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PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:
AnIntroduction
DrPaulBCoulter,January2011
www.paulcoulter.net
CONTENTS
Title Page
Introduction 2
PoetryintheHebrewBible 3
WisdomLiterature 5
Psalms 12
Proverbs 24
Ecclesiastes 30
Job 33
SongofSongs 45
Conclusion 49
Bibliography 49
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P a g e |2 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter
INTRODUCTION
ThisstudyisintendedtobeanintroductiontothefivebooksoftheBiblegroupedtogetherintheOldTestament
ofEnglishtranslationsoftheBibleaftertheLawandhistoricalbooks(GenesistoEsther)andbeforethebooksof
theProphets(IsaiahtoMalachi). Thefivebooksintheorderinwhichtheyareplacedare:
Job Psalms Proverbs Ecclesiastes SongofSongs
Thebooksdeservetobegroupedtogethersincetheyareclearlydifferentincharacterfromtheotherpartsofthe
OldTestament(withthepossibleexceptionofLamentations,whichwasplacedtogetherwiththemintheHebrew
Biblebut isplacedafter Jeremiah inEnglish translations because itsauthorship istraditionallyattributed tothe
prophet),buttheyreallycomprisebooksoftwodifferentmajorgenres:
a) PoetrythePsalmsareacollectionofpoemsorsongs.b) WisdomJob,ProverbsandEcclesiastesbelongwithinthisgenre.
Havingidentifiedthesetwogenres,however,itmustbesaidthatthedivisionisnotasabsoluteasitmayappear,
foranumberofreasons:
There issomedebateastowhichcategorySongofSongsshouldbeplaced in is itapoeticsongoranexampleoflyricwisdom(seethesectiononSongofSongsforfurtherdiscussion).
Anumberofpsalmscanbeclassifiedaswisdompsalms(seethesectiononPsalmsformoredetail). ProverbsandsectionsofEcclesiastesandJobarewritteninpoetry.
Inadditionitisimportanttorealisethattheliterarygenrescalledwisdomandpoetryarebynomeansrestricted
tothesefivebooks. Asweshallsee,thesegenresarefoundthroughouttheOldTestament(andevenintheNew
Testament). Still,itiswithinthesefivebooksthatpoetryandwisdomareconcentratedintheOldTestament,and
thissectionservesadistinctpurposewithinthecanonofScripture.
Insummary,Iwillarguethatthesebooksservetwoimportantpurposes:
CommentaryontheOldTestamentnarrativeTogether with Lamentations and the Prophetic books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the twelve Minor
prophets(HoseatoMalachi)theyserveasabreakfromandacommentaryuponthenarrativebackbonethat
runsthroughtheOldTestament. TheotherOldTestamentbooks(GenesistoEstherandthebookofDaniel)
arepredominantlynarrative,tellinganunfoldingstoryofGodsrelationshipwithmankindandespeciallywith
Israel. Thesebookssitalongsidethatnarrativeandgiveusinsightsintoitssignificanceandintothespirituallife
ofthepeople.
InsightintoeverydaylifeandexperienceWhereas the narrative books focus on big events, nations and major characters, these poetic and wisdom
books give us insights into the feelings and experience of individuals. In some cases (primarily David and
possiblyalsoSolomon)theinsightsareintothelifeofcharacterswhofiguresignificantlyinthenarrative,butin
otherstheauthorisunknownorrelativeinsignificantinhistoricalterms. Wherethenarrativebooksfocuson
GodsactionsinthehistoryofIsraelandthesurroundingnations,thesebooksfocusontheresponseofGods
peopletoHim. TheyprimarilyrecordthewordsofpeopleaboutGod,includingpraiseanddespair,questions
andstruggles. TheyareaninsightintotheheartofthefaithfulpeoplewithinIsrael. Ifwedidnothavethese
bookswewouldstruggletoknowwhatitwasliketolivealifeoffaithinGodasoneofHispeople.
Beforeconsideringeachbook inturnwemustfirstbrieflyconsiderthetwomajorgenresofwisdomandpoetry
thatcomprisethesebooks.
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P a g e |3 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter
POETRYINTHEHEBREWBIBLE
TheplaceofpoetryintheOldTestament
According to Grant Osborne: Poetry is a device that cuts across other genres, being a major rhetorical
techniqueinwisdomandpropheticliterature.1 PoetryisfoundinthreeplaceswithintheOldTestament:
PoeticBooksthreewholebooksareentirelycomprisedofpoetryorsongs:Psalms,SongofSongsandLamentations.
Narrativebookssongsandpoemsarefoundwithinthenarrativebooks,forexample:Genesis49(Jacobsblessing);Exodus15:118 (the songofMosesand Miriam);Deuteronomy 32 (Moses song),33 (Moses
blessing of the tribes); Judges 5 (Deborahs song); 1 Samuel 2:110 (Hannahs prayer) ; 1 Kings 12:16
(IsraelsanswertoRehoboam);2Kings19:2134(IsaiahsprophecytoHezekiah).
Propheticbookssomeofthepropheticbooksareentirelyoralmostentirelywritten inpoetry(Hosea,Joel,Amos,Obadiah,Micah,Nahum,Habakkuk,Zephaniah)while otherscontainlengthyportionsofpoetry
(Isaiah,Jeremiah,Jonah,Zechariah).
Thereareanumberoftypesofpoetry intheOldTestament,includingwarsongsgivingpraisetoGodforgiving
victory(e.g.Exodus15:118;Judges5)andlovesongs(SongofSongs),butthepsalmisthepredominantform. The
bookofPsalmscontainsanumberofdifferentkindsofpsalms,whichwillbeconsideredinthesectiononPsalms.
GrantOsbornewritesabouttheimportanceofpoetryinthenationallifeofIsrael:2
Semiticpoetry had its origins in the religious life of thepeople, both corporate and individual. Prosewas
inadequatetoexpressthedeepyearningsofthesoul,andpoetryasanemotional,deepexpressionoffaithand
worshipbecameanecessity. Themanytypesofreligiousneedcalledfordifferenttypesofhymns. Hebrewpoetry
wasnotrecreationalbutwasfunctional inthelifeofthenationanditsrelationshipwithYahweh. Poetryhada
worshipfunction inmediatingbetweenthepeopleandGodandasermonicfunction inremindingthepeopleof
their responsibilitiesbeforeGod. ThePsalms,for instance,werenotperipheralashymnsoftenare todaybut
were afocalpoint of the service both in temple and in synagogue. It is notwithout reason thatprophetic
utterancesfromGodweresofrequentlygiveninpoeticform. Notonlyweretheymoreeasilyremembered,but
theywerealsomoreemotiveandpowerfulintheirmessage.
For thisreasonhecanclaimthattheology iscentral tobiblicalpoetry.3 Poetryexpressestruth inawaythat
othergenrescannot. RobertAlterwrites:4
|Poetry,workingthroughasystemofcomplexlinkagesofsound,image,word,rhythm,syntax,theme,idea,isan
instrumentfor conveying denselypatternedmeanings, and sometimes contradictorymeanings, that are not
readilyconveyablethroughotherkindsofdiscourse.
LiteraryfeaturesofHebrewpoetry
InmostmodernEnglish translationsof theBiblepoetryhasbeen identifiedby indentationof the text. Within
Hebrewpoetrythereare fourmain features thatcanbe identifiedandwhichare important in interpreting the
poem:
1. MetricalPatternstherhythmofthepoemorsong. IdentifyingthisdependsonknowledgeofHebrewandphonetics. Scholarsdivideoverwhethertobasethemetricalstructureonstressorsyllablecounts. The
metricalstructure ismore important inconsideringhowthepoemshouldbereadaloudratherthanhow it
shouldbeunderstood,hencereaderswhoarenotHebrewscholarsshouldnotworrygreatlyaboutit.
1Osborne,1991,p.174
2Osborne,1991,p.181
3Osborne,1991,p.186
4RobertAlterquotedinVillanueva,2010,p.75
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P a g e |4 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter2. ParallelismHebrewpoetry ismarkedbyparallelsofgrammarand language. The traditionalapproach
(afterBishopRobertLowthin1750)sees3basictypesofparallels:
a. Synonymousrepeatwithlittleornoaddedmeaning(e.g.Isaiah53:5;Proverbs3:14).b. Synthetic(orstep)thesecondlineaddsmeaningtothefirst. Thistypeisfarmorecommonthan
synonymousparallelism. Itincludesclimacticparallelism,inwhichseveralunitsbuildthethoughtto
aclimax(e.g.Psalm8:34;29:1).
c. Antitheticalthesecondlineiscontrastedwiththefirst(e.g.Proverbs3:1). Insomecasesthesecondlinestilladdsclarificationandsocanfallundersyntheticparallelismtoo(e.g.Psalm20:7;Proverbs1:7).
Anotherformofantitheticalparallelismisintrovertedparallelism,wheretwolinescontrastwithtwo
others,ofteninachiasticpattern(e.g.Psalm30:810).
Morerecently,somescholarshavequestionedthisapproach,claimingthatsynonymousparallelism isnot
foundinHebrewpoetryandthatthesecondlinealwaysaddsmeaninginsomesense,ifonlybyclarifyingthe
first. Somecasesofparallelism(especiallysynonymousparallels)areincomplete,withoneelementfromthe
firstlinemissingfromthesecond(e.g.Psalm24:1)andmoreoftenthannotinthesecaseswhatiscalledthe
ballastvariantoccurs,asthemissingelementiscompensatedforbytheadditionofafurtherthought(e.g.
Psalm18:17).
3. PoeticlanguageHebrewpoetryusesanumberofcharacteristic literarydevices. SomeofthesecanbeidentifiedintheEnglishtranslation,whilstothersareonlyevidentintheHebrew:
a. Chiasmthisdevice,whichisalsofoundinmanyNewTestamentpassages,reverseswordsorideasinsuccessiveparallelsectionsformingasymmetricalmirrorimage. Consider,forexample,Isaiah6:10:
A maketheheartofthispeoplecalloused
B maketheirearsdull
C Andclosetheireyes
C Otherwisetheymightseewiththeireyes,
B hearwiththeirears,
A understandwiththeirhearts,andturnandbehealed
b. Paronomasiaplayonwords (e.g. Isaiah5:7,thewords forjusticeandbloodsheddifferbyoneletterinHebrew,asdothewordsforrighteousness andweeping).
c. Alliterationlinesbeginningwiththesameletterofthealphabet(e.g.Psalm119,eachlinewithineachstrophebeginswiththesameHebrewletter).
d. AcrosticseachlinebeginswithasuccessiveletteroftheHebrewalphabet(e.g.Psalm25;34;37;111;112;119;Lamentations3).
e. Assonance similar sounding words (e.g. Jeremiah 1:1112, the words for almond branch andwatchingoverdifferbyonevowelsoundintheHebrew).
4. Imagerytheuseoffigurative languageischaracteristic ofpoetry inmany languagesand isimportanttorealiseifwearetoavoidmistakesininterpretingthemeaningofpoetry. Imagesarefoundintwoforms:
a. Similes an illustrative image introduced with the word like (e.g. Job 30:8; Psalm 1:34; 31:12;Proverbs11:12;Isaiah1:30).
b. Metaphorsuseofanillustrativeimagewithoutthewordlike(e.g.Psalm19:12;Amos4:1). Godismetaphorically depicted as an enthroned king, a shepherd, a warrior, a charioteer, a father, a
shepherd,arock,arefreshingpooletc.
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P a g e |5 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter
WISDOMLITERATURE
Whatiswisdom?
Wisdomispopularlythoughtofastheabilitytouseknowledgeeffectivelyandskillfullyinmakingdecisionswith
positive consequences. Although this definition is included in the biblical concept of wisdom, it misses a
fundamentalprincipleinwisdomasdefinedinScripture,whichisitsbasisinareverentialrelationshipwithGod.
Wisdom isalwaystheexerciseofgodlyreasonandunderstanding inthe faceof,andwithtrust in,whatGod is
doinginourtime. GrantOsbornewritesthat,ItsgoalistouseproperlyGodscreationandtoenjoy lifeinthe
presentunderhiscare.5 Wisdom isavitalskillfor lifeandanecessarycomplementtoTorah(instruction or,
morecommonlybutperhapsmisleadingly,law). TheLawofMosescontainsmanycommandments,butitcan
nevercovereverypossiblesituationordecisionthatneedstobemade. Theonlywaytofaceeveryaspectoflife
withfaithfulnesstoGodistodevelopwisdom. Wisdom,inasense,fillsinthegapsbetweentheLaw,orperhaps
weshouldsay itguidesthechoicesoftheGodfearingpersonwithinthe limitsprescribedbytheLaw. Since,as
GraemeGoldsworthypointsout,wisdomisvirtuallysynonymouswithrighteousnessrighteousnessisseento
befarmorethanethicalconformity6. WeneedwisdomifwearetoliveourliveswhollyforGod.
TheplaceofwisdomintheOldTestament
WisdomsayingsarefoundinnumerousplacesintheOldTestament:
Samsonsverseriddle(Judges14:12ff.) ProverbsarefoundinnarrativeandpropheticbooksDavidtoSaul(1Samuel24:13);AhabtoBenhadad(1
Kings20:11);Jeremiah31:29andEzekiel18:2(ajokeaboutabadsituationforparentsbutaworseonefor
children).
Jothamsfable(Judges9:815)andJoashsvariant(2Chronicles25:18). TheparablesofNathan(2Samuel12:1ff.)andwomanofTekoa(2Samuel14:4ff.) AllegoriesinEzekiel(chapters16,17and23),Isaiah(28:23ff.)andJeremiah(18:1ff.) SomePsalmsarewisdompsalmsespeciallywhenthepsalmistturnsfromaddressingGodtoteachingor
warninghisfellowmen(e.g.Psalms1,37and127)ortograpplingwithdisturbing questions(e.g.Psalms49
and73).
Although wisdom clearly predates the wisdom books themselves, it was in the reign of Solomon that wisdom
literature reached its zenith. Much of Proverbs is attributed directly to Solomon, and Ecclesiastes and Song of
Songsaredirectlyorindirectlyassociatedwithhim. DerekKidnerconnectsthisfloweringofwisdomliteraturein
the10th
CenturyBCtothestimulusofSolomonsreignwithincreasedtravel,trade,exchangeofideas,prosperity,
leisureandarts.7 SolomonhimselfwasgiftedbyGodwithwisdomand1Kings3and2Chronicles1tellhowhe
chosewisdomasagiftfromGodinpreferencetorichesorfame. Godsresponsewastogranthimallthree. Sadly
Solomonsquanderedhiswisdom inthe laterpartofhis reign,buthis influencestillhadamajor impactonthe
developmentofwisdominIsrael. TheexampleofSolomonisareminderthatwisdomispracticalskill(hewanted
wisdomtobeable to leadandgiveneffectivelyaccording to2Chronicles1:10)and thatwisdommustbeused
constantlyinacontextofreverentrelationshipwithGodifitistobeeffective.
Inadditiontothepresenceofwisdomsayings,wisepeoplearealsomentionedinnarrativebooks:
ProfessionalcounsellorslikerivalsAhithophelandHushaiservedintheroyalcourt(2Samuel15:1217:23) LocalwisepeopleexistedinIsraelitesocietyJonadab(2Samuel13:3);wisewomanofTekoa(2Samuel14),
cityofAbel(2Samuel20:18).
Fourwisemenarenamedin1Kings4:31,buttheirwisdomwassurpassedbySolomon,whohadadivinegiftofwisdom.
5Osborne,1991,p.191
6Goldsworthy,2000,p.189
7Kidner1985,p.1415
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P a g e |6 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter Anofficeofwisemanwasrecognisedalongsideprophetsandpriests(Jeremiah18:18).
Theclassofwisemencameundercriticism inthe lateyearsofthekingdomfromtheprophets Isaiah(44:25)
and,mostnotably,Jeremiah(8:9). Somehave interpretedthesecomments intheProphetsasanattackonthe
very concept of wisdom and the wise. They suggest that the prophets believed in revelation from God
whereas the wise men (and the wisdom books) were simply presenting a concept of life without direct
interventionfromGodinignoranceofconceptslikecovenantwhichwerecentraltonarrativeandpropheticbooks.
ThissuggestioncreatesafalsedichotomybetweenrevelationandwisdomandtearstheOldTestamentapart. The
factthatIsaiahandJeremiahcriticisedthepeoplewhoheldtheofficeofwisemanintheirdaydoesnotmean
thattheywereinconflictwiththeearlierwisdomwritingsanymorethantheirattacksonfalseprophetsintheir
daynegatestheauthorityoftheearlierprophets(orevenoftheirownministries). Theywerespeakinginatime
whenthewisemenwereblindtowhatGodwasdoingandthereforemisleadingthepeople. Wisdom,properly
understood, isno lessarevelation fromGodthanprophecy. Althoughprophecymaybethoughtofasspecial
revelation,asGodspokedirectlytoHispeople,wisdomisaformofgeneralrevelationbasedonthenatureof
theuniverseascreatedandruledbyGod.
Asmentioned inthe introductionabove,wisdom literaturetogetherwithPsalmsandSongofSongs,servesasa
pauseinthenarrativeflowoftheOldTestamentandanopportunitytoreflectonthesignificance oftheflowof
Godsstoryforourlivesinthehereandnow. DerekKidnercapturesthisrealitypowerfullyinrelationtothethree
mainwisdombooks:8
TherecomesapointintheOldTestamentwhenthepilgrimisfreetostopandtakealonglookround. Hehashad
awellmarkedpathtofollow,andstillitstretchesonahead. Butnowhemustrelateittotheworldatlarge,to
thescenespreadoutoneveryside:fromwhatliesrightathisfeet(shrewdlypointedoutinProverbs)towhatis
barelyvisibleatthehorizonthedarkriddleofhowtheworldisgoverned(thebookofJob)andhowitshouldbe
valued(Ecclesiastes).
Whatiswisdomliterature?
ThewisdombooksoftheOldTestamentareJob,ProverbsandEcclesiastes. SomescholarsalsoaddSongofSongs
tothelist. Asnotedabove,however,wisdomalsoappearselsewhereintheOldTestament,anditshouldalsobe
notedthatmanypartsoftheNewTestamentcanalsobethoughtofaswisdom. Forexample,theparablesof
JesusandmuchofHisteaching indiscoursescanbethoughtofaswisdomsayings (e.g.beatitudes,teachingby
questions,useofprovocativeimagery)andsomecommentatorsclassifyJamesasawisdombook(certainlyithas
aninterestinwisdom,accordingtoJames1:5anditsstylebearssignificantsimilaritiestoOldTestamentwisdom
literature). The genre of wisdom literature can, therefore, refer to the books listed above, but it can also
embraceawidevarietyofsubgenresfoundthroughoutScripture:
1. Theproverbthis isabriefstatementofuniversallyacceptedtruth formulated insuchawayastobememorable.
9 The Hebrew wordmashal normally translated as proverb may mean either like (i.e. a
descriptivesaying)orrule(i.e.apotentsaying),anditisusedmorewidelyintheOldTestamenttodescribe
allegory (Ezekiel17:110),aphorisms (Ecclesiastes9:1710:20),popularsayings (Jeremiah 23:28),discourse
(Numbers23:7,18)andsimilitudes(1Samuel10:11). Proverbsperseoffer:
Instruction(e.g.Proverbs22:1724:22) Admonitionorprohibition(e.g.Proverbs8:2431,33) Exhortationorcounsel(e.g.Proverbs22:28)
Theydothisthroughavarietyofliterarytechniques:10
Synonymousparallelsusesimilaritiesoranalogiestomaketheirpoint(e.g.Proverbs22:2227) Antitheticalparallelsusecontraststomaketheirpoint(e.g.Proverbs11:131) Factual,experientialorinstructional statements(e.g.Proverbs17:27)
8Kidner,1985,p.11
9Osborne,1991,p.195
10SeeAtkinson,1996,p.26ff.foralongerdiscussionofhowvariousproverbsfunction
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P a g e |8 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter1) Practicalorientation
Thereisaconcernforthepassingonofthewisdomofthepasttotheyoung. Wisdomliteraturecentreson
properetiquetteandspeech(Proverbs29:20),selfcontrol(25:28),familyrelationships(10:1),materialwealth
(11:4). Italsoasksdeepquestionslikewhytherighteoussuffer(Job),whytheevilprosper(Psalms49;73)and
whatpurposelifehas(Ecclesiastes). Majortopicsdiscussed,accordingtoDerekKidner,includeGodandman,
wisdom,thefool,thesluggard,thefriend,words,thefamily,lifeanddeath. GrantOsbornewritesthat:11
Sincewisdomwritingsdealsoconstantlywiththepragmaticsideoflife,itiseasytomisusethemtosupport
an earthcentered lifestyle. Yet this very aspect makes wisdom literature so valuable for the modern
Christianwhoseeksarelevantreligion.
Wisdom literaturecallsustosurrendereveryaspectof lifetoscrutinyanditseesGodswisdomexpressed
and echoed everywhere except where man, the rebel, has presumed to disagree and to disrupt the
pattern.12
It ismanssinthatcauseswisdomnotalwaystotriumph,andsinat itsheart istherejectionof
GodandHisways. Thisrealisationpreparesusforthesecondgreatthemeofwisdomliterature.
2) DependenceonGodTheothermajorfocusofwisdomliteraturewhichmustbeheldinbalancewithitspracticalorientationifwe
aretoavoidtheearthcentredlifestyleOsbornementionsisitscalltodependenceuponGod. Accordingto
Derek Kidner, it is this that keeps the shrewdness of Proverbs from slipping into mere selfinterest, the
perplexityofJobfrommutiny,andthedisillusionofEcclesiastesfromfinaldespair.
13
TheGodcentredfocus
ofwisdomisseeninthreewaysinthewisdomliterature:
a. Wisdom is founded on reverence for GodThe foundational principleofwisdom is thefearof theLordcombinedwiththe injunctiontoturnawayfromevil(Job1:1;28:28;Proverbs3:7;8:13;16:6).
The fearof theLord is themilieuor spherewithinwhich truewisdom isattainable.14
In fact, the
precept thatthefearof theLord is thebeginningofwisdom is found indiffering forms inallof the
wisdomandpoeticbookswiththeexceptionofSongofSongs:Job28:28;Psalms111:10;Proverbs1:7;
9:10; Ecclesiastes 12:13. It is vital to remember in reading wisdom literature that this attitude of
reverenceforGodisfoundationaltowisdominallitsformsandinitsapplicationtoalloflife. AsDerek
Kidnerwrites:15
thefearoftheLordthatfilialreverencewhichtheOldTestamentexpoundsfromfirsttolastisnot
amerebeginnerssteptowisdom,tobeleftbehind,buttheprerequisiteofeveryrightattitude. Only
sowilltheworldbeseentherightwayup,andlifebegintorevealitsintendedpattern
b. WisdomconnectsdailyexperienceswiththecentralityofGodscovenantalthoughGodscovenantwithIsraelisneverexplicitlymentionedinthewisdombooksitistheimpliedbackgroundtoallthatthey
teachaboutpracticalliving. Wisdomcomplementsthecovenantratherthandenyingorchallengingit.In
fact,wisdomisidentifiedwithTorahorinstruction(e.g.Proverbs3:112;4:45)andthewisdompsalms
makethelinkwithGodsTorahexplicit(e.g.Psalms1and119). WisdomliteratureremindsusthatGods
presencecannotbeconfinedtothepropheticandpriestlyspheresoflifeitembraceseveryaspectof
dailyexistence.
c. WisdomispersonifiedasanextensionofGodProverbspresentswisdomasacraftsmanwithGodinCreation(Proverbs8:2930),afemaleteacherinvitingstudentstolearnfromheratthegatesofthecity
(1:2021; 8:136), and a hostess inviting people to her banquet (9:112). This is in contrast with the
adulteress
(2:16
19;
7:6
27)
and
the
foolish
hostess
(9:13
18).
3) IndirectauthorityWisdomliteratureassumesdivineauthorityratherthanexplicitlystatingit(asintheProphets). Wisdomhas
authoritybecause:
11Osborne,1991,p.191
12Kidner,1985,p.12
13Kidner,1985,p.17
14Osborne,1991,p.193
15Kidner,1985,p.19
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P a g e |10 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter2) Misunderstandingwisdomtermsandcategories,aswellasstylesandliterarymodese.g.inProverbs14:7
misunderstanding themeaningoffool(someonewhorejectsGodsperspectiveonliferatherthansomeone
of low intelligenceor limitededucation)andofstayingaway (notseeking instructionoradvice fromhim
ratherthantotallyavoidinghim).
3) Failure to follow lines of argument For example, Job 15:20 (spoken by Eliphaz) as Gods truth and soconcludingthatwickedpeoplearealwaysunhappy,withoutreadingJob17:116where Jobhimselfactually
refutesEliphazsargument, revealing it tobe false. There isadanger in failing toaskwho isspeakingand
whethertheirwordsareapprovedthatwemayactuallyendupapplyingwhatthebookasawholecondemns.
Thefollowingprinciplesmayhelptowardsamorefaithfulinterpretationandapplicationofwisdomliterature:
1. NotetheformofthewisdomsayingIs it a proverb or a longer didactic saying? Is it allegorical? If it is a dialogue or imagined speech, is it
presentedascorrectorincorrect? Inthecaseofindividualproverbsbesuretoreadparallelsayingstogether.
Forexample, readingonly the firsthalfofProverbs13:24may lead toharshdisciplineofchildren,but the
second half is a necessary corrective that shows discipline must be done because of love and then done
carefully.
2. AskwhethertheimmediatecontextisimportantIt is insomesectionsofProverbs,namelychapters19and3031,butnot inmostotherpartsofthebook,
whichcontaincollectionsofsayings. Becausethereisnologicalargumentornarrativeconnectingthebulkof
proverbs in the book of Proverbs, sayings on a similar theme can then be collected together and cross
referenced to build a more complete picture of the wisdom of Proverbs on that theme. In Job and
Ecclesiastes,contextisvitallyimportant,astheultimatemeaningofthebookisonlyclearfromareadingof
thewhole.
3. DeterminewhetherhyperboleispresentGiven the fact that wisdom literature is written as poetry, it is necessary to look out for statements that
deliberatelyexaggerateorgeneralisethetruthbeingpresented.Forexample,doesProverbs3:910promise
prosperity to all whoare faithful toGod? Howdoes this compare withProverbs23:45 with its warnings
aboutstrivingtogetrichandthetransienceofwealth? DoesProverbs22:2627prohibitallborrowing,such
asmortgages? GrantOsbornewarnsthat,Wisdomsayingsarewritten inordertoberemembered,andso
theytendtobepithystatementsthatpreferrhetoricalskilltoaccuracy.21
4. GetbehindthemeaningofculturallyboundimagerySincemanywisdomsayingsdependonancientcustoms,theuniversalprincipleunderlyingobscurepassages
mustbe identifiedandappliedtocomparablesituationstodayforustoaccuratelyandrelevantlyapplythe
truth. Forexample,Proverbs11:1teacheshonestbusinesspracticesevenifweightsandscalesarenolonger
usedandthetruthofProverbs25:24aboutmarriagestillappliesevenifwenolongerhaveflatroofs.
5.
Remember
that
wisdom
sayings
require
wisdom
to
be
used
effectively
Thisisperhapsthemostimportantprincipleinapplyingwisdomliterature. Knowingalotofwisdomsayings
doesnotmakeapersonwise. Wisdom,aswehaveseen,isanattitudetolifethatflowsfromaproperrespect
forandsurrendertoGod. Whenapersonapproacheseveryaspectoflifewiththatattitude,wisdomsayings
become powerful and effective tools to be applied to real dilemmas. Solomon knew and recorded many
wisdom sayings,butwhenhisheart turnedaway fromGod hemade foolishdecisions, failing toapply the
wisdomcontainedinthesayings. Wisdomsayingsarenotintendedtobeauniversalguideastohowtoactin
anyspecificsituation. Theyareintendedtoprovokeustocarefulconsiderationofthepossibleoutcomesof
21Osborne,1991,p.200
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P a g e |11 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulterthechoiceswemightmake. So,weshouldnotbesurprisedtofindproverbsthatappeartoconflictwithone
another. AclassicexampleistheadjacentsayingsinProverbs26:45. Arewetoanswerafoolaccordingtohis
follyornot? Theanswerdependsonourspecificsituation. Weneedtousegodlywisdomtodecidewhatis
appropriate,awarethattheconsequencemayeitherbethatwebecomeafool(ifweanswerwhenweshould
not)orthatheisallowedtothinkthatheiswise(ifwedontanswerwhenweshould). Presumably inthis
instancethecorrectactiondependsonourjudgementabouthowthefoolislikelytorespond. Isheopento
hearingwhatwewillsay?Theenvironmentmustalsobeconsideredforexample,whoelseisthereandwhat
influencewill theirpresencehaveonhim? This isthekindofwisdomaChristianneedsconstantlyasthey
decide when to share with nonbelievers about their faith sometimes it is appropriate, but in other
circumstancesitmaybeunhelpful. AcomparisonwithfamiliarEnglishproverbsmaybehelpfulinillustrating
this need for discernment further. Consider the proverbs Many hands make light work and Too many
cooksspoilthebroth. Bothcontaintruthandyettheysayoppositethings. Whichisappropriatedependson
thetaskathandandwhotheproposedhelpersare.
6. ReadthewisdomliteratureasawholeThe threebooksofProverbs, JobandEcclesiastescomplementoneanotherandadd together toprovidea
morecompleteunderstanding ofwisdomthantheydoalone. ThiswillbediscussedfurtheraswelookatJob
andEcclesiastes,butitisimportanttorealisethatthelargelypositiveandalmostidealisticoutlookofProverbs
isbalancedbythegloomyperspectiveofmuchofEcclesiastes andtherawbrutalityofJobsstory. Ifanyof
thethreepartsweremissing,biblicalwisdomwouldbelikeastoolwithtwolegsunstableandtreacherous.
InthewordsofGraemeGoldsworthy:22
All threebooks complementoneanother inencouraging thebeliever tousemindandfaculties to try to
understandlifeinGodsuniverse,butalsoinrebukingthearroganceofthosewhowouldclaimtohaveitall
together.
ChristthewisdomofGod
OneothercommentonaChristianunderstandingofwisdomisimportant. AswithalloftheOldTestament,the
wisdom literature finds itsfulfillment inChrist. This isnotso immediatelyobviousas itmaybe inthenarrative
books, whose story leads inevitably to the need for a Messiah and provides patterns which He can fulfill (e..g
sacrifice / kingship), the books of Torah, whose instruction reveals the nature of sin and whose priestly and
sacrificial systems provide the template for the Messiahs redemption of Gods people, or the Psalms and
prophets, which include messianic prophecies. Christ, however, isdescribed byPaulas thewisdom ofGod (1
Corinthians1:24,30). HewasthefulfillmentofwisdominthesensethatHelivedtheperfectlywiselife(Hewas
awareoflivingaccordingtowisdomseeMatthew11:19)andHeconfoundedworldlywisdomthroughHisdivine
foolishness(Godswisdomappearsfoolishinsinfulhumaneyes). Hecametoexemplifywisdombutalsotomake
it possible for the failure of human sinfulness which wisdom accentuates to be healed and for a Godcentred
approachtoalloflifetoberestoredinthosewhofollowHim. AllwisdomisfoundinHim(Colossians2:3),andso
fortheChristianthedesireforwisdomcannotbeseparatedfromadesiretoknowChristmoreandtogrowinHim.
22Goldsworthy,2000,p.186
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P a g e |12 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter
PSALMS
ThesignificanceofthebookofPsalms
PsalmsisperhapsthebestknownandbestlovedbookoftheOldTestamentamongChristians. Ithashadaunique
impacton publicChristian worship,with some traditions singingonly psalms, many liturgies including readings
from psalms and many popular hymns and choruses being paraphrases of the psalms. The Psalms have also
provenpopular inprivatedevotionalusebyChristiansand inpastoralsituationswherethey lendthemselvesto
beingreadtothosewhoaresuffering,afraidorbereaved. TherelevanceofthebooktoChristiansisbecauseof
thewayinwhichtheyexpressfeelings,fromdespairtoelation,inpowerfulanddynamiclanguage. Thetheology
ofthisbook isoneofworshipandatrulybiblicalconceptofworshipwhichembracesalloflife. GrantOsborne
summarisesthebooksmessageasfollows:23
Primarily, thePsalms centeruponworshipandprayer; theydemonstratebetter thananyotherbiblicalgenre
IsraelsGodconsciousness.Theymakenoactualtheologicalstatements,buttheirveryGodcenterednessishighly
theological. EveryareaoflifeisrelatedtoGod,andheisseenassovereignoverall.
Althougheachpsalmhasitsownmood,structureandmessage,acrossthebookasawholetherearetwomajor
theologicalthemesthatemerge:
a. GodssovereigntyandHisfaithfulnesstoHiscovenantpromisetoHispeopleGodshesed,orcovenant faithfulness, isamajorthemeofthebook (thewordappearsaround130times).
This isclosely related to the themeof the king,which emerges repeatedly in theroyalpsalms scattered
throughoutthebookaswellasthepsalmsofcovenantrenewal,twopsalmsthatcelebratethecovenantof
GodwithDavidandthepsalmsthatrecountthehistoryofIsraelandGodsactionsontheirbehalf.
b. TheethicalresponsibilityofGodspeopleastheyconnectfaithinHimwitheverydaylifeThepsalmscoverthefullrangeofemotionandfeelingtowardsGodfromangeranddespairtoelationand
jubilation. Throughoutitall,however,thereisanawarenessoftherealityofsin,bothofothers(especiallyin
thelaments)andofthepsalmist(inthepenitentialpsalms),andofthegoodnessofGodslawandthebenefits
of living in obedience toHim (especially evident in thewisdom and didactic psalms). The psalms present
ethical guidance in four major ways according to Gordon Wenham: by contrasting the righteous and the
wicked(asinpsalm1),byupholdingthestandardsoftheDecalogue(TenCommandments),byremindingthat
Godisthesovereignjudge,andbyencouragingthereadertoimitateGod.24
Datingandauthorship
Psalmsisacollectionofpoemsorsongsbyvariousauthors. Itispossible,therefore,toconsiderthedateofeach
individualpsalm,whichwilldependonaconsiderationofitsauthorshipandlanguage(seethesectiononPsalm
titlesforconsiderationofauthorship),butitisalsopossibletoconsiderthedateinwhichthebookwascollected
togetherintheforminwhichwenowhaveit. Giventhatsomepsalms(e.g.Psalm137)areclearlybasedinthe
periodoftheExiletherecanbelittledoubtthatthebookasawholewaseditedtogetherintheperiodafterthe
returnfromExile,thatisafter537BC.
TypesofPsalms
Different scholars have proposed various ways of categorising the psalms. German scholar Hermann Gunkel
(18621932) identified five types:hymns, community laments, individual thanksgiving songs, individual spiritual
laments, and poems of mixed types (including enthronement psalms, victory songs, processional hymns, Zion
23Osborne,1991,p.186
24Wenham,2005,p.179ff.
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P a g e |13 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoultersongs, enthronement songs). He attempted to explain the place of each of these types in Israel's communal,
public Temple worship, which he called their SitzimLeben ("original lifesetting"). More recent studies have
focused lesson trying toplaceeverypsalm inaspecificcontext in Israelspublicworship, recognising that the
psalmsalsohadaroleforindividualsintheirexpressionoffaith.
WalterBrueggemannsuggestsasimplercategorisationintothreetypes:
1. Psalmsoforientation(includingpsalmsofcreation,Torah,wisdom,retribution,andwellbeing)2. Psalmsofdisorientation(including personalandcommunallaments)3. Psalms of a new orientation (including psalms of individual and communal thanksgiving, royal and
enthronementpsalms,psalmsofconfidence,andhymnsofpraise).
ClausWestermannclassifiedpsalmsbasedontheextremesofpraiseandlament:
1) PraisethesecorrespondtoGunkelshymnsandthanksgiving songsandaresubdividedintotwoforms:a. DescriptivepraisecelebratingGodsactsinthepresentandHisbeing.b. DeclarativepraisepraisingGodforspecificacts. Thesecanbeeitherindividualorcommunal.
2) LamentscryingouttoGodeitherasanindividualoracommunitybecauseofanenemy.3) Lamentandpraiseinthesepsalmstheenemyismoreperipheralandthefocusismoreonthepsalmistand
hisGod. Thereisacyclemovingfromprayertopraise. Theturningpointisusuallyadirectword(salvation
oracle)fromGodwhichpromisesHisprotection,victoryandblessing.
4) Othertypesincludingenthronementpsalms(Psalms47,93,9699),wisdompsalms(Psalms1,10,12,15,19,32,34,36,37,49,50,52,53,73,78,82,91,92,94,111,119,127,128,139),songsofZion(Psalms46,48,76,
84,87),atriumphalhymn(Psalm68),creationpraise(Psalms8,104,139)andpsalmsofpenitence(Psalms6,
32,38,51,102,130,143).
Thesedifferentsystems illustratesomethingofthecomplexityoftryingtocategorise150songs. The following
categorisation is largely taken from Grant Osborne and Fee and Stuart.25
It must be remembered that these
categoriesarenotmutuallyexclusiveandanypsalmmayfitintomorethanone.
1. LamentsorcomplaintpsalmsThe lament is themostcommontypeofpsalmandexpressesdistressaboutacurrentsituationaswellas
askingGodforhelp. Lamentscanbeeither:
a. IndividualPsalms3;57;13;17;22;2528;31;3840;42;43;51;5457;6971;120;139;142b. CorporatePsalms9;12;44;58;60;74;79;80;94;137
Laments,therefore,containthreecharacters:God,theselforcommunity,andtheother(theenemy). They
oftenfollowthefollowingstructure,althoughfewhavealloftheseelementsinthisorder:
i. AddresstoGod(oftenwithaconfessionoffaith)andcryforhelpii. ReferencetoGod'spastmightyactsiii. Description of the distress (concern with the opponents, the psalmist, and God), often in highly
figurativelanguageandsometimestakingtheformofacomplaintagainstGod.
iv. Confessionoftrust(confidence)v. PetitionforGodtohear,todeliver,andtovindicatethepsalmist,defeatinghisenemiesvi. Aconfessionofsinoraffirmationofinnocencevii. Voworpledgeofpraise
It is importanttonotethatalthough lamentsbydefinitionexpressdistress,almostwithoutexceptionthey
alsocontainexpressionsoftrustorconfidenceinGod. Infact,whenreadinglamentpsalmsitisimportantto
noticethemovementofmoodthepsalmcaptures. Mostcommonlythiswillbeamovementfromlamentto
praiseandthepsalmwillcontainaturningpointwhichscholarsoftencallthesuddenchangeofmood. In
contrastwiththisnormalmovefromlamenttopraise,otherlamentscontainanalternationbetweenlament
andpraise(Psalms31,35,59,71),Psalm12movesfromlamenttopraiseandthenbacktolamentagainand,
25Osborne,1991,p.182ff.;FeeandStuart,1993,p.194ff.
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P a g e |14 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulterassumingthatPsalms9and10wereoriginallyonesong(forwhichthereisstrongtextualsupport
26),thisone
psalmmovesfrompraisetolament. Uniquelyamongthelaments,Psalm88containsnomovementatallit
ispurelylamentfromstarttofinishanditdoesnotevenincludeadirectpleaforhelp. Thisrangeoftypesof
movement and no movement shows the diversity of lifes experiences and of Gods actions. Often he
delivers, resulting inpraise,butsometimesHedoesnot. There isnodishonesty in theportrayalof life in
thesepsalmsoflament. LamentsarealsofoundonDavidslipsoutsidethebookofPsalms,onceforSauland
Jonathan(2Samuel1:1727)andonceforAbner(2Samuel3:3334).
2. HymnsorpraisesongsOsbornesuggeststhatthesepsalmsarethenearesttopureworshipofanytypeofbiblicalpoetry. Theyare
not the product of sorrow or need but directly celebrate thejoy of worshiping Yahweh.27
Although his
statementhelpstodefinewhatthehymnsare,wemaytakeissuewithhisdefinitionofpureworshipwhich
doesnotappear todojustice to thebiblicalunderstanding ofworshipasembracingallof life. Nearlyall
hymnsfollowthesamestructure:
i. CallinguponYahwehii. Acalltoworshipiii. A motivation clause praising Yahweh and giving the reason for worship, often centring on Gods
attributesanddeeds
iv. AconclusionrepeatingthecalltopraiseandoftenincludingaseriesofblessingsFeeandStuartidentifythreedistincttypesofhymnsdependingontheirreasonforpraisingGod:
PraisingHimasCreator(Psalms8;19;104;148) PraisingHimasprotectorandbenefactorofIsrael(Psalms66;100;111;114;149) PraisingHimasLordofhistory(Psalms33;103;113;117;145147),sometimesgoingintogreatdetail
inrecountingIsraelsgreatsalvationevents(Psalms78;105106;135136).
Hymnsweresungduringsignificanttimesforthepeople:
Aftermilitarytriumphs(Psalm68) DuringpilgrimagestotheTemple(Psalms84;87). TheSongsofAscent(Psalms120134)areofspecialnoteinthisrespect,astheyaremarkedoutasa
distinctgroupbytheirtitle. Theascentinquestionisgenerallybelievedtobetheupwardjourneyto
thecityof Jerusalemeitherwhenpilgrimsvisited the Temple for thegreat festivalsorwhenexiles
returnedtothecityfromPersia.
Harvest celebrations and festivals three groups of psalms, known as Hallels28 are particularlynoteworthyinthisregard:
o TheEgyptianHallel(113118)developsthoughtsfromGodscompassionfortheoppressed(113)toHisredemptivepower(114)andhelpto Israel(115)to IsraelspraiseandthankstoYahweh
(116118)andwereusedduringthemajorfestivals,especiallythePassover. ThePassovermeal
waseatenbetweenPsalm114andPsalm115. ThehymnsungbyJesusandHisdisciplesprobably
camefromthesepsalms(Mark14:26).
o TheGreatHallelconsistsofPsalms120136or135136(i.e.eitherincludingtheSongsofAscentornot)andwasalsousedduringannualfestivals.
o The Final (Concluding)Hallel (Psalms 146150) formed partof dailyprayers in the synagoguesafter
the
Temple
was
destroyed
in
AD
70.
3. ThanksgivingHymnsThesearemorespecificthanhymnsastheythankGodforHisanswerstospecificprayersandoftenpledge
theirfuturefaithinandworshiptoGod. Theycanbeeither:
26ThepsalmsformonepsalmintheGreektranslationoftheOldTestamentknownastheSeptuagint,whenputtogetherthey
formanacrosticpsalmwithstanzasbeginningwithsuccessiveHebrewletters,andtheycontainrepeatedwordsandthephrase
intimesoftrouble.27
Osborne,1991,p.18328
Hallelmeanspraise,asinHallelujah
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P a g e |15 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoultera. IndividualPsalms18;30;32;34;40;66;92;103;116;118;138b. CorporatePsalms65;67;75;107;124;136
Thanksgivinghymnsgenerallyincludesixstructuralelements:
i. InvitationtogivethanksorpraisetoYahwehii. Accountoftroubleandsalvationiii. PraisesofYahweh,acknowledgingHissavingworkiv. Offertoryformulaatthepresentation ofsacrificev. Blessingsoverparticipantsintheceremonyvi. Exhortation
4. SongsofcelebrationandaffirmationSongsthatcelebrateGodscovenantrelationshipwiththekingandthenation. Thesecanbesubdividedinto
severalcategories:
a. Psalmsofcovenantrenewal(50;81)probablysungatanannualcovenantrenewalceremonyb. Davidiccovenantpsalms(89;132)celebrateGodschoiceofDavidandexpecttheMessiahc. Royal psalms psalms which centre on the king. These have messianic significance but also deep
significanceforthenationatthattime:
o Coronationpsalms (2;72;101; 110) celebrating thecoronation of a kingwith hisoathsbeforeYahwehandreceivingofthepeopleshomage
o Enthronement psalms (24; 29; 47; 93; 9599) possibly used in an annual ceremonycelebratingkingship
o Lament(89;144)o Thanksgiving forvictory(18;118)o Warpreparation(20;27)o Royalwedding(45)
d. SongsofZionpraisingGodforHisgiftofJerusalemandHisprotectionofthecity(46;48;76;87;125;otherpsalmsmaybeincludedinabroaderclassificationincluding15;24;84;122)
5. WisdomandDidacticPsalmsThesepsalmsparallelProverbsintheircelebrationofwisdomasGodsgifttoHispeopleanditsconnectionto
theinscripturatedWordandTorah(1;36;37;49;73;119;127;128;133). Theyoverlapwithpsalmsofpraise
andlament. Asinproverbs,thewayoftherighteousiscontrastedwiththewicked(1;49;73)andthefaithful
arepromisedprosperity(1;112;119;127;128).
6. ImprecatoryPsalmsThese are usually lament psalms where the writers bitterness and desire for vindication are especially
prominentcommonlyusinghyperboliclanguage(12;35;52;5759;6970;83;109;137;140). Psalm137:89
isaclassic,evenshocking,exampleoftheforcefullanguageofthesepsalms.
7. SalvationhistorypsalmsThesesongsrecountthehistoryofGodscovenantrelationshipwithIsrael(78;105;106;135;136).
8. PenitentialpsalmsIhave includedthesepsalms inaseparatecategorybecauseoftheir focusontheexpressionofrepentance
andrequestforforgiveness. ThepsalmsofpenitencearePsalms6,32,38,51,102,130and143.
Psalmtitles
Itisdifficulttoknowwhenthetitlesthatarefoundwithmanypsalmsbecameattachedtothem,whetherbythe
originalauthororlatereditors.Thetitlesincludeseveraltypesofinformation:
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P a g e |16 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter1) Associationwithagrouporperson(103psalms)
Thesepsalmtitlesincludethenamesofindividualsorgroupsofpeople,prefacedbytheHebrewwordle. In
theNIVthisisnormallytranslatedOf,implyingauthorshipbythenamedperson(s). Thatcertainlycouldbe
onemeaning,but it isalsopossibletotranslate itfor,belongingtoorconcerning i.e.thesemaybe
psalmsdedicatedtoorwrittenabouttheperson(s)mentioned. This isgenerallymostdebatedwithpsalms
connected toDavid,SolomonandMoses,partlybecause some scholarsdeny thatpsalmscouldhavebeen
writtenandpreservedfromtheirperiodofhistoryandpartlybecausethesearethefiguresinIsraelshistory
whoareperhapsmostlikelytohavepsalmsdedicatedtothem.
a. Davidthetitlesof73psalmsrefertoDavid. Ofthese,13aredirectlyassociatedwitheventsinDavid'slife (see below). As discussed above, these73 psalmsmay bededicated toDavid, written by himor
about him. Traditionally these psalms have been accepted as compositions by David. In favour of
Davidicauthorshiparethefollowingpoints:
Davidwas avery ablepoet (2Sam23:1)andmusician (Amos6:5;cf.1Samuel 16:1523; 18:10; 2Samuel1:1727;3:3334;23:17),making itperfectlyplausiblethathewrotebothwordsandmusic
forthesepsalms.
David established the guilds of singers and musicians who would later serve in the temple (1Chronicles6:3132;15:16,27;25:131;2Chronicles29:2526;cf.Nehemiah12:4547). Itseemshighly
likelythathewouldhavewrittenpsalmsforthesegroupstoperformintheTempleworship.
New
Testament
writers
assumed
that
David
was
the
author
of
many
psalms
(cf.
Matthew
22:43
45;
Acts 2:2528;4:2526; Hebrews 4:7) andeven spoke of theBook of Psalmsas beingDavid's (Luke
20:42).
b. Asaph this man, who is linked to 12 psalms (50, 7383), was one of David's choirmasters and adescendantofGershon,sonofLevi(cf.1Chronicles6:39;15:17;2Chronicles5:12). Psalm50isseparate
fromtheotherAsaphitePsalms,possiblybecauseitsthemefitscloselywithPsalms4849.
c. The sons of Korah10psalms (42,4549,84,85,87,88) are linked to thisgroupofdescendantsofKohath,sonofLevi,whoservedinthetempleasmusicians(1Chronicles6:22).
d. Jeduthunthreepsalms(39,62,77)areconnectedwiththisLevitewhowasappointedbyDavidtobethedirectorofmusicatthetempletogetherwithHemanandAsaph(1Chronicles16:4142;25:1,6;2
Chronicles5:12).
e. Solomonislinkedtotwopsalms(72,127).f. HemantheEzrahitelinkedtoonepsalm(88),thismanmayeitherhavebeenasage(cf.1Kings4:31)or
aleadingsingerofthefamilyofKohath,sonofLevi(1Chronicles6:16,33,39,4344;15:17,19;16:4142;
25:1,46;2Chronicles5:12;35:15).
g. EthantheEzrahiteappears intheheadingofonepsalm (89). Ethan,whoservedasacounsellorofSolomon(1Kings4:31)wasadescendentofMerari,sonofLeviandissometimesidentifiedasthesame
person as Jeduthun or as a descendent of Jeduthun. One difficulty with this identification is that 1
Chronicles2:6describesEthanasbeingfromthetribeofJudah. Somescholarsexplainthisbysuggesting
thatLeviteswerebroughtintothelineageofJudah.
h. Mosesislinkedtoonepsalm(90)2) Backgroundorhistoricalinformation(14psalms)
a.
Thirteen
psalms
are
related
to
events
in
David's
life
Psalm3:"WhenhefledfromhissonAbsalom." Psalm7:"AshiggaionofDavid,whichhesangtotheLORDconcerning Cush,aBenjamite." Psalm18:"HesangtotheLORDthewordsofthissongwhentheLorddeliveredhimfromthehandof
allhisenemiesandfromthehandofSaul."
Psalm34:"WhenhepretendedtobeinsanebeforeAbimelech,whodrovehimaway,andheleft." Psalm 51: "When the prophet Nathan came to him after David had committed adultery with
Bathsheba."
Psalm52:"WhenDoegtheEdomitehadgonetoSaulandtoldhim:`DavidhasgonetothehouseofAhimelech.'"
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P a g e |17 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter Psalm54:"WhentheZiphiteshadgonetoSaulandsaid,`IsnotDavidhidingamongus?'" Psalm56:"WhenthePhilistineshadseizedhiminGath." Psalm57:"WhenhehadfledfromSaulintothecave." Psalm59:"WhenSaulhadsentmentowatchDavid'shouseinordertokillhim." Psalm60: "Whenhe foughtAramNaharaimandAramZobah,andwhen Joab returnedand struck
downtwelvethousandEdomitesintheValleyofSalt."
Psalm63:"WhenhewasintheDesertofJudah." Psalm142:"Whenhewasinthecave."
b. Onepsalmisassociatedwiththededicationofthetemple(eithertheTemplebuiltbySolomonortherebuiltTempleafterthereturnfromExile)
Psalm30:"Forthededicationofthetemple."3) Musicalorliturgicalinformation
a. Forthedirectorofmusic(lamenasseah)thisphraseappearsintheheadingsof55psalms(andalsoinHabakkuk3:19). Itisprobablyamusicaladdition,markingthepsalmtobepartofTempleworshiporto
berecitedbytheleaderofthechoir.ItappearsinPsalms46,89,1114,1822,31,36,3942,4447,49,
5162,6470,7577,8081,8485,88,109and13940.
b. Instrumentsseveralpsalmscarryanotationontheinstrumentstobeusedinaccompanyingthechoir. With stringed instruments (i.e. harp and lyre) seven psalms (4, 6, 54, 55, 61, 67, 76). For
backgroundsee1Chronicles23:5;25:1,3,6;Psalms33:2;43:4;71:22.
Forflutesonepsalm(5). Themeaningisuncertain.c. Tunesanumberofpsalmheadingsmayspecifytunestobeused:
TothetuneofTheDeathoftheSon"(Psalm9) TothetuneofTheDoeoftheMorning"(Psalm22) TothetuneofLilies"(Psalms45,69) TothetuneTheLiliesoftheCovenant(Psalms60,80) TothetuneofADoveonDistantOaks"(Psalm56) TothetuneofDoNotDestroy"(Psalms5759,75)
d. Selahthiswordoccurs71timesinthePsalms,particularlyinthefirstthreebooks. Itwasprobablyamusicalmarker,althoughitsexactsignificanceisunclear.
e. Othertermsseveralothertermsarefoundinpsalmheadings. Ineachcasethemeaningisuncertain: According to alamoth (Psalm 46) may signify a female choir, a band of maidens playing
tambourines(68:25),oramusicaltermforahighmusicalsetting(soprano)
Accordingtosheminith(Psalms6,12and1Chronicles15:21)maydenotethemannerofsingingormusicalaccompaniment ("octave")orpossiblyaninstrumentwitheightstrings(thewordisrelatedto
theHebrewwordforeight).
Accordingtogittith(Psalms8,81,84)mayrefertoaGittitelyre,afestivalsong(associatedwiththewinepress),oramusicalterm
Accordingtomahalath(Psalm53)thewordisrelatedtotheHebrewforsickanditissuggestedthatthispsalmmayhavebeenaprayerfromasickperson
Accordingtomahalathleannoth(Psalm88)maydenotetheinstruments(possiblyflutes)oratune4) Literarycategories
a. Apsalm(mizmor)foundintheheadingsof57psalms(36,8,9,12,13,15,1924,2931,3841,4751, 6268, 73, 7577, 79, 80, 8285, 87, 88, 92, 98, 100, 101, 108110, 139141, 143). Amizmor is a
religioussongaccompaniedbymusicalinstruments.
b. Shiggaion(Psalm7)themeaningisuncertain. Itcouldbeamusicaltermoraliterarydesignation,suchasapsalmoflamentationorapsalmwithirregularliteraryfeatures.
c. Miktam (Psalms16,5660) themeaning isunknown. Manyexplanations havebeenoffered,e.g.agoldenpsalm,aprivateprayer,anepigram,anatonementpsalm,aninscription.
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P a g e |18 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulterd. Maskil(Psalms32,42,44,45,5255,74,78,88,89,142)themeaningisuncertain,butpossiblysignifies
apsalmintendedtoteach.
e. Song(shir)morethan30timesinthetitleofthepsalms(Psalms18,30,45,46,48,6569,75,76,83,87,88,92,108,120134 theSongsofAscent). Someof thesehave thewordcombinedwithother
words. Asongisageneralcategoryofpoetry.
f. Psalmofpraise(tehillah)foundonlyinPsalm145,althoughthewordtehillahcameultimatelytobetheHebrewdesignationforthewholebookofPsalms(tehillim).
g. Aprayer(Psalms17,86,90,102,142)thesepsalmsarealllaments.5) Designationsofusageortypeofpsalm
a. Apetition(Psalms38,70)maybeachallengetomemorisethepsalmoracalltoGodtorememberb. Forteaching(Psalm60)ithasbeensuggestedthattherhythmofthispsalmmayhavebeenusedto
teachDavid'sfightingmenhowtomoveintimewithoneanother.
c. FortheSabbath(Psalm92)d. Forgivingthanks(Psalm100)
Structure
David
Howard
writes
that
until
recently,
The
Psalter
was
understood
to
have
been
the
hymnbook
of
Second
TempleJudaism,anditwasnotreadinthesamewayasmostothercanonicalbooks,i.e.withacoherentstructure
and message.29
Because thebookwas taken tobe little more thanacollection of psalms (akin toa modern
hymnbook)itwasassumedthattherewaslittleornostructurewithinit. Thisapproachhasagreatdealofvalidity,
and it is indeedpossibleand fruitful to readeach psalmasawholeanddiscover itsmessageandmeaning. A
carefulreadingofthebookofPsalmswill,however,revealthatthere isat leastsomestructureto it. Tobegin
with,thebookisactuallycomposedoffivebooksofpsalms:
BookIPsalms141 BookIIPsalms4272 BookIIIPsalms7389 BookIVPsalms90106 BookVPsalms107150
Howardcontinuestosaythat:30
Today,however,ashifthastakenplace,andtheprevailing interest inPsalmsstudieshastodowithquestions
aboutthecomposition,editorialunityandoverallmessageofthePsalterasabook,aliteraryandcanonicalentity
thatcohereswithrespecttoitsstructureandmessage.
At the outset of this study of Psalms we mentioned the two predominant theological themes that unite the
messageofthisbook:GodssovereigntyandfaithfulnesstoHiscovenantandtheethicaldutyofHispeople. There
are,ofcourse,otherthemesthatcanbetracedthroughthebookandthatareequallypartofitsmessage,ifnotso
centraltoit. IntheremainderofthissectionwewillconsidersomeaspectsofthestructureofPsalms.
DavidHowardhelpfullydistinguishesbetweentwolevelsatwhichthebooksstructurecanbestudied:31
a) Microstructurallookingforconnectionsamongsmallergroupingsofpsalms,especially adjacentonesorthoseconnectedwiththesameindividualorgroupofpeople. Smallercollectionsofpsalmswithinthebook
include:
1. ThefirstDavidicCollection(Psalms341)2. TheFirstKorahiteCollection(Psalms4249)3. TheSecondDavidicCollection(Psalms5170)4. TheAsaphiteCollection(Psalms7383)5. TheSecondKorahiteCollection(Psalms8488)
29Howard,2005,p.24
30Howard,2005,p.24
31Howard,2005,p.24
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P a g e |19 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter6. TheThirdDavidicCollection(Psalms10811)7. TheEgyptianHallel(Psalms113118)8. TheSongsofAscents(Psalms120134)9. TheFourthDavidicCollection(Psalms138145)10. TheFinalHallel(Psalms146150)
Eachofthesecollectionscanbestudiedasaliteraryunitwithanaimtodiscoveringtheirunifyingthemesand
message. Inaddition itwould be possible to consider collections ofpsalms with similar themes (e.g. the
SongsofZionortheWisdomPsalms).
b) Macrostructural this approach looks for overarchingpatterns and themes throughout the book as awhole. Usingthisapproach,forexample,itisnotedthatthereisagreaterconcentration ofDavidicpsalmsin
the earlier sections of the book and that the first half of the book contains a predominance of laments,
especially individual laments, compared to a greater frequency of praise in the second half, especially
corporatehymns. Twofindingsofmacrostructural studiesofPsalmsareparticularlyworthyofnote:
WisdomandRoyalCovenantalFramesGeraldWilsonidentifiestwomajorframesinPsalms:a. ARoyalCovenantalFramehenotesthatPsalms2,72,89and144areallroyalpsalmsandthatthey
occupy positionsatthebeginningofBookIandtheendofBooksII,IIIandV(assumingthattheFinal
HallelissomewhatseparatefromtherestofBookV).
b. AfinalWisdomFramehenotesthatPsalms1,73,90,107and145,thatisthefirstPsalmsofBooksI,III,IVandVplusthefinalpsalmofBookVproper,areallwisdompsalms.
WilsonclaimsthattheWisdomframetakesprecedenceovertheRoyalCovenantalframeandthattrust
in the power of human kings and kingship is ultimately given up, and hope rests on Yhwh, who rules
forever,andwhoalone isabletosave.32
Inotherwords,heclaimsthatPsalms isultimatelyawisdom
book containing Yahwehs instruction and emphasising His enduring kingship as contrasted with the
failingDavidickingship. AccordingtothistheoryBooks IIIIfocusontheapparentfailureoftheDavidic
covenantandBookIV(90106)isanewbeginningwithafocusonYahwehskingship.
Messianicthemesthekingship isanimportantthemeinPsalms,asevidencedbythenumberofroyalandenthronementpsalms. Anumberofroyalpsalms,however,havetraditionallybeenunderstoodby
Christians,andindeedquotedintheNewTestament,ashavingamessianicsignificancethatistopoint
to a greater fulfillment in Christ (these psalms are listed below in the section on Interpreting the
Psalms).DavidCMitchellarguesthatwhenthebookisreadasawholethemessianicthemeiscentral
tothepurposeofthecollection.33
Hearguesthatthekeytounderstanding thebookofPsalms isnot
foundinreading itwithinthehistoricperiodinwhichitthepsalmswerewritten,butinlookingbeyond
historicalperiodstoeschatological (endtimes)hope.
WilsonssuggestionoftwopredominantframeswithinPsalms ishelpfulandhelpsusto identifythe fact
thattherearethesetwomajorthemes,whichtie intothetwotheologicalemphasesidentifiedabove:the
royalcovenantal frame relates to the themeofGodssovereigntyand thewisdom frame to the themeof
mankindsethicalresponsibility. ItalsohelpsustorecognisethatPsalms1and2sittogetheratthebeginning
ofthebookasakindof introductionto it,encompassingbothofthegreatframesandtheologicalthemes
(thisisfurtherconfirmedbyarealisationthatbeatitudes,orpromisesofblessing,framethesetwopsalms;
see 1:1 and 2:12) and that the FinalHallel (Psalms 146150) sits separately at the end of the book as a
conclusion. WhereWilsonstheoryfallsdown,however, is inmissingthepointmadebyMitchell,thatthe
messianic theme and eschatological hope are highly significant in the book as a whole. We can modify
Wilsons theorybyaccepting that thebook showsadecline inconfidence in theDavidicdynasty,which is
inevitablegiventhefactsofhistoryastheDavidickingsgrewmoreimmoralandlesspowerfulandtheirreign
finallyendedwiththeExile,butthatthisisoffsetbynotonlyconfidenceinGodskingshipbutastronghope
for a future Davidic king who would restore his dynasty in keeping with Gods covenant with David.
MessianicpsalmsarefoundinallfiveofthebooksandthishopecontinuesevenintoPsalm132,oneofthe
twoDavidiccovenantpsalms(togetherwithPsalm89),whichspeaksconfidentlyaboutahorn(meaninga
strongking)thatGodwillmaketogrowforDavid(Psalm132:17).
32GeraldHWilsonquotedinHoward,2005,p.25
33DavidCMitchellquotedinHoward,2005,p.25
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P a g e |20 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulterGiventheabove,andrecognisingthattherearemanymicrostructuralelementswithinthebook,wecanpropose
thefollowingbroadstructureforthebookofPsalms:
Psalms12 IntroductionandkeytointerpretationGodsblessingthroughWisdomandKingship
Psalms341 BookIproper
Psalms4272 BookII
Psalms7389 BookIII
Psalms90106 BookIV
Psalms107145 BookVproper
Psalms146150 Conclusion(theFinalHallel)PraisetheLORD
Interpretationandapplication
ThePsalmsarebelovedbyChristians,buttheycanbedifficulttointerpret. GrantOsbornewritesthat:34
It has rightly beenpointed out that noportion of Scripture ismorewidely read than thepsalms. Inpocket
versionsoftheNewTestamentthepsalmsareoftenappended,andinmostworshipservicestheyarestillsungor
chantedregularly. Theextenttowhichthepsalterisquoted intheNewTestamentshowsitsimportance inthe
lifeoftheearlychurch. Yetthepsalmsarenoteasilyunderstood. Theparallelismandmetricalpatternsareoften
difficulttounlock,andtheunwaryreadercanreadfarmoreintotheparallelstatementsthanthecontextactually
warrants. Moreover,many (like lament or imprecatorypsalms) seem to be inapplicable atfirst glance. In
addition,scholarsandpastorsoftenoverexegete the imageryormetaphors inHebrewpoetryandgive itmore
theologicalweightthantheyshould.
SomePsalmsareimmediatelyaccessibletotheChristian(e.g.Psalm23),andsotendtoberead,preachedupon
andquotedmostfrequently,butothersarelessso. Thepsalmscanbechallengingbecause:
Someappeartobeentirelymiserableornegativecanthesepsalmsbeused inchurchservicesorjust inpersonalprayer?
SomepsalmsmajoronthehistoryofIsraelandGodsblessingstothemhowisthisrelevantforChristians? Manypsalmspraisetheearthlykingthismadesenseinatheocraticmonarchy,buthowdoesitrelateto
peoplelivinginamodernseculardemocracy?
Some statements in the psalms are distasteful or offensive the imprecatory psalms, with their call forvengeance,canbe toughgoing forChristianswhoarecommitted to loving theirenemies. Perhapsmost
notoriousandoffensiveofall isthedesire forBabylonian infantstobedashedagainstrocksexpressed in
Psalm137:89).
Thefollowingguidelinesareintendedtohelpthereadertounderstandthepsalmsmorefully:
1. Rememberthatthepsalmsarethewordsofpeople,notofGodPleasedonotmisunderstand meonthispoint. Imaintainfirmlythatthepsalms,aswithallofScripture,are
Godswordandareauthoritative andbeneficialforus(see2Timothy3:1617). Itisimportant,however,to
distinguishbetweenthosepartsofScripturewhereGodswordstohumanbeingsarerecorded(e.g.directlyin
theLawandProphetsandwheretheGospelsrecordChristswordsandindirectlyintheEpistles),thoseparts
whereanaccountofGodsactions inhistoryarerecorded (i.e.narrativebooks)andthepsalms,wherethe
wordsofGodspeopletoandaboutHimarerecorded. FeeandStuartwarnthat:35
Theproblemwith interpretingthePsalmsarisesprimarilyfromtheirnaturewhattheyare. Becausethe
BibleisGodsWord,mostChristiansautomaticallyassumethatallitcontainsarewordsfromGodtopeople.
ThusmanyfailtorecognizethattheBiblealsocontainswordsspokentoGodoraboutGod,andthatthese
words,too,areGodsWord.
ThePsalms,therefore,arenotintendedprimarilytoteachdoctrineormorality(asstatements,commandsor
narrativesmay),buttoexpressourselvestoGodandtoconsiderHisways. Themostappropriateusageof
34Osborne,1991,p.1745
35FeeandStuart,1993,p.187
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P a g e |21 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulterpsalmswillbeforustoreflectonGodand lifeandto learnmoreeffectivelyhowtoprayandsingpraiseto
Him. FeeandStuartlistthreebasicusesofthepsalms:36
i. AguidetoworshiphelpingustoexpressourselvestoGodii. AguidetohonestrelationshipwithGodinstructionthroughexampleratherthanpropositioniii. AreminderoftheimportanceofreflectionandmeditationuponGodsactionsandourexperiences
2. RememberthatthepsalmsarepoetryBecausethepsalmsarepoetryitisimportanttorememberthenatureofHebrewpoetryandtoconsiderwhat
bearingthishasonhowthepsalmistobeunderstood. Consider,forexample:
Notethepatternsofstanzasinthepsalmthismaybe indicatedbythoughtdevelopment(e.g.Psalm31),stylisticchanges(e.g.Psalm30),chiasm,alliteration,acrostics(e.g.Psalm119).
Group parallel lines together and consider both parts they convey one truth (e.g. dont try todistinguishinPsalm19:1betweenwhattheheavensandtheskiesdo).
Study the figurative language and dont read it literally metaphorical language mustbe read for itsintent(e.g.doesPsalm23meanweshouldactlikesheeporthatweshouldnotliveincities?) Because
somuchofthelanguageisfigurative,Wordstudiesarenotasdeterminative inthePsalmsastheyarein
theNewTestamentEpistles,andmeaningisderivedmorebythewholethanbytheparts.37
3. ConsiderthetypeofpsalmAnunderstanding ofwhichtypeofpsalmthisiswillhelpyoutowardsinterpretingit,especiallyconsideringthestructuralelementswithinthepsalm. Itwillalsobeveryhelpfulinconsideringhowthispsalmcouldbeused
inyourpersonaldevotionsor thepublicworshipofyourchurchor fellowship. Laments, forexample,can
provideencouragementandpatternsforprayerforthebelieverwhethertheyare:
Ill(Psalms6;13;31;3839;88;102) Besetbyenemies(Psalms3;910;13;35;5257;62;69;86;109;120;139) Awareofsin(Psalms25;3839;41;51).
Thelamentscanremindusof:
a. Theneedforbalanceinprayereventhoughtheyarewrittenfromapositionofdistress,theyincludepraiseofGodandexpressionsoftrustaswellasrequests
b. Theimportanceofhonestyinprayerthelamentstellitlikeitis. TheyareawonderfulreminderthatwecanbeabsolutelyhonestbeforeGodinfactwemustbe. Dishonestprayerisnottrueprayerat
all. ThePsalmsremindusthatGodisableandwillingtolistentothefullrangeofouremotions.
Perhaps the most difficult psalms for the Christian to relate toare the ImprecatoryPsalms,whichexpress
angertowardsenemies,buteventhesepsalmscontainvaluable lessons fortheChristian. They forceusto
realise that it is better to express anger to God than to harbour it in our hearts, allowing it to turn to
bitterness. Havingsaidthis,thesepsalmsarestill likelytocausedifficultiesforus. Threeobservationsmay
helpustounderstandthemintheircontext:
HatredinHebrewcanbetorejectorrefusetotolerateitdoesnotalwaysmeantodespise. Thepsalmistisalwaysexpressingtrueemotions,butthesearenotalwaysnecessarilywhatGodwould
wantthemtofeeltheyarethewordsofpeopletoGodnotadviceabouthowweshouldfeel.
Psalm137:89mthemostnotoriousofallimprecatorypsalms,callsforGodtojudgeaccordingtoHiscovenantcurses(Deuteronomy28:5357;32:25speakofthetotalannihilationoftheenemiesofGods
peopleincludingtheirfamilies). Mostimportantly,thisprayerrecogniseswhatwetoomustrecognise,
thatvengeanceisGods(seeDeuteronomy32:35). Ratherthantakingthisactionhimselfthepsalmist
isreferringthecaseandhisfeelingsaboutittoGod,theultimatejudge.
36FeeandStuart,1993,p.205
37Osborne,1991,p.175
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P a g e |22 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter4. Considerthehistoricalbackgroundofthepsalm
Wherethepsalmstitlegivesanindicationofitshistoricalsetting(i.e.generallywithinDavidslife)itwilloften
behighlyfruitfultolookattherelevantpassagesinthenarrativebooks. Readingthepsalmandthenarrative
accounttogetherwillenrichbothandgiveyouawonderful insight into theemotionsand faithofDavidat
thesepointsinhislife.
5. ConsiderboththeindividualandcorporatesignificanceofthepsalmAlmostallpsalmshavebothanindividualsignificance(theyareproductsoftheexperienceandperspectiveof
anindividualauthorinaparticularsituation)andacorporatesignificance(theirplaceinthelifeandworshipof
Israelasanation). Bothbelongtogether,andaconsiderationofbothwillleadustoagreaterappreciationof
themessageofthepsalm. Weshouldthenconsiderhowthispsalmappliesbothtomeasanindividualandto
mychurchorfellowshipasagroupofGodspeople,remembering,ofcourse,thatitmayapplydifferentlyto
theChurchthantoIsrael.
6. ConsiderhowthepersonandworkofChristmodifiesthetheologyofthePsalmThispointisapplicabletoanyreadingoftheOldTestament,butinlightoftheapparentgreateraccessibility
andapplicabilityofPsalmstotheChristianitisparticularlyimportanttoemphasiseithere. AlthoughGodand
Hischaracterareunchanging,andsowecandirectlyapplywhatwelearnaboutHimfrompsalms,Hiswayof
relationshiptoChristiansisnotidenticaltoHisrelationshipwithIsrael. BothbeforeandafterChristthebasis
ofrelationship withGodhasalwaysbeenfaith,buttheknowledgewehaveaboutGodandthemeansthrough
whichourfaithisexpressedaredifferent. Whenthepsalms,forexample,speakaboutsacrificeweneedto
rememberthatChristfulfilledtheOldTestamentsystemofsacrificeandthatisdeathwastheonesacrificefor
oursins. Likewise,althoughthepsalmscelebratetheearthlycityofJerusalem,ourhopeisintheunshakeable
city of God, the Heavenly Jerusalem (Hebrew 12:2224), the New Jerusalem (Revelation 21), which is the
Church. GraemeGoldsworthyemphasisestheneedtoreadthepsalmsthroughthelensofChrist:38
IftheyspeaktousofGod,theymustspeaktousoftheGodwhohasfinallyrevealedhimselfinJesusChrist.
If they speak tousof sinners, they speak tousof thosewhoareoutsideofChrist. If they speakof the
judgmentofGod,theyspeaktousofthecurseofthelawthatChristsufferedforhispeopleonthecross. If
theyspeaktousofthefaithful,thegodly,ortherighteous,theyspeaktousfirstofChrist,andonlythenof
thosewhoareredeemedinChrist.
Onespecificexampleisworthyofnoteatthispoint. InPsalm51:11DavidpraysthatGodwillnotremoveHis
HolySpiritfromhim. ThisisnotanappropriateprayerfortheChristian. TheOldTestamentfunctionofthe
Spiritwastoanointpeople forspecialservice forGod,mostespeciallyprophets,priestsandkings. Davids
prayerthattheSpiritwillnotberemovedfromhimisapleathathewillbeallowedtocontinueasking. Inthe
NewTestament,afterPentecost,theSpiritmakesHishomeinthelivesofbelievers. Hetakesuppermanent
residencewithinus,leadingusandempoweringustoliveforGod. GodwillnotremoveHimfromus.
7. ConsiderwhetherthispsalmhasamessianicsignificanceBetweenthree(Psalms2,72and110)and13psalms(addingPsalms8,16,22,40,45,69,89,102,109and
132)havetraditionallybeenunderstoodasmessianic(inpartorthewhole)and it is importanttorecognise
this. InconsideringhowthesepsalmsrefertoandwerefulfilledbyChrist it isalsoimportanttoremember
thattheyalsohadsignificanceinthelifeoftheauthoratthetimeofwritingandinthenationallifeofIsrael. It
is a wise principle to study the historical meaning of the psalm before considering its prophetic meaning.
JamieGrantarguesthatinadditiontothepropheciesofthemessianicpsalms,theroyalpsalmsspeakofChrist
in a more subtle way, by painting a picture of a king who is tangibly human yet an example of faithful
obedience(sinceroyalpsalmsaresetalongsidewisdompsalms,e.g.Psalms1and2)andwhointercedeson
behalfofGodspeople.39
Christ,thesinlessmanwhointercedesforus,istheultimatefulfillmentofthisideal.
38Goldsworthy,2000,p.200
39Grant,2005,p.117
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P a g e |23 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter8. ConsiderwhetherandhowthepsalmisquotedintheNewTestament
It isalwaysworthwhileconsultingacommentaryorconductingasearchtoseeifthepsalmisquoted inthe
NewTestament. Sometimesthesequotationswillgiveyounewinsightsintothemeaningofthepsalm. Itis,
however, important to ask whether the quotation is meant to indicate the psalm was pointing to a New
Testamentreality(asisthecasewithtruemessianicpsalms),whethertheNewtestamentwriterisdrawingon
atheologicaltruthtaughtbythepsalmorwhetherthepsalmslanguageissimplybeingborrowedaspartof
anargumentthatisnotdirectlyrelatedtothepsalmsmeaning.
9. StudythepsalmasawholebeforedrawingconclusionsThought flow is critical to the meaning of a psalm and it is often dangerous to take individual verses or
statements out of context as universal principles. An approach to the psalm as a whole is particularly
importantgiventhefrequentuseoffigurativeandhyperboliclanguageandthefactthatthepsalmsaresongs.
They are musical poems intended to appeal to the mind through the emotions. They dont convey
propositionaltruthbuttheyshouldmoveus. Itisdangeroustoestablishdoctrinepurelyonastatementina
Psalm. Forexample,whatdoesPsalm51:5teachaboutthenatureoforiginalsin? Inrealitythepsalmistis
simplytryingtoemphasisehisownsinfulnessandwecannotnecessarilyimplyfromthisversethatconception
issinfulorthatsinispresentfromconception.
10.ConsiderthepsalminthecontextofthewholebookAswithWisdomliterature,individualstatementsmustbereadinthecontextofthePsalmsasawhole. Some
psalmsdepict thepositivesideofthe lifeof faith (e.g.Psalm1),whileothersdepictthenegativeside (e.g.
Psalm39). RidderbosandCraigiewarnthatThePsalmsasawholereflecta fullyroundedwisdomonthe
natureofhumanlifeinrelationtoGod,whereastheindividualPsalmsmaycontainonlyapartofthe larger
picture.40
A theology of the Psalms can only be established by considering the book as a whole. It is
particularlyhelpfultorealisethatthefirsttwopsalmsserveasanintroduction,establishing thatblessingisto
befoundinfaithfulobediencetoGodsinstruction(Psalm1)andinacertainhopeinHimandHismessianic
kingeven inthemidstofaworldofconfusion(Psalm2). Likewise,theconclusionofthebook(Psalms146
150)telluswhereanyjourneythroughthebookshouldleadusto:aplaceofunbridledpraiseofGod. Bearing
thesebeginningandendpointsinmindwecanlookforotherelementswithinthebooksstructureaswell.
Instudyingapsalminthecontextofthewholebooktherearetwoapproachesthatmaybehelpful:41
a) Thematiccomparison identifythemainthemes inthepsalmandthencomparewithotherpsalmsthatcontain the same theme. Thisallowsamorecompletepictureof themessageof thebookof
Psalms on this theme. Examples may be a comparison of the psalms that praise God as Creator
(Psalms8,19,104,148)orthepenitentialpsalms(Psalms6,32,38,51,102,130and143).
b) Contrast of voices itmaybe instructive in studyingan individualpsalm toconsiderhow itsvoiceconflictswithothervoicesfromthepsalms. Adialogueordebatebetweenthedifferentpsalmscanbe
imagined. This approach will be highly relevant where the emphases of different psalms seem to
conflictwithoneanother.
40RidderbosandCraigiequotedinOsborne,1991,p.187).
41IamindebtedtoDavidFirthhere(2005,p.171ff.;2010,p.94ff.),althoughIavoidhistechnicalnamesfortheapproaches,
whicharethematicmodellingandintratextualdialogue.
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P a g e |24 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulter
PROVERBS
Datingandauthorship
Inthepastargumentsweremadeforadateinthe3rd
CenturyBConthebasisof:assumedGreekinfluenceinthe
personification of Wisdom (chapters19),a theory that instruction passages had evolvedover time from pithy
sayingsviatwolinedsayings,andaclaimthatthiskindofliteraturebecamepopularonlyaftertheprophetshad
stoppedspeaking. Morerecentscholarship, however,hasnotedthebooks linkstothewisdomofsurrounding
nationsofEgyptandPhoenicia. Itisnowgenerallyacceptedthatthewholebookispreexilicinitsstructurethat
isitwascompiledsometimebeforetheExileofJudahtoBabylonin586BC.
Asweshallsee,thebookofproverbscontainssectionsattributedtodifferentauthors. Thelargestportionsare
attributed to Solomon,and there is no reason to doubt theaccuracy of this claim. According to 1Kings 4:32
Solomoncompiled3000proverbs,anditseemslikelythatthecollectionsinthisbookbearinghisnamearepartof
thiscollectedwisdom. Solomon livedand reigned inthe10th
CenturyBC. Twootherportionsof thebookare
attributed tonamedauthors:chapter30 toAgurandchapter31 toLemuel. Somecommentsaremadeabout
these men in the sections below commenting on these chapters. It is not possible to date either of these
individualswithanycertainty.
Structure
Thebasicstructureofthisbookisclearfromthetextitself. InthefollowingoutlineIhavedescribedthedifferent
sectionsthatcomprisethebookasseparatebooks.
Prologue(1:17) ThePurposeofProverbs
Book1(1:89:18) InstructionsofParents
Book2(10:122:16) SolomonsProverbs,part1
Book3(22:17 24:22) SayingsoftheWise
Book4(24:2334) MoreSayingsoftheWise
Book5(Ch2529) SolomonsProverbs,part2
Book6(Ch30) SayingsofAgur
Book7(Ch31) SayingsofLemuel
Prologue(1:17)ThePurposeofProverbs
ThisbriefprologuetothebookopenswithareferencetoSolomon(1:1). Itisclearfromreadingthebookthatonly
some of the proverbs are attributed to Solomon, but his mention here may indicate that this prologue was
originallypartofashorterbookcontainingonlySolomonsproverbsormaybeintendedasatributetoSolomonas
thefatherofwisdomliterature. CertainlySolomonsproverbsconstituteamajorpartofthebook.
TheremainderoftheprologueexplainsthepurposeofProverbs(1:26),whichistohelppeopletoattainwisdom
anddisciplineandanunderstandingof insightfulwords. It isworthnoting thatwisdom isnot found in simply
knowingthesesayingsbut isaskillthat isdevelopedthroughreflectionuponthem,whichentailsdisciplineand
insight. Thecall is for the readerto listenandobtainguidanceas tohow tounderstand fourkindsofwisdom
sayings:proverbs,parables,sayingsandriddles(v6). Mostessentiallyofall,theprologuestatesclearlyatthevery
outsetofthebookthatwisdomrestsonthefoundationofthefearoftheLord(1:7).
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P a g e |25 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulterTremperLongmannotesthefactthattheprologueisaddressedgenerallytoallwhoseekwisdomandinstruction.
Thisishelpfulinviewofthefactthattherestofthebook(explicitlyinchapters19andimplicitlyinthecollections
ofproverbsthatfollow)isaddressedmorespecificallytoyoungmen. Theprologue,inLongmansview,broadens
theaudiencetoincludetheentirecovenantcommunity.42
Book1(1:89:18)InstructionsofParents
ThissectionofProverbsisacollectionofupto17separatediscoursesonwisdomwhich,typicallyhaveacallto
listen before presenting advice and encouraging obedience by the description of benefits as well as negative
consequencesforneglectingtheadvice.43
Thesediscoursesaregenerallytheinstructionsofparentstoayoung
man. It isworth noticing that the firstplace for learningwisdom is in thehome (1:8;4:3;6:20) and that this
involvesbothparents. ThiswastrueinIsraelanditoughttobetrueforChristians. Thosewhoareparentswould
dowelltorecognisethisresponsibilityandnotabdicate ittosomeoneelsewhethertheschool,themedia,or
evenchildrensandyouthministriesinthechurch! DerekKidnerwritesthat,truthistobelearntfirstathome,
instilledtherewithfirmnessandaffectionaslessonsforthemindandtrainingforthecharacter.44
Withinthissectionthepredominantmetaphorisoftwopathsonwhichwemaywalk:thepathoffollyleadingto
deathandthepathofwisdomleadingtolife. Twomajorthreatstotheintegrityoftheyoungmanareidentified:
a) Negativepeerpressureonyouth(1:1019)b) Sexualtemptation(2:17;5:123; 6:2329;7:127)WearecalledtolivealifeoffaithfuldependenceuponGodwithareadinesstowalkinthestraightpathsHewill
prepare(3:56). Godisthegiverofwisdom(2:6),andHiswisdomwasfoundational tocreation(3:1920;8:2231)
hencetheworldworks inkeepingwithGodswisdom. Wisdom is,therefore,greatlytobeprized(chapter4).
Theultimategoalisthatwisdommightbeinternalised(2:10),sothatweabletorecognisetherightpath(2:9)and
willbeprotectedandguarded,rescuedfromthewaysofwickedmen(2:1112).
Wisdomispersonifiedasawomanwhocriesouttobeheard(1:2033;8:121)andwhohasbuiltafirmhouseinto
which she invitesus tocome (9:16). She iscontrastedwiththewomanFolly (9:13),a temptresswho leads
peopletodestruction(9:1318). ThevividdescriptionofthepersonificationofWisdomhasledtospeculationthat
anangelicbeing isbeingdescribedoreven that this isadescriptionofChrist. These interpretations,however,
dependontooliteralareadingofthisfigurativelanguage,anditappearsthatwhatisintendedissimplyapoetic
descriptionofoneattributeofGodscharacter. Wemay,however,acceptwithDerekKidner45
thatthelanguage
usedmayserveapurposewiththebenefitofaviewfromtheNewTestamentinpreparingourexpectationsfor
theultimateincarnational personificationofGodswisdominthepersonofChrist.
Books2(10:122:16)and5(Ch2529)SolomonsProverbs
These two collections of Solomons proverbs contain 375 sayings. These are usually short and pithy one line
sayings containing six or seven Hebrew words (usually three strong beats answered by another three46
).
Exceptionscoverseveral lines (e.g.25:20;25:2122;26:1819;26:2425;27:10;27:1516)orawholeparagraph
(27:2327). Theorderisapparentlyrandom47
exceptforafewcollectionsonsimilarthemes(e.g.10:1821onthe
useofwords;16:1215and25:27onkings;26:1316onthesluggard;26:2028onmischiefmaking).
42Longman,2010,p.104
43Longman,2010,p.103
44Kidner,1985,p.20
45Kidner,1985,p.23
46Kidner,1985,p.25
47Somescholarsdisputethisandclaimthatunitscanbeidentifiedonthebasisofrepetitionsofthemes,wordsorsounds,but
thelackofconsensusevenamongthosescholarswhobelieveinthislevelofstructuresuggestseitherthatitdoesnotgenuinely
exist,orwilleludethemodernreader.
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P a g e |26 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulterIthasbeensuggestedthattheoriginalwisesayingsconsistedofjustthreewords(forexample,seeDavidswords
toSaulin1Samuel24:23),butthattheproverbsofSolomonaddasecondlinetoamplifythemeaningofthefirst
(e.g. 21:10) or to sharpen it by contrast (e.g. 12:6). In other words, these proverbs are parallel statements
containing either synthetic or antithetical parallelism. The proverbs generally see merit rewarded and lapses
penalised(e.g.13:25),apparentlyinthislife,withsomeexceptionslike13:23. Theyarewritteninpoeticlanguage
and include some beautiful and powerful similes (e.g. 11:22; 25:13; 26:22; 25:15). In general the proverbs
challengethereadertocomparethenowwiththeconsequence(23:2935;13:11;5:4;19:20). Theyprovokean
attitudeofthoughtfulreflection.
Chapters 2529 are separate from the longer collection of Solomons proverbs in 10:122:16. This shorter
collectionwaseditedbyHezekiahsmenandhassomedistinctivefeatures:
Thereisagreatertendencyinforgroupingsofproverbsonsimilartheme(e.g.kingsin26:27;foolsin26:112;sluggardsin26:1316;mischiefmakersin26:1728).
Moreoftheproverbsruntoanextralineorasecondorthirdverse(e.g.25:13,20;25:810,2122;26:2426)andoneshortpoem(27:2327).
There isamarkedemphasis(especially inchapters2829)onrulersandpeoplewith influenceinasociety(e.g.25:26;28:2;29:8,18).
Books3and4(22:1724:34)SayingsoftheWise
These collections have a different tone from Solomons proverbs. They are more personal, directive and
impassioned,withDosand (moreoften)Dontsasopposed tothe impassionatestatementsofprinciples in
Solomonsproverbs. Manyofthesamethemesarefoundhereas inotherpartsofthebook(e.g.mercytothe
poor, wise friendships, financial prudence, firmness with children, hard work, sexual purity) but there are also
somespecialemphases,notably:
Quiettrustinsteadoffretfulness(23:1718;24:19ff.)thisissimilartoPsalm37. Generouscompassionextendingeventostrangersandenemies(24:1112,17,29).
ItisworthnotingthatthissectionofProverbsbearsasimilaritytoanEgyptiandocumentcalledtheInstructionof
Amenemope,datedsometomeintheperiod15801100BC. Thatdocumentcontainsinstructionstoasonabout
proper conduct and is arranged into 30 sections. Allen Ross writes about the relationship between the two
documents:48
Although the two collections are not identical, they are similar enough to attest direct influence. General
knowledgeofwisdomsayingsacross theancientNearEastaswellasspecific interchangebetweenEgyptand
Solomon'scourtmakea literaryconnection likely.Becauseofthedates involved, it isunlikelythatAmenemope
borrowedfrom Solomon. Similar teachings in the Pentateuchmight suggest a greater antiquityfor biblical
wisdomsayings,butthere is insufficientmaterialtodrawafirmconclusion.Manyancientlaws,sayings,songs,
poeticcouplets,andproverbsfoundtheirwayintoinspiredScripture.Inspirationdoesnotexcludethedivineuse
ofexistingmaterial;butinScriptureittakesonanewforce,ahighermeaning,andbecomesauthoritative.
TheconnectionwithEgyptianwisdomisperhapsnotunexpectedgiventhefactthat1Kings4:30likensSolomons
wisdomtothewisdomofthepeopleoftheeastandEgypt. Despitetherelationshipbetweenthesetwowisdom
documents, it isworthrealisingthattheconnection is loose,basedontheuseof30sectionsandsomeshared
interests,butthatthissectionofProverbsusesownitsorderandhasalargelydifferentemphasis.49
Book6(Ch30)SayingsofAgur
Itseems likelythatAgurwasanIshmaelitemanfromMassa(this isthenameofatribeof Ishmaelaccordingto
Genesis 25:14, and became the name of a region in northern Arabia this identification of Agur depends on
48AllenRoss,2001
49SeeKidner,1985,p.44
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P a g e |27 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulterreading30:1assonofJakehofMassaratherthansonofJakehanoracle,assuggestedintheNIVfootnotes).
IthasbeensuggestedthathewaspossiblyaconverttothereligionofIsrael,butitisalsopossiblethatthisisan
exampleoftheborrowingofwisdomfromamanwhodidnotworshipYahwehintherecognitionthatalltruthis
Godstruth(inthesamewaythatPaulcouldquotepaganphilosophers whentheirwordsweretrueandsupported
his argument). Some critical scholars argue that Agurs words stop at verse 4, that he was an unbeliever or
agnosticandthattherestofthechapterisaresponsetohim,butthisseemstohavelittlebasisinthetext(thereis
nodivisionatv4,anditseemsthatv23areironic).
ThischapterbearssomesimilaritiestoJob:verse4echoessaysJob38:18,sayingTellmeifyouknow!andthe
wordEloah isused forGod inverse5(it isused41times in Jobandalso intheArabic language). Adistinctive
featureofAgurssayingsishisgroupsoffourthings(v15,18,21,24,29;alsoinv1114thereisalistoffourthings
withouttheusualintroduction). Mostofthesehaveacrescendointroduction(threethingsfour,v15,18,21,
29). ThispatternisfamiliarelsewhereinScripture:Job5:19;Proverbs6:1619;Amos12. Someofthesesayings
haveamoralandothersapparentlydonot.
Book7(Ch31)SayingsofLemuel
Ifthesuggestedreadingof30:1asareferencetoMassainArabiaiscorrect,thenLemuelwasalsofromMassain
facthewasitsking. Itisdebatablewhetherallofchapter31representsthewordsofLemuel,taughttohimbyhis
mother, or whether his contribution ends at verse 9 and verses 10 to 31 are from a different pen. The
interpretation of the chapter does not depend on the authorship. The chapter as a whole exemplifies the
combination of instruction (v19; compared with chapters 19 and 22:1724:34) and observation (v1031;
compared with Solomons proverbs) that characterises the whole book. The first section (v19) comprises
instructions on how to be a good king which may still prove useful for politicians today with some cultural
translation.
Verses1031areanalphabeticacrosticpoemabouttheidealwife. AcrosticsalsofoundinPsalms(fourinthefirst
bookand four inthe fifthbook,mostnotablyPsalm119)and four inLamentations14. Thispoemmayseem
dauntinggiventhehighstandarditsets,butitspictureisbeautifulandiscertainlyanidealforanywifetoaspire
andagoodguideforamanseekingaspouse. Itisworthnotinghowpowerful,influentialandproductivethiswife
is. Sheisnopowerlessandservilesubordinate, butadynamicandresourcefulpartner. Sheishighlyinvolvedin
themanagingoftheaffairsofthehomeandthe instructionofthechildren (v2628),andthe reputationofher
husbanddependsatleastinpartuponherroleashiswife(v23). Thepoem,andthereforethebook,climaxeswith
areferencetothefearoftheLord(v30),makinganeatparalleltothestatementatthebeginningofthebookthat
thefearoftheLORDisthebeginningofwisdom(1:7).
TheMessageofProverbs
Proverbsisperhapsthemostreadilyaccessibleofthewisdombooks. Itishighlypracticalanditsrelevancetolife
todayisoftenclear. FeeandStuartwriteaboutthecontentandpurposeofthebook:50
Asageneralization, itisusefultonotethatProverbsteacheswhatmightbecalledoldfashionedbasicvalues.
Noparentwantshisorherchildtogrowupunhappy,disappointed, lonely,sociallyrejected,introublewiththe
law,immoral,inept,orbroke. Itisneitherselfishnorunrealisticforaparenttowishachildareasonablelevelof
success in life includingsocialacceptance,freedomfromwant,andmoraluprightness. Proverbsprovidesa
collectionofpithy,advisorystatementsdesignedtodojustthat. Thereisnoguarantee,ofcourse,thatalifewill
always gowellfor a youngperson. Whatproverbs does say is that, all things being equal, there are basic
attitudesandpatternsofbehaviorthatwillhelpapersongrowintoresponsibleadulthood.
50FeeandStuart,1993,p.216217
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P a g e |28 PsalmsandWisdomLiterature:AnIntroduction2011,PaulBCoulterThe concerns of this book for right behaviourare highly relevant tomodern society, and wediscover that the
resultsoffollyarejustasgreataproblemformodernfamiliesandcommunitiesastheywerewhenthebookwas
written. AccordingtoProverbs,follyincludes:
Violentcrime(1:1019;4:1419) Carelesspromisingorpledging(6:15) Laziness(6:711) Maliciousdishonesty(6:1215) Sexualimpurity(2:1619;5:320;6:2335;7:427;9:1318;23:2628)
Inresponse,weareurgedtothesameactionsthatwillbuildstrongfamiliesandcommunitiestoday:
Careforthepoor(2:22,27) Respectgovernment(23:13;24:2122) Disciplinechildren(23:1314) Bemoderateinconsumptionofalcohol(23:1921,2935) Takecareofourparents(23:2225)
SpecificallyreligiouslanguageisrareinProverbs(althoughsee1:7;3:512;15:3,89,11;16:19;22:9,23;24:18,21
etc.)but,aswehavealreadysaid inthe introductiontowisdom literature,thisdoesnot implythatthewisdom
beingpresentedisgodless. Infact,itteachesusthat:51
Noteverythinginlifehastobestrictlyreligioustobegodly. Indeed,Proverbscanhelpserveasacorrectivetotheextremisttendencytospiritualizeeverything,asifthereweresomethingwrongwiththebasic,material,physical
world.
Interpretationandapplication
DespitetheaccessibilityofProverbs,thereareanumberofpotentialdifficultieswithinterpretingandapplyingthis
book:
Thepresenceofconflictingproverbs(evenadjacenttooneanother,asin26:45)Asdiscussedintheearlierintroductiontowisdomliterature,thissimplyhighlightsthefactthatproverbsare
notgeneralisedstatementsofhowtoactineverysituation,butguidelinestoconsideringpossiblecoursesof
actionandtheirlikelyconsequences. Discernmentandjudgementisneededtoknowhowtoapplytheirtruth
intospecificsituations