give ideas, share opinions and integrates their
suggestions into the decision making process Achievement-Oriented
Leadership- leader challenges subordinates to perform at the
highest level possible. Leader has high standards of excellence and
seeks continuous improvement.
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Path-Goal Theory: Subordinate Characteristics Need for
affiliation- prefer supportive leadership Preferences for structure
prefer directive leadership Desires of control- prefer
participative leadership Self-perceived level of task ability-
prefer achievement orientated leadership
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Path-Goal Theory Pros Helps understand how leader behavior
effects subordinates satisfaction and work performance Deals
directly with motivation one of the only theories to address this
Provides a very practical model make a clear path and follow
it
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Path-Goal Theory Cons This is a very complex theory that
incorporates many aspects of leadership. Research only partially
supports the theory. Fails to explain adequately the relationship
between leader behavior and subordinate motivation Treats
leadership as a one way street, places a majority of the
responsibility on the leader.
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Situational leadership: Hersey and Blanchard (1988)
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Leader and situation: Situational leadership theory Developed
by Hersey and Blanchard (1988), a leader uses four leadership
styles : Delegating Directing Supporting Coaching
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Situational leadership: Hersey and Blanchard (1988)
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Leader and situation: LMX (VDL)
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LMX is another leadership theory and was originally called
vertical dyad linkage ( VDL) theory. The uniqueness of this theory
is the focus on interaction between,leaders and subordinates. These
interactions are called leader-member exchanges ( LMX). The idea
originates from the relationship between two people( dyad) whereby
the leader is in the position above the subordinate ( vertical)
plus their interrelated behaviours ( linkage). Hence VDL.
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60 Relationships with Subordinates Leader-Member Exchange (LMX)
Theory Concentrates on the interactions between leaders and
subordinates Subordinates fall into either the: in-group out-group
In-group employees More satisfied Higher performance Less likely to
leave
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Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory The leader-member exchange
model asserts that effective leadership is determined by the
quality of the interaction between leaders and particular group
members. Leader-member exchange can range from low quality to high
quality. With high quality leader-member exchange, there is
frequent, positive communication between leaders and members.
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62 Other Leadership Styles
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Charismatic Leadership Theory Charismatic leadership theory
states that leaders possess some exceptional characteristics that
cause followers to be loyal and inspired. Charismatic leaders
communicate shared group goals and convey confidence in their own
abilities and those of followers. Charismatic leaders are most
effective when goals are unclear and situational conditions are
unstable. Some researchers suggest that charismatic leaders possess
exceptionally high-quality social skills and an ability to inspire
followers at a deep emotional level (Riggio, 1987).
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Charismatic Leadership: Key Characteristics Self Confidence-
They have complete confidence in their judgment and ability. A
vision- This is an idealized goal that proposes a future better
than the status quo. The greater the disparity between idealized
goal and the status quo, the more likely that followers will
attribute extraordinary vision to the leader. Ability to articulate
the vision- They are able to clarify and state the vision in terms
that are understandable to others. This articulation demonstrates
an understanding of the followers needs and, hence acts as a
motivating force.
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Charismatic Leadership: Key Characteristics Strong convictions
about vision- Charismatic leaders are perceived as being strongly
committed, and willing to take on high personal risk, incur high
costs, and engage in self-sacrifice to achieve their vision.
Behavior that is out of the ordinary- Those with charisma engage in
behavior that is perceived as being novel, unconventional, and
counter to norms. When successful, these behaviors evoke surprise
and admiration in followers.
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Charismatic Leadership: Key Characteristics Perceived as being
a change agent- Charismatic leaders are perceived as agents of
radical change rather than as caretakers of the status quo.
Environmental sensitivity- These leaders are able to make realistic
assessments of the environmental constraints and resources needed
to bring about change.
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What it means to be a leader: Specific Leader Skills
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68 Leadership Through Decision Making Vroom-Yetton Model
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69 Leadership Through Contact Management by walking around
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70 Leadership Through Power Expert Power Legitimate Power
Reward Power Coercive Power Referent Power
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Leadership Styles, Behaviour and Power Leadership can also be
classified according to the extent power is given to the group
members. Theoretically, there are three different styles: 1.
Autocratic: Keep control 2. Democratic: Share control 3.
Laissez-Faire: Give up control
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Autocratic Leader makes decisions without reference to anyone
else High degree of dependency on the leader Can create
de-motivation and alienation of staff May be valuable in some types
of business where decisions need to be made quickly and
decisively
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Democratic Encourages decision making from different
perspectives leadership may be emphasised throughout the
organisation Consultative: process of consultation before decisions
are taken Persuasive: Leader takes decision and seeks to persuade
others that the decision is correct
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Democratic May help motivation and involvement Workers feel
ownership of the firm and its ideas Improves the sharing of ideas
and experiences within the business Can delay decision making
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Laissez-Faire Let it be the leadership responsibilities are
shared by all Can be very useful in businesses where creative ideas
are important Can be highly motivational, as people have control
over their working life Can make coordination and decision making
time-consuming and lacking in overall direction Relies on good team
work Relies on good interpersonal relations
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Types of Leadership Style: Paternalistic Leader acts as a
father figure Paternalistic leader makes decision but may consult.
Believes in the need to support staff.
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77 Leadership Through Vision Transformational Leadership
Visionary Charismatic Inspirational Challenge the status-quo
Carefully analyze problems Confident and optimistic
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Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership focuses
on the leaders ability to provide shared values and a vision for
the future of the work group. There are four components of
transformational leadership. Idealized influence: the
transformational leader is a positive role model. Inspirational
motivation: the leader inspires followers by providing a compelling
vision of a positive future. Intellectual stimulation: followers
curiosity and creativity are stimulated and challenged.
Individualized consideration: the leader pays personal attention to
each members needs and concerns.
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Transactional vs Transformational leaders Transactional Leaders
Contingent Reward: Contracts exchange of rewards for effort,
promises rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishment
Management by exception (active): Watches and searches for
deviations from rules and standards, takes corrective action.
Management by exception (passive): Intervenes only if standards are
not met Laissez faire: Abdicates responsibilities, avoids making
decisions
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Transactional vs Transformational leaders Transformational
Leaders Charisma : Provides vision and sense of mission, instills
pride, gains respect trust. Inspiration: Communicates high
expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, expresses important
purposes in simple ways. Intellectual Stimulations: Promotes
intelligence, rationality, and careful problem solving.
Individualized consideration: Gives personal attention, treats each
employee individually, coaches, advises.
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Summary of leadership theories TheoryComponentsModel type Great
man-great women theory Effective leaders are born, not made
Descriptive Trait theoryCommon traits to all effective leaders
Descriptive Theory X, theory YTwo types of leaders: traditional and
non- traditional Descriptive Fiedlers Contingency theory Leader
must be matched to situational characteristics Predictive Path goal
theoryLeader must play roles to help groups attain goals
Descriptive-predictive
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Summary of leadership theories TheoryComponentsModel type Vroom
Yetton Decision Making Model Leader asks situation-related
questions before choosing decision-making style Prescriptive
Leader-member exchangeFocuses on quality of leader- member
relationship Descriptive- predictive Transformational leadership
Leaders inspire and provides vision for followers Descriptive
Charismatic leadershipFollowers drawn to exceptional
characteristics possessed by leader Descriptive
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Applications of Leadership Theories Leadership training can
follow two general approaches. Teaching leaders diagnostic skills
for assessing situations to determine types of leader behaviors
that work best. Teaching leaders specific skills or behaviors that
they lack. A combination of both approaches is likely to be most
effective.
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Please read more and it will get more interesting..
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References Aamodt, M.G (2010). Industrial and organizational
psychology. An applied approach (6 th ed) Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
Riggio, R. E. ( 2009). Introduction to Industrial/Organizational
Psychology (5 th ed). New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall. Northouse,
P.G. (2007) Leadership Theory and Practice. Sage Publications, Inc.
Thousand Oaks, CA. http://www.flatworldknowledge.com
http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/t
rait-theory.htm