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RESUME OF PHONETIC AND RESUME OF PHONETIC AND RESUME OF PHONETIC AND RESUME OF PHONETIC AND
PHONOLOGYPHONOLOGYPHONOLOGYPHONOLOGY
By :By :By :By :
Muhammad Rizal FikryMuhammad Rizal FikryMuhammad Rizal FikryMuhammad Rizal Fikry
C0308048C0308048C0308048C0308048
English DepartmentEnglish DepartmentEnglish DepartmentEnglish Department
Faculty of letters and fine artsFaculty of letters and fine artsFaculty of letters and fine artsFaculty of letters and fine arts
Sebelas Maret UniversitySebelas Maret UniversitySebelas Maret UniversitySebelas Maret University
2010201020102010
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CHAPTER ONE
PHONETIC AND PHONOLOGY
1.1 Definition
Phonetic and phonology are two different things which are considered about sound in
language. Each subject has its own discipline field of discussion. There are a lot of thought from
the expert about the meaning of phonetic and phonology.
These are some of definition of phonetic:
� Crystal defined that, phonetic is the science which studies the characteristic of
human sound making. Especially those sound used in speech, and provides
methods for their description, classification, and transcription.
� Catford stated that, phonetic is the systematic study of human speech sound. It
provides means of describing and classifying virtually all the sound that can be
produced by human vocal tract.
� April McMahon stated that, phonetic provides objective ways of describing and
analyzing the of sounds humans in their languages.
� Verhaar stated that, phonetic is the evaluation about language sound, without
concern about the function and differentiate the meaning.
� Samsuri simplify state that phonetic is study about sound making.
� Katamba generally separated phonetic in three parts; Acoustic Phonetics,
Auditory Phonetics, and Articulatory Phonetics.
� Roger lass stated that phonetic is the more neutral investigation about sounds as
phenomenon in physical world and physiological substance, anatomy,
neurological and psychological in human which produce that sounds.
These are some definition of phonology:
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� Catford the study of how sounds are organized into system and are utilized in
language.
� Roger lass sub discipline within linguistic concerned with “the sounds of
language”. More narrowly, pure phonology concerned with the function, manner,
and organization of sounds as linguistic elements.
� Verhaar stated that phonology is an investigation about the sounds of language
considered only the functional aspect.
From those statements about the definition of phonetic and phonology we can make a
little conclusion, phonetic is study about how sound produced by human vocal tract. Phonology
is study about sounds language. The relationship between phonetic and phonology is a complex
one, but we might initially approach phonology as narrowed-down phonetics.
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CHAPTER TWO
ORGANS SOUND AND SOUND MAKING PROCESS
2.1 ORGANS SOUND
Organs sounds refer to human body part which related to producing speech sounds.
Organs sounds itself was the secondary function of the organ, because the organs has main
function, such as for eat, drink, chew, and swallow and for respiration. Lungs, larynx, pharynx
lips, teeth, gum, and vocal tract (velum, hard palate, tongue, and nasal cavity) are the organs of
sounds.
VOCAL TRACTS
2.1.2 VOCAL TRACTS
a. Lungs is the main organ for respiration, the other functions are to provide
main source of airstream to create speech sound and to organize speech sound.
Lungs is the initiator in initiation, so it’s called pulmonic sound.
b. Larynx is the valve in respiratory which will shut immediately to ensuring
our food or drink will come through pharynx and go into esophagus. Another
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speech sound in larynx is vocal fold. Vocal fold is the valve which controls
the air stream among lungs, oral cavity, and nasal cavity. The sound produced
by larynx called laringal sound
c. Pharynx is a pipe which located in the larynx. It’s about 7 cm on woman and
8 cm on man. Clark and Yallop stated that pharynx is the access-duct of the
air for respiration, help swallow the food or drink and the access-duct to nasal
cavity. When producing sound pharynx as the air tube which will vibrate
when the vocal fold vibrate. The sound produced by pharynx called
pharyngeal sound.
d. Velum is located in the up front of the uvular. The position of velum can be
up or down, so it will control the air stream through the oral cavity or nasal
cavity. Velum is passive articulator. The sound produced by this articulator
called velar sound.
e. Hard palate, this articulator often called as “roof of the mouth”. Just like
velar this articulator is passive articulator. The sound produced by this
articulator called palatal sound
f. Alveolar ridge, located between front teeth and hard palate. In producing
sound this articulator is passive, but the tip of the tongue is active. The sound
produced by this articulator called alveolar sound.
g. Tongue divided into five parts, tip of the tongue, blade of the tongue, front of
the tongue, back of the tongue, and root of the tongue.
h. Teeth divided into two, upper teeth and down teeth. In producing sound teeth
often be passive articulator. The sound produced by this articulator called
dental sound.
i. Lips divided into two parts, upper lips and down lips. The sound produced by
this articulator called labial sound.
2.1.3 SOUND MAKING PROCESS
In sound making process there are three aspects.
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a. Initiation
b. Phonation
c. Articulation
Based on Layer he put one more aspect
d. Coordination
Initiation • Airstream mechanism
• Airflow direction
Phonation • Phonation type
Articulation • Place of articulation
• Degree of stricture
• Aspects of articulation
Co-ordination • Co-ordination option
(Taken from Layer)
Initiation
Based on Catford he stated that initiation is An activity in the vocal tract which
compresses or rarefies the air in the tract, and hence initiates or tends to initiates an air stream.
Initiation is a process where the sound process begins. From initiation there are two
important aspects; Airflow Mechanism and Airflow Direction.
Phonation
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Based on Clark and Yallop the term of phonation refers principally to vocal fold
vibration but can also be taken to include all means by which the larynx functions as source of
sound not all of which involve vibration of the folds in a strict sense.
Phonation mode separated into five areas there are voiceless, whisper, breathy voice, and
creak.
Catford also have definition about phonation, phonation is an activity in the larynx
which neither initiatory nor articulatory in which the airstream is modulated by its passage
through the glottis, before being finally shaped into a specific sound-type by the articulation.
Articulation
Catford had defined articulation as an activity in the vocal tract which interrupts, or
modulates the airstream in such a way that a specific type of sound is generated.
Articulation is the last phase of sound making process, in this phase the characteristic of
sound influence by place of articulation and manner of articulation.
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CHAPTER THREE
VOWELS
3.1 DEFINITION
Crystal defined vowels are sounds articulated without a complete closure in the mouth of
the degree of narrowing which would produce audible friction.
In producing vowels sound there are no obstacles in the articulation. Based on Catford
vowels classified into three parameter, there are
• Position of the tongue vertically (high-low)
• Position of the tongue horizontally (front-back)
• Position of the lips (round-unrounded)
3.2 CARDINAL VOWEL
Daniel Jones divided vowels into two, primary cardinal vowels and secondary cardinal
vowels.
Position of the tongue horizontally will recognized positions front, mid, and back.
Position of the tongue vertically will recognized positions high, mid-high, mid-low, and low.
Those systems are same between primary and secondary cardinal vowels. But the position of the
lips for primary cardinal vowels there are round and unrounded this is contrast with secondary
cardinal vowels.
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Taken from Loretto todd;Longman Yorkpress
Taken from Loretto todd;Longman Yorkpress
3.3 TABLE OF VOWELS
No. Symbol Front/Back High/Low Position of the
tongue
1 ☯☯☯☯�������� front high Unrounded
2 ☯☯☯☯�������� front Mid-high Unrounded
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This table taken from Clark and Yallop
3 ☯☯☯☯�������� front Mid-low Unrounded
4 ☯☯☯☯�������� front Low Unrounded
5 ☯☯☯☯�������� back Low Rounded
6 ☯☯☯☯���� back Mid-low Rounded
7 ☯☯☯☯���� back Mid-high Rounded
8 ☯☯☯☯�������� back high Rounded
9 ☯☯☯☯ִִִִ���� front high Rounded
10 ☯☯☯☯���� front Mid-high Rounded
11 ☯☯☯☯ ���� front Mid-low Rounded
12 ☯☯☯☯�������� front Low Rounded
13 ☯☯☯☯�������� back Low Unrounded
14 ☯☯☯☯�������� back Mid-low Unrounded
15 ☯☯☯☯�������� back Mid-high Unrounded
16 ☯☯☯☯�������� back high Unrounded
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CHAPTER FOUR
CONSONANT
4.1 DEFINITION OF CONSONANT
Based on Crystal consonant are sounds made by a closure or narrowing in the vocal tract
so that the airflow is either completely blocked, or so restricted that audible friction is produced.
In contrary with vowels sound, consonant produced the vocal tract pressed, so the air flow closed
or obstacle.
Furthermore consonant will bi divided based on the place of articulation and manner of
articulation.
4.2 PLACE OF ARTICULATION
• Bilabial
• Labiodental
• Dental
• Alveolar
• Post alveolar
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• Retroflex
• Palatal
• Velar
• Uvular
• Pharyngeal
• Glottal
4.3 MANNER OF ARTICULATION
Generally Manner of Articulation divided into six, there are plosive, nasal, fricative, trill,
flap tap, and approximant.
More elaborate Gimson divide obstacle in organ of speech
• Complete closure
ℵ Plosive stop
ℵ Affricates
ℵ Nasal
• Intermittent closure
ℵ Trill
ℵ Tap
• Partial closure
ℵ Lateral
• Narrowing
ℵ Fricative
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CHAPTER FIVE
PHONEME
5.1. PHONEM DEFINITION
Phonemes are the minimal, sequential, and contrastive units of the phonology of the
language (Catford). phonemes are minimal sequential that’s mean phonemes are the smallest
unit that cannot be divide anymore.
Laver stated that two speech sounds are said to be manifestation of different phonemes in
a given accent of a language when they act as the basis of contrastive opposition that
distinguishes a pair of words of identical phonological structure, differing in the systemic choice
made at single place in that structure.
Furthermore Layer elaborate that speech sounds regularly occurring in a number of
different structures and contexts may be classified as a member of a given phoneme if their
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occurrences are in complementary distribution, and if they display sufficient phonetic similarity
to ma it plausible to class them together as members of a common test.
Clark and Yallop defined phonemes as contrastive or distinctive sound within a
language. And a phoneme is conventionally represented by a letter symbol between slant lines.
5.2 Phone and Allophone
Crystal defined phone is a segment sound that has it’s own characteristic which appear in
the process of making sound. Based on phonology segmental, phone is physic realization from
phoneme.
Allophone is one or two or more phonetically distinct segments which can realize a single
phoneme in varying circumstances, based on Trask definition. Clark and Yallop describe that
allophone as conditioned variants of phoneme, generated by phonological conditioning. Katamba
stated that members of the same phoneme family, i.e., the various physically distinct sounds
which count as executions of a given phoneme are called the allophones of that phoneme.
5.3 Phoneme Identification
Minimal pairs are a way to differentiate between two phonemes.
5.4 Distinctive Features
Used to see or find out the component that differentiae between phonemes. Based on
Katamba distinctive features separated into 7;
• Major class features
• Cavity features
• Tongue body features
• Tongue root features
• Laryngeal features
• Manner features
• Prosodic features
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CHAPTER SIX
PROCESS of PHONOLGY
Process of phonology is the process of changing sound in certain condition. Katamba
divide process of phonology into two, assimilation and dissimilation. Lass more elaborate input
more topic about process of phonology, there are insertion, deletion, and reordering.
6.1 Assimilation
The influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that
the sounds became more alike or identical, these are assimilation based on Crystal statement.
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6.2 Dissimilation
In contrary with assimilation, dissimilation made the same sound to be different sound.
6.3 Deletion
Based on Clark and Yallop deletion is case of losing the segment or syllable. Speech
sound which articulated weakly will be disappeared. Lass categorized deletion into three parts,
deletion in the beginning of the syllable (Aphaeresis), deletion in the middle of the syllable
(Syncope), and deletion in the last of the syllable (Apocope).
6.4 Reordering
Crystal stated that metathesis is change in the element of a sentence, usually the sound.
Sometimes it happens in the syllable, word, other unit of the sentence.
CHAPTER SEVEN
ENGLISH PHONOLOGY
Based on a lot of writer and refer to what Giegerich already wrote, it will be better if we
see system phonology of English based on the origin, that is English it self.
7.1 English vowels
All of people in South England, not include Scotland and north England have same
vowels system, except little regionally different. The variation only happens in the level of
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phonetic realization from vowels phoneme. English has twelve monophthongs and eight
dhiptogns, whereas US only has ten monophtongs and five diphthongs
Taken from Loretto todd;Longman Yorkpress
7.2 English consonant
The consonant of British and American English are essentially the same and twenty-four
distinct consonant can be distinguished by means of minimal pairs.
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Taken from Loretto todd;Longman Yorkpress
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CHAPTER EIGHT
DEVELOPMENT OF PHONOLGY
Clark and Yallop in 1996 discuss about development of phonology,
• Phonetic and phonology before 20th century.
• Phomenic phonology
• Phonetic tradition
• The Prague School
• Glossematic and Stratificational
• Prosodic Phonology
• Generative Phonology
• Natural Generative Phonology
• Natural Phonology
• Autosegmental and CV Phonology
• Metrical Phonology
• Lexical Phonology
• Dependency Phonology
• Experimental Phonology
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lass, R. (1998). Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University press.
McMahon, A. (2002). An introduction to English Phonology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press.
Hari Wibowo, A. (2001). Fonetik dan Fonologi. Surakarta: UNS Press.
Todd. L. (1995). An introduction to linguistic. Leeds: Longman York Press.