Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Research in Applied EconometricsChapter 2. Valuation Theory
Pr. Philippe Polomé, Université Lumière Lyon 2
M1 APE Analyse des Politiques Économiques
M1 RISE Gouvernance des Risques Environnementaux
2017 – 2018
Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Economic Theory of Value
Outline
Economic Theory of Value
Social Use of Economic Values
Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Economic Theory of Value
Utility
IValue is a word heavy with multiple meanings
IIn economics, it has one, formal, meaning : Value as a
di�erence in expenditures to reach a given utility
IThere is 2 approaches, that are dual
IThat is, 2 sides of the same idea
IUtility-based and Expenditure-based
Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Economic Theory of Value
Duality theory
IRecall that individual’s preferences
IFor anything from apple to social justice
ICan be represented by a Utility function U (.)
I That has certain propertiesI and depends on quantities x of goods & services
IIndividuals behave as if they are maximizing such function
IUnder a budget constraint px Æ y
Ip is the vector of prices (some of these prices are ficticious)
Iy is income (that comes, among others, from labour, so it isendogenous, but we take y as exogenous)
IIndividual’s choices lead to “optimal” demands x (p, y)
IThat have mathematical properties
Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Economic Theory of Value
Duality theoryI
Plugging such demands in the utility function
ILeads to the Indirect Utility Function
V (p, y) = max U (x) |px Æ y
IBut we can also look the income that would be needed
Ito achieve such utility level
Igiven preferences U (.) and prices p
IThis is the Expenditure Function
E (p, U) = min px |U (x) Ø U
IThe Duality Identity
y © E (p, v (p, y))
shows that the 2 approaches are equivalent
Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Economic Theory of Value
Values from Prices
IHicks, a famous economist,
Iasks a straightforward question
IWhat change in income would be equivalent to a given change
of the vector of prices p ?
I“Equivalent” means here “at the same level of utility”
IClearly the answer(s) must depend on individual preferences
I So on U (.)
Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Economic Theory of Value
Hicksian Measures of Value
Compensating Variation of a price change from p
0
to p
1
IReference Utility : initial p
0
ICV (p
0
, p
1
)I = E (p
1
, V (p0
, y)) ≠ E (p0
, V (p0
, y)) = E (p1
, V (p0
, y)) ≠ y
Is.t. V (p
1
, y + CV ) = V (p0
, y)
Equivalent Variation
IReference Utility : final p
1
IEV (p
0
, p
1
)I = E (p
1
, V (p1
, y)) ≠ E (p0
, V (p1
, y)) = y ≠ E (p0
, V (p1
, y))I
s.t. V (p1
, y) = V (p0
, y ≠ EV )
Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Economic Theory of Value
Hicksian Measures of Value
IAre the standard notions of value in applied economics
IOther measures lack a similar fundamental construction
ISo economic value
Iis about (individual) utility
I the value is the (individual) conversion of a price change in anincome change
Iis NOT a price or a cost
Iis NOT financial or accounting
IMay be purely immaterial, no actual (or future) transaction is
required to define a value
Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Economic Theory of Value
Non-market ValuesHicksian Measures of an environmental change
ILet z the “level” of environment (quality...)
IPublic good, pollution, externality
IStates of the world : wealth distribution, justice, equity...
IAll that is non-market
IIssues
ICommensurability
I Is the environment really amenable to a single quality indexmeasure ?
I e.g. what is air “quality” what pollutants ? How do youcombine them ?
IMeasurement, actually getting proper data
IInsert z in the previous functions
IV (p, z , y) Indirect Utility & E (p, z , U) Expenditure
ISimplify notation : remove p
I SInce we will not discuss changes of prices
Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Economic Theory of Value
Non-market Values : definitions
ICompensating Variation (Reference Utility = initial z
0
)
ICV (z
0
, z
1
)I = E (z
0
, V (z0
, y)) ≠ E (z1
, V (z0
, y)) = y ≠ E (z1
, V (z0
, y))I s.t. V (z
1
, y ≠ CV ) = V (z0
, y)I
Improvement z
0
to z
1
∆ Willingness To Pay to secure it (+)
IDeterioration z
0
to z
1
∆ Compensation To Support it (-)
IEquivalent Variation (Reference Utility = final z
1
)
IEV (z
0
, z
1
)I = E (z
0
, V (z1
, y)) ≠ E (z1
, V (z1
, y)) = E (z0
, V (z1
, y)) ≠ y
I s.t.V (z1
, y) = V (z0
, y + EV )I
Improvement z
0
to z
1
∆ Compensation To Support it (-)
IDeterioration z
0
to z
1
∆ Willingness To Pay to avoid it (+)
Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Economic Theory of Value
Which one to use ?
IProperty rights
ICompensating Variation : right to level z
0
IImprovement z
0
to z
1
∆ Willingness To Pay to secure it (+) :
The person must “buy” z
1
IDeterioration z
0
to z
1
∆ Compensation To Support it (-) :
Compensate the person for the deterioration
IEquivalent Variation : righ to level z
1
IImprovement z
0
to z
1
∆ Compensate the person to forfeit the
improvement (-)
IDeterioration z
0
to z
1
∆ To avoid the deterioration, the
person must “buy” z
0
(+)
Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Economic Theory of Value
Nonmarket Values
IAs for the change in prices : the values are not limited to
“fninancial” ones (price, cost, flows...)
IIn a public sector context, no transaction is necessary
Ie.g. a collectivity decides to set aside part of its forests w/o
exploitation
I Since the owner is the collectivity, it does not have to payitself for the un-realized sale of wood
I its members do not have to “buy” the ecological services thatthey obtained in return
I It is true that they forfeit the revenue from the sale of woods,this indicates that their value is at least as high
INonmarket Values are also not opportunity costs
IOr di�erences of commercial / industrial / agricultural yields
Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Economic Theory of Value
Nonmarket Values
IWTP are limited by the individual budget
I =∆ in this sense, they represent a capacity to pay
I There is an interpretation in terms of public finance : thebudget that a collectivity could levy to finance theenvironnemental corresponding to the WTP
I =∆ Other things equal, with the utility function, a rich
person’s WTP will be higher than a poor’s
I So that the rich person’s “opinion” will weight more in thecollectivity budget
IWTP and compensations are expressed in money
IThey are thus comparable between individuals and can be
added
IUsually not the case w/ non-economic notions of value
Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Economic Theory of Value
Understanding the sources of economic value : a typologySource Example in a forest contextDirect Consumptive Use(private goods)
Hunting and gathering productsWooden products / Cultivation
Direct Recreational Use(public goods)
Hunting and gathering practicesHiking / Nature watching
Indirect/functional Use
Water : Filter / Flood protectionAir : Filter / Fixing carbonSoil : Erosion / DesertificationLandscape
OptionUse : Preserve future / 3rd party useQuasi-use : Value of information
Non-use“Patrimonial” : Existence & Heritage“Moral” : Role of humanity wrt nature,Non-human rights
Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Social Use of Economic Values
Outline
Economic Theory of Value
Social Use of Economic Values
Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Social Use of Economic Values
Public Cost-Benefit Analysis CBA
IShould a certain public project should be pursued ?
Ie.g. should we renovate Part-Dieu ? build a dam ?
IWhat are the indirect or non-market benefits/cost ?
IThis can be very di�cult
IThe project may span many years, have many uncertainties
IThere maybe loosers and gainers
IThis is currently a burgeonning industry
ICBA is frequently used in business
IBut business measures project according to the net revenue
they generate
I In the end, this is about sales generatedI
So the question of eliciting non-market values does not exist
Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Social Use of Economic Values
CBA as a Social Decision RuleI
Inform (public) decision-makers
IPrecisely quantifying benefits & costs
IAssociating them to socio-econmic profiles
I e.g. is a certain project beneficial to the poorsor to the richpeople ?
I via econometric analysis
ILegal Contexts
IWestern countries legislation require evermore often that large
public projects demonstrate that their benefits > their costs
I Including all non-market benefits (or costs)I
EU Directives
I e.g. Water Framework Directive (“Cadre Eau”)I
US “Acts”
I e.g. Clean Air Act epa.gov/oar/sect812/
Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Social Use of Economic Values
French Guidelines (Valeurs tutélaires) for the Transport 1
IContext of road infrastructure, mainly
IValue of Statistical Life VSL (VVS) : 3 MÄ 2010
IValue of a Year of Life VYL (VAV) : 115 000 Ä 2010
IValue of a seriously injured : 15 % of VSL, 450 000 Ä 2010
IValue of a lightly injured : 2 % of VSL, soit 60 000 Ä 2010
IValue of carbon
IValue 2013 : 32 Ä 2010/tCO2
IValue 2030 : 100 Ä 2010/tCO2
IValue of time depends on
IMotive (professional, holiday...)
IDistance (urban, <20km, 20-80km, ...)
IMode
IMultiples values in transport sector : Environment, noise...
1. Commissariat général à la stratégie et à la prospective, L’évaluationsocioéconomique des investissements publics , www.strategie.gouv.fr, sept.2013
French Guideline Values for Water
Commissariat général au développement durable, Service de l’économie, de l’évaluation
et de l’intégration du développement durable. Études & documents n°23 juin 2010
Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Social Use of Economic Values
Environmental Public Goods Examples
IImprove air or (surface) water quality
IRisks reduction
IContaminants in tapwater, in food (incl. GMO)
ITransports
IJob-related accidents
IProtect/restaure natural areas (wetlands, forests, rivers,
beaches...), endangered species
Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Social Use of Economic Values
Non-environmental Examples
IImprove public education, health services quality
IBasic services in developping countries
IWater or electricity distribution, garbage collection de
déchets...
IMedical and health care research
IFood research e.g. WTP for new food
ICulture
IProtect / restaure cultural heritage sites
IValue of a museum, an art company,...
Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Social Use of Economic Values
Damages (dommages & intérêts) : Accidental Pollution
IThe other domain in which economic values are used
IFrench “dommages environnementaux”
IFairly new, relatively small amounts
IUS Damages
IRoutine, the EPA sues several times a year
Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Social Use of Economic Values
Database of valuation studies : www.evri.ca
7000+ records
Benefit Transfert
EVRI by asset and by use
By environmental asset
By environmental use
EVRI by technique & area (older data)
By valuation technique
By continents
Research in Applied Econometrics Chapter 2. Valuation Theory
Social Use of Economic Values
To conclude on economic value
IEconomic value
IDefined for market and non-market goods and services
I Following ecological or social functions (see the Forestexample)
IIndividualistic (depends on preferences)
I in a public finance contextI
Quantitative
I But we will see that estimation may su�er many biasesI
Its context is
ICBA, to inform decision-makers
IDamages