Running head: ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLTIZ 1
Enduring the Battle of Britain and the Blitz
Perseverance of the British Home Front from 1940-1941
Tyler Smith
A Senior Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for graduation
in the Honors Program
Liberty University
Fall 2016
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 2
Acceptance of Senior Honors Thesis
This Senior Honors Thesis is accepted in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for graduation from the
Honors Program of Liberty University.
______________________________
David Snead, Ph.D.
Thesis Chair
______________________________
Michael Davis, Ph.D.
Committee Member
______________________________
Andrea Beam, Ed.D.
Committee Member
______________________________
Brenda Ayres, Ph.D.
Honors Director
______________________________
Date
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 3
Abstract
The Blitz was a roughly nine-month mass bombing of London and other cities in Great
Britain by the German Luftwaffe in 1940-1941. It was a time of great destruction and
death but also of unity and courage among the British people. After the war had ended,
Winston Churchill described how “for a year, all alone, the people of this island defied
the tyrants of the world and held the fort for freedom until other great nations, themselves
assailed, came into the line of battle.”1 The Germans aimed to achieve a decisive defeat
of Britain. They believed that by attacking the civilian population, the people would be
miserable and desperate enough to sue for peace. Instead, the opposite occurred. Great
Britain unified and defied the conventional expectations, not only resisting defeat but
eventually even convincing the Germans that the effort was futile. This stand by average
British citizens was due to their intense national pride as distinctly British, their ability to
see themselves in a greater historical context and the dangers of allowing Germany to
win, and finally their development of a mental toughness that could not be diminished
regardless what the Germans did.
1. “Mr. Churchill Recalls His Early Manchester Days,” The Manchester Guardian (1901-1959),
December 6, 1947, 3.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 4
Enduring the Battle of Britain and the Blitz
Perseverance of the British Home Front from 1940-1941
Introduction
1940-1941 was a pivotal time during World War II. France surrendered in June
1940, and the Soviet Union and United States remained out of the war. This left Great
Britain as the only remaining world power in defiance of Nazi Germany and was Adolf
Hitler’s “Enemy Number One.”2 Hitler knew that he needed to defeat Great Britain
before he moved on to take what he saw as the ultimate prize, the Soviet Union.3 Fighting
a war on both fronts was Germany’s downfall in World War I, and he was wary of
making the same mistake again. With France now out of the equation, Hitler could focus
all of his attention on the British. Though Hitler’s original goal was to gain complete air
superiority over the British Royal Air Force (RAF), he also knew that if he could destroy
the morale of the British people, he could destroy the nation itself. For this reason, though
German bombings were originally aimed towards military installations and industrial
centers, they soon transitioned to civilian targets as well. German leaders believed with
these mass bombings, they could destroy the hope of the people and turn the emotional
tide against the British government.4 Fortunately for the British, this never happened. If
anything, the people’s resolve only strengthened when these bombings began.
2. Gerhard Weinberg, Germany, Hitler & World War II (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1995), 97.
3. Donald D. Wall, Nazi Germany and World War II (St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co., 1997),
146.
4. Hans Adolf Jacobsen and Jurgen Rohwer, Decisive Battles of World War II: The German View
(New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1965), 88-92.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 5
Though they could not make major counter-attacks, Britain knew it had to endure.
Thousands of lives were lost; one in six Londoners lost their homes; and they lived under
a constant fear. Yet, they would survive and give the West a fighting chance in a war that
would define a generation.5 Londoners needed every reason they could find to withstand
the onslaught. They had many motivations to resist. First was their understanding of their
place in history. Winston Churchill said, “On this battle depends the survival of Christian
civilization. Upon it depends our own British life and the long continuity of our
institutions and our empire.”6 Furthermore, he claimed that, “if we fail, the whole world,
including the United States and all that we have known and cared for, will sink into the
abyss of a new dark age made more sinister and perhaps more prolonged by the lights of
a perverted science.”7 The British knew they were the last defense for democracy in the
West against Nazi Germany.8 Surrender not only meant the loss of their way of life now,
but the loss of free society in Western Europe for the future. Secondly, they developed a
mental toughness that was unflappable even as bombs were falling around them. Barry
Fulford who was in London at the time of the Blitz said “It brought people together . . .
we did, keep our chin up as they say in England because everybody got together and got
friendly and sort of helped each other.”9 Many even developed a mindset like soldiers,
5. Amy Helen Bell, London Was Ours: Diaries and Memoirs of the London Blitz (New York: I.B.
Tauris & Co., 2008), 4.
6. Winston Churchill, “Let Us Brace Ourselves to Our Duty,” Speech delivered to the House of
Commons, June 18, 1940, accessed on November 10, 2016, http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1940/1940-
06-18a.html.
7. Ibid.
8. Bell, London Was Ours, 4-6.
9. Oral history interview with Barry Fulford recorded on 2009 Mar. 11, Video (London: Central
Connecticut State University Center for Public Policy and Social Research, Mar. 9, 2011), accessed on
http://content.library.ccsu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/VHP/id/5873
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 6
accepting that their death could come at any moment but refusing to allow the fear to take
control of them. Thirdly, their identity and history as distinctly British gave them a
national pride that they would never allow to be defeated.10 They were proud of their
heritage and of their country. They would not so easily lose that which they held so dear.
In the end, Great Britain’s successful endurance of was not only a result of a
military victory or a political shift. The endurance of Great Britain during the Blitz was
“above all . . . a human story, a landscape peopled with ordinary, anonymous citizens:
firefighters, heavy rescue workers, good neighbors, and those who carried on with their
jobs.” It is their stories that allowed Great Britain to resist such a great power.11
Setting the Stage
At the beginning of World War II, Germany quickly defeated Poland while still
expecting Britain to remain distant from the war. When they did not, Hitler believed that
a much stronger show of force was needed to “bring Britain to her sense” to “tolerate
German hegemony on the continent.”12 Hitler was initially very hesitant to stir up the
British because of his great admiration for the British Empire. However, Hitler had a very
specific plan in mind. He desperately wanted to conquer and take the Soviet Union.13 To
accomplish this, he believed Great Britain must be defeated first.14 He therefore rushed
10. Bell, London was Ours, 4-5.
11. Geoffrey Field, “Nights Underground in Darkest London: The Blitz, 1940-1941; Nights
Underground in Darkest London: The Blitz, 1940-1941,” International Labor and Working Class
History 62 (Fall, 2002): 22.
12. Jacobsen and Rohwer, Decisive Battles of World War II: 78.
13. Wall, Nazi Germany & World War II, 146.
14. Jacobsen and Rohwer, Decisive Battles of World War II, 78-80.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 7
his attack on Great Britain without any detailed plans. Regardless, he pressed on,
determined to take the area as quickly as possible.15
Operation Sea Lion
An initial report by the Luftwaffe Operations Staff in August of 1938 declared
that the Germans would never be able to defeat Great Britain with their navy and
Luftwaffe.16 Therefore, beginning in mid-October 1938, Hitler had instructed Hermann
Goering, the head of the Luftwaffe, to increase his forces by 500 percent.17 The
Luftwaffe began making plans for future attacks, labeling British naval and merchant
shipping as targets. In July 1939, Lieutenant-Colonel Schmid, Chief of intelligence of the
Luftwaffe Operations Staff presented a study that showed the RAF would be as strong as
the Luftwaffe by 1940 and thus the destruction of the RAF while it was still growing was
essential.18 Hitler was also very nervous about the British navy, the strongest in the world
at the time.19
On June 18, 1940, Winston Churchill announced that “The Battle of France is
over. I expect that the Battle of Britain is about to begin.”20 Only a month later, on July
16, Hitler issued a directive that announced the first plans for a real invasion of Great
Britain, Operation Sea Lion.21 To accomplish this, Hitler believed the British RAF had to
15. Ibid., 79.
16. Ibid., 76.
17. John Ray, The Night Blitz: 1940-1941 (Edison, NJ: Castle Books, 2004), 73.
18. Jacobsen and Rohwer, Decisive Battles of World War II, 76-77.
19. Wall, Nazi Germany & World War II, 146.
20. P. G. Lachlan, “The German Invasion Plan, Operation ‘Sea Lion,’ November, 1947,” Journal
of the Royal United Service Institution 92 (Feb. 1, 1947): 541.
21. Wall, Nazi Germany & World War II, 146.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 8
be eliminated along with much of Britain’s navy. This was the purpose of the Battle of
Britain. Goering laid out the specific plans for this attack “to create the conditions
necessary for a successful campaign against the enemy’s war industry and supply lines by
defeating his air force, destroying ground organization and disrupting his aircraft
industry.”22 Goering also instructed his military “to dislocate Britain’s supplies by
attacking ports, and harbor installations, ship bringing supplies into the country, and
warships escorting them.”23 All of these preparations and goals were listed out in
Operation Sea Lion in order to simply weaken Great Britain enough so that an
amphibious attack could occur.
British Preparation
The fact that Germany was preparing for a massive assault on Great Britain was
not a surprise. For over a month after the fall of France, there was a lull in the action,
which allowed Great Britain to prepare both mentally and logistically for this impending
attack. The British expected the Germans to “play dirty,” not just attacking military
installations but also aiming for civilians.24 Going back to the start of the war, British
women and children had begun evacuating from major cities. The first main evacuation
began from London September 1-3, 1939. On these days, 166,300 mothers with 260,300
small children left along with 735,000 unaccompanied children. An additional 12,000
pregnant women and 76,000 “miscellaneous” left bringing the grand total to roughly 1.25
22. Jacobsen and Rohwer, Decisive Battles of World War II, 80.
23. Ibid.
24. Jo Fox, Film Propaganda in Britain and Nazi Germany: World War II Cinema (New York,
NY: Berg Publishers, 2007), 92.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 9
million people in the span of three days.25 In London alone, 607,000 people were
removed via the London Transport system.26 While unknowable, substantial numbers of
other Londoners evacuated on their own. The grand total was close to two million.27
Evacuating the people had a much greater purpose than simply keeping people
alive. Throughout recent history, much of warfare in Europe was confined to two
opposing armies facing each other. Of course, there were several instances of enemy
nations terrorizing the women and children once they had conquered the opposing
military; however, World War I was the first time in history that an enemy could target
civilians before first defeating that nation’s army due to the invention of the airplane.
Though the Germans did not originally plan on targeting the civilians, the British did not
know this. In Great Britain’s eyes, the Germans were a great threat to its people and if
they were being bombed in their own homes, the morale in the city would drastically
decline.28 Churchill declared “Death and ruin have become small things compared with
the shame of defeat or failure of duty.29 Losing the morale of the people was a quick and
easy way to lose the war.30
This concern for civilian panic was a very real one. It stemmed back to World
War I when German Zeppelins raided London and the countryside.31 The physical effects
25. Ray, The Night Blitz, 52.
26. Ibid., 53.
27. Tom Harrisson, Living Through the Blitz (New York: Schocken Books, 1976), 32.
28. Ibid.
29. J. L. Garvin, “How We Stand: A Year After,” The London Observer (1901-2003), August 25,
1940, 4.
30. Harrisson, Living Through the Blitz, 32.
31. Philip Ziegler, London at War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995), 9.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 10
of these bombings certainly existed with 670 civilian deaths; however, it was the
psychological terror that Londoners experienced that was much more significant.32 These
memories were very fresh to many British citizens. Even Stanley Baldwin, prominent
politician in the House of Commons and future prime minister, fearfully promised that
“the bomber will always get through.”33 For this reason, the mass evacuations were
designed “simply and solely as a military expedient, a counter move to the enemy’s
objective of attacking and demoralizing the civilian population.”34
British precautions, however, went beyond simply evacuating the people. One of
the first things the British did to prepare was to dig trenches, many of them right through
local parks. These ditches were originally thirty to forty yards in length. The Brits dug a
million feet of trenches by the end of September 1939.35 Beyond this, they also set up
anti-aircraft guns in the countryside and in the middle of some neighborhoods.36 They
even set up sandbags around major public buildings to give them stability.37 Possibly the
most important preparation they made was installing radar stations all along the coast.
These radar stations would be crucial to receiving advanced warning in the case of a
Luftwaffe attack. Without the radar, it would have been very difficult to give the RAF
enough time to launch its planes.38
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid., 10.
34. Harrisson, Living Through the Blitz, 32.
35. Ziegler, London at War, 16.
36. Harrisson, Living Through the Blitz, 30-31.
37. Ziegler, London at War, 16.
38. Jacobsen and Rohwer, Decisive Battles of World War II, 92.
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Despite all these preparations, the biggest concern of the people lay not as much
in bombs falling from the sky, although this was a fear of many, but rather in the
possibility of poisonous gas seeping through the streets. Many Londoners were frozen
with fear over the possibility of poison pouring out of the bombs, burning their skin,
blinding them, and producing any number of horrifying effects on the human body.39 The
last Sunday in September saw numerous vans with loudspeakers calling out everyone to
come be fitted with a free gas mask in case of a poison strike.40 By late 1939, 50 million
air respirators had been distributed to adults and some older children; 1.5 million had
been distributed to smaller children; and 1.4 million gas “helmets” had been distributed to
babies and infants.41 People even began rigging their homes to protect themselves from
the gas, putting up blankets around the doors and windows. They were also prepared to
wrap victims in blankets and provide them with “hot, sweet tea – nice clear thinking to
thwart the holocaust.”42
Many volunteers organized themselves to help in the event of an attack. One of
the more prominent organizations was the Women’s Volunteer Services (WVS.) This
group organized women as nurses, serviced hospital supply depots, and planned
evacuations. They also recruited many others to serve as ambulance drivers, wardens,
first aid attendants, and even demolition squad members.43 During this time, women had
39. Ibid., 16.
40. Ibid., 16-17.
41. Ray, The Night Blitz, 50.
42. Ibid., 51.
43. Ibid., 50.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 12
more responsibilities than any other member of the family. While her role was not
necessarily more important, it was simply more diverse. They filled the jobs that the men
had vacated upon entering military service, were organized as volunteers as stated above,
and yet still maintained their role as housewives and mothers.44 However, throughout the
war, despite their increased roles, their responsibility as wives and mothers was still
labeled as the most important. In fact, Jack Halliwell spoke on behalf of many children
during the Blitz when he said “so strong was the spirit, our mothers worked hard to save
us from worry.”45
Lighting was also taken under precaution by the British government. All the lights
and electricity of the city would make for a very obvious target as the German bombers
aimed for the city. To the initial annoyance of the London people, the government
instituted a nation-wide blackout on September 1, 1939. Irene Byers was outside at the
time of one of the early blackouts and said, “I stood still, panic-stricken, then said firmly
over and over again to myself, ‘I know this street absolutely well – don’t be such an ass –
walk forward quietly and you will come into Newgate Street.” Upon arriving she said, “I
felt damp with perspiration and quite exhausted.”46 Though this caused some minor
traffic accidents and injuries, Churchill decided the amount of camouflage that it
provided from German bombers was well worth the inconveniences. Unfortunately, this
44. Benjamin Townsend Mosteller, “Families in Wartime Manchester: A New Look at the World
War II British Home Front.” ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global No. 1475811, College of Charleston,
(2010): 51.
45. Jack Halliwell, “A Child’s View: Life in Chadderton,” BBC, 11 November 2003, accessed on
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ww2peopleswar/stories/40/a2017540.shtml.
46. Ziegler, London at War, 68.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 13
remained a sore spot for British citizens for the entire duration of the war.47 In fact, the
Manchester Guardian reported that “since the war has begun, there has been a serious
deterioration in road behavior by all classes, largely due to war-time mentality of ‘living
dangerously.’”48
Possibly the most influential and well-known moments of this time was
Churchill’s “We will fight them on the beaches” speech. Churchill famously said, “I
have, myself, full confidence that if all do their duty, if nothing is neglected, and if the
best arrangements are made, as they are being made, we shall prove ourselves once again
able to defend our island home, to ride out the storm of war, and to outlive the menace of
tyranny, if necessary for years, if necessary alone.”49 This idea, that Britain was alone,
the bulwark against Nazi Germany’s domination of the West, motivated and inspired the
British people. Vera Birittain wrote “It became clear to me that the world’s eyes were
concentrated on London.”50 They understood their historical context. The fact that they
were the only ones who could protect the future of democracy and of the normal way of
life for all of Western Europe was a powerful motivation. Yes, Britain was alone, but
they were also responsible. This idea of being alone became their rallying cry.51 Stephen
Spender wrote that “morale is an innate British national characteristic: British morale
47. Harrisson, Living Through the Blitz, 35.
48. “Bad Manners on the Road,” The Manchester Guardian (1901-1959), November, 22, 1941, 8.
49. Malcolm Brown, Spitfire Summer: When Britain Stood Alone (London: Carlton Books Ltd.,
2000), 59.
50. Vera Brittain, England’s Hour (Toronto: Macmillan, 1941), ix.
51. Ibid.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 14
springs from within, and not from without.”52 Germany had expected the British morale
to sharply turn against their own government and sue for peace; however, the very
opposite had happened.53 The very thing Germany expected to demoralize and destroy
the British people became the very thing that inspired the British. This was one of the
main reasons Great Britain was able to endure through the coming Blitz.
The First Sirens
Despite the massive British preparations, Hitler made a statement on September 1,
1939 that “[I] will not make war against women and children. I have ordered my Air
Force to restrict itself to attacks on military objectives” but also mentioned that “It is a
natural condition for the maintenance of this command that the opposing air force should
keep to the same rules.”54 This would be soon broken when the Germans mercilessly
bombed Poland without regard to women and children. To defend themselves, Germany
claimed that the British first violated the loose agreement when they instituted a naval
blockade because this “affected women and children” which gave them reason enough to
break their own side of the promise.55
On September 3, 1939 at 11:00, Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain informed
the British people that they were officially at war. Shortly after this, the alarms sounded
warning the people of an incoming raid. This alarm turned out to be false as it was simply
52. Stephen Spender, Civilians at War (London: Harrap, 1945), 38.
53. Britian in the Early Years of World War 2, “War Underway,” BBC History, accessed on
November 28, 2016, http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwtwo/earlyyears_01.shtml.
54. F. W. Koch, “The Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany: The Early Phase, May-September
1940,” Historical Journal 34, no.1. (1991): 122.
55. Ray, The Night Blitz, 61.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 15
a few French aircraft that had accidentally stumbled into British airspace.56 However, the
British people knew that this was only the beginning. People in London reacted very
differently to this first alarm. Many of the people were frightened, but the way they
handled their fear looked very different. Some, like Gwladys Cox, a widow living in
West Hampstead, said, “My knees were knocking together with weakness,” and she ran
directly to the bomb shelter.57 Others, such as, Stanley Rothwell, a historian at the time,
quietly started the kettle for a cup of tea. However, he would later say, “I believe that if
the Germans had raided us then, panic would have defeated us. We were not prepared.
We could not believe it would happen.”58 Joseph Macleod, news reader for the BBC,
described the alarm as “the loudest, most ear-tearing, most soul-lacerating thing I had
ever heard.”59
This mix of terror and indifference caused an odd blend of chaos in the streets of
London. In one case, a group of golfers continued to play their game while just next door
a family of five and three maids appeared quite the opposite. As soon as the sirens
sounded the family jumped into action. Immediately, they put the dogs away, shut the
windows, and went down into the cellar with all the essential items: gas masks,
cigarettes, 2 bottles of beer, a box of “sweets,” a knitting kit, a pile of books, and even a
bucket to be used for the bathroom.60
56. Ziegler, London at War, 36.
57. Ibid., 37.
58. Ibid.
59. Ibid., 38.
60. Harrisson, Living Through the Blitz, 43-44.
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False alarms would be a common occurrence in the following weeks. This
repetition of false alarms lasted for an entire year from September 1939 until September
1940 (when the first bombs eventually did fall.) This period became commonly known as
the “Phoney War.”61 The alarms would sound at all times of day and night, waking up
Londoners and sending them to the nearest cover. However, time and time again, they
were false alarms. As one can imagine, the British people began wondering if they would
ever be accurate and fear was quickly replaced with frustration and anger. On September
4, Alexander Cadogan responded once “Went down to basement. Damned nuisance. All
clear after about half an hour” after being woken by a false alarm at 3 a.m.62 The very
next night it happened again and Cadogan said, “It’s an outrage!”63 Despite the
frustration, the people were still brought closer together in this shared frustration. They
were enduring the “war” together and though no bombs had dropped, the reality of their
position as defenders of the West was still very much on their minds. On September 4,
Irene Byers said that everyone “had that strange but familiar feeling which always comes
with any crisis that we are all one just belonging to one another.”64 Yet again they shared
a common sense of frustration and began developing the mental toughness that would be
crucial when the bombs started dropping in the coming months.
There were other major changes that occurred in the city as the Phoney War
began. Great Britain converted the iconic Tower of London into a war headquarters and
61. Ray, The Night Blitz, 74.
62. Ziegler, London at War, 38-39.
63. Ibid., 39.
64. Ibid.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 17
prison for enemies of the state. They converted the moat surrounding it into a vegetable
garden. Several galleries and shops closed down permanently to allow their owners and
staff to volunteer in some way for the defense of the city. The change in lifestyle even
forced many businesses to temporarily shut down.65 Anything that needed any excess
light was automatically ended. This included many sports teams and entertainment
options in the city such as football and dance halls. In fact, at one dance hall in particular,
the manager called all his staff in and they immediately began tearing down the tables
and setting it up to be an air raid shelter.66
One of the areas of the city that required the most change was the zoo. Many of
the animals, including the manatees, poisonous snakes, and spiders, and most of the fish
were killed. The pandas, elephants, and a few others were shipped to other zoos to be
kept safe. Even the entire aquarium was drained. All the carnivores were kept; however,
there was a constant patrol of riflemen to ensure none were released if a bomb hit.67
After a few weeks of false alarms, Londoners and people across Britain became
virtually numb to the German threat. Many reverted as much as they could to their old
lifestyle. The Manchester Guardian reported that “In a hundred ways you are aware of a
slackening in the poise and energy of the people.68 Freda Godfrey said “When in one
night we had five warnings I became incapable of distinguishing between warnings and
65. Ibid., 42.
66. Ibid., 41.
67. Ibid., 44-45.
68. “The Two Years of War: How London Took It,” The Manchester Guardian (1901-1959),
September 3, 1941, 4.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 18
‘all clear.’”69 Obviously most of the city was still temporarily shut down; however, many
evacuees began to return to their homes. A few clubs reopened and the men of the city
were often found at these establishments drinking to their heart’s delight.70 Museums
were also seen opening their doors once again. Even some sports leagues were formed in
the city to provide recreation for people to release the stress of waiting on the Germans.
The temporary calm had had lulled the people into a false sense of peace.71 In fact, by the
late winter, one individual in London even said, “I wouldn’t be out of London now for a
hundred pounds! We’re so well protected here.”72 Another said, “As a matter of fact, at
the back of my mind I don’t believe they are coming – but of course I know they really
will.”73
The Battle of Britain
The Phoney War, though dominated by false alarms, was not completely bereft of
actual attacks. Both British and German forces would, on occasion, strike the opposing
side with the supposed goal of destroying military and industrial targets; however, they
often killed civilians in the process. On July 10, 1940, the Battle of Britain began.74 The
Battle of Britain was the time from July to October of 1940, when both the British RAF
and German Luftwaffe made many air strikes on enemy military instillations, such as
69. Freda Godfrey, “Under Fire in England: Air Raid Reflections,” The Manchester Guardian
(1901-1959), August 30, 1940, 3.
70. Ziegler, London at War, 53-54.
71. Ibid., 51-60.
72. Harrisson, Living Through the Blitz, 52.
73. Ibid.
74. “Timeline,” Battle of Britain Memorial, accessed on October 20, 2016,
www.battleofbritainmemorial.org.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 19
coastal convoys, ports, and radio location stations in and around London and Berlin.75
Though July 10 marks the official start of the Battle of Britain, there were other small
raids made beginning in May of the same year.76
The purpose of this period for the Germans was to cripple the RAF and gain air
superiority to pave the way for an actual physical invasion as stated by Field Marshall
Goering.77 During these air strikes, the Germans unleashed their arsenals on military and
industrial targets; however, since these were always located close to civilian dwellings,
there were many civilian casualties. For example, on the night of June 18-19, bombs fell
on an area close to London in East Anglia. Germans were supposedly aiming for oil and
airports but many of the bombs fell on civilian targets. One church, one school, and
several houses were destroyed, killing ten civilians and injuring twenty-four others.78
The Germans became quite fond of these sorts of attacks. They called them
Störangriff, or dislocation and nuisance raids.79 These raids were issued at the beginning
of the conflict by Goering who said “active operations against Britain are to be confined
to nuisance raids by relatively minor forces on industrial and RAF targets.”80 The
German Luftwaffe would aim for railroads, streets, and oil installations that were nearby
local civilian populations. They would then purposely strike at night so the warning
75. Brown, Spitfire Summer, 120-121.
76. Harrisson, Living Through the Blitz, 51-56.
77. Jacobsen and Rohwer, Decisive Battles of World War II, 81.
78. Ray, The Night Blitz, 77.
79. Ibid., 78.
80. Jacobsen and Rohwer, Decisive Battles of World War II, 79.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 20
sirens would wake the civilian population nearby.81 The goal was to not only affect the
civilians’ lives on the ground by creating massive amounts of rubble, but also to disrupt
their sleep by attacking at night. The Germans believed these nuisance raids would
whittle away at the morale of the British civilians in and surrounding London.82
To respond to the German raids, the British began to make air raids on Berlin.
These bombings were very similar to the raids on London; however, the British still
attempted to disguise them as attacks on military and industrial installations. The
Manchester Guardian reported after an attack in early September, that oil plants,
shipping, lighting installations, aircraft engine works, and an “aerodrome” were the
primary targets for the RAF pilots.83 The raids typically only lasted a few hours.
Due to the British attacks, German hatred for England grew to unprecedented
levels. In fact, a report dated June 20, 1940 from a British officer detailed the “strong
hatred of England” Germans had in which they called “time and again for revenge.”84
Ironically, the casualty numbers for the Germans paled in comparison to the deaths of
British civilians at the hands of the Germans. From May until November of 1940, the
British killed roughly 975 German civilians while the Germans killed 15,000 British
civilians.85
81. Ray, The Night Blitz, 78.
82. Ibid.
83. “More Bombs on Berlin: Week-end Raids, Aeroplane Engine Works Attacked,” The
Manchester Guardian (1901-1959), September 2, 1940, 5.
84. Koch, “The Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany,” 133.
85. Ray, The Night Blitz, 70.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 21
During this summer, life was particularly hard for the British. The British
economy had plummeted as restaurants and shops of all kinds struggled to keep their
doors open. Though some of the wealthy attempted to still live their lavish lifestyles,
many had to live the life of an average citizen. Restaurants often placed limits on what an
individual could order to better save their resources.86 Newspapers were significantly
reduced as well since the government vigorously protected any paper. There were even
several cases of newspapers reusing old copies because the headlines were common and
popular. The most common reused headline was easily “HEAVY GERMAN LOSSES.”87
Other shops that sold things like leather goods, clothing, or radios suffered losses and
could only remain open for repairs because trade became so sparse.88
To combat a rise in poverty, the “Coalition Government,” a combination of
leaders from the Labor, Liberal and Conservative parties that were gathered together by
Churchill, worked alongside the trade unions to institute a policy that gave out subsidies
to keep the cost of basic necessities inexpensive. These subsidies allowed the people to
be able to support themselves without harsh consequences. It also protected against a
huge inflation rate from occurring directly after the war ended because the adjustment in
the cost of living never changed.89 There was also a debate during the time on the use of
coal and how to ration it. Hugh Dalton, President of the Board of Trade at the time,
brought the issue to the House of Commons saying, “the coal situation was serious. The
86. Ziegler, London at War, 90.
87. Ibid., 91.
88. Ibid., 90-92.
89. “First Peace Budget Brings Some Tax Relief,” The Manchester Guardian (1901-1959), Oct
24, 1945, 6.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 22
production was insufficient, consumption was excessive and stocks were much too
low.”90 Many other items were rationed during this time as well including food, clothing,
and even kindling. Ralph W. Hill recorded in his journal that they were only allotted two
ounces of cheese, two pints of milk and two ounces of tea per person per day. They were
also only given one egg per month during the winter.91 This extreme rationing would
continue throughout the course of the Blitz through the rest of World War II.
On August 1, 1940, Hitler changed the way the war was to be fought, specifically
by the German Luftwaffe. The goal was to intensify the attacks on the British in order to
“establish the necessary conditions for Britain’s final defeat.”92 These orders included “to
destroy the British air force as quickly as possible.”93 Then, “once local air superiority
has been won the air war will be turned against the enemy’s ports.”94 Finally, and
possibly most interestingly, Hitler stated that “I reserve to myself the decision with regard
to terror attacks as reprisals.”95 This was the first time that Hitler acknowledged that
innocent civilians were legitimate targets even though he claimed they would remain
simply collateral damage.
90. “Long Commons Debate On Fuel Rationing,” The Manchester Guardian (1901-1959), May 8,
1942, 7.
91. Ralph W. Hill, “Rationing and Shortages,” BBC, July 24, 2005, accessed on October 22, 2016,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ww2peopleswar/stories/73/a4532573.shtml.
92. Jacobsen and Rohwer, Decisive Battles of World War II, 83.
93. Ibid.
94. Ibid.
95. Ibid., 84.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 23
On August 8, Nazi Army and Navy officers agreed with Hitler to “unleash the full
might of the Luftwaffe against Britain.”96 The first large scale attack on British soil was
scheduled for this same day but was postponed due to weather until August 13. There had
been small attacks on less populated regions of the country; however, this was the first
large scale strike. The Germans sent 485 bombers, and 1,000 single and twin-engine
fighters to attack.97 The Germans called this Adler Tag or Eagle Day.98 Two days later,
the Battle of Britain would reach a new high with an astounding 1,786 German planes in
the air over Great Britain.99 The RAF was badly hurt and the British Fighter Command
realized they needed to concentrate their counter-attacks on the German bombers and not
allow its fighters be tempted to chase the German fighter sweeps.100 If they attempted to
engage the German fighters, they would lose precious resources without preventing any
real threat. The service leaders and politicians were greatly worried.101 In a speech to
Parliament on August 20, Winston Churchill spoke of his reverence for the RAF pilots
defending London saying, “Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so
many to so few.”102
96. Wall, Nazi Germany & World War II, 146.
97. Jacobsen and Rohwer, Decisive Battles of World War II, 86-87.
98. Securing the Skies, “Battle of Britain in Detail Part 5,” Royal Air Force, accessed on October
20, 2016, http://www.raf.mod.uk/campaign/battle-of-britain-75th/the-battle/battle-of-britain-in-detail-part-
5/.
99. Jacobsen and Rohwer, Decisive Battles of World War II, 86-87.
100. Ibid., 87.
101. Ray, The Night Blitz, 80.
102. Securing the Skies, “The Few,” Royal Air Force, accessed on October 20, 2016,
www.raf.mod.uk/campaign/battle-of-britain-75th/the-few/.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 24
As the Battle of Britain was becoming more heated, German General Alfred Jodl
made a statement that “In conjunction with propaganda and terror raids from time to time
– announced as “reprisals” – a cumulative depletion of Britain’s food stocks will paralyse
the will of the people to resist, and then break it altogether, forcing the capitulation of
their government.”103 Shortly after this statement, in late August of 1940, a contingent of
German Luftwaffe bombers, intending to strike British oil and aircraft installations, got
lost and accidentally unleashed their arsenal on London itself. Their bombs fell on the
East End, Bethnal Green, St Giles church, and other neighborhoods in London.104 By
complete accident, the Blitz began. From August through October, the Battle of Britain
and the Blitz would coincide as the British RAF battled the Luftwaffe, while the
Luftwaffe also bombed British civilians.
The last days of the Battle of Britain were potentially the most devastating for the
British home front. From August 21 until September 6 (which marked the first official
day of the German Blitz), 471 people were killed and 2,316 were injured in the German
bombings. Most of these people were civilians.105 Already, doctors, policeman,
firefighters, nurses, and wardens were put into action. The Manchester Guardian reported
that the fire brigade quickly brought many fires caused by incendiary bombs under
control.106 An eyewitness of the bombing in early August told reporters that the
“explosion shook the whole town and laths, bricks and slates were hurled more than 100
103. David Irving, The Rise and Fall of the Luftwaffe: The Life of Field Marshall Erhard Milch
(Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1973), 104.
104. Harrisson, Living Through the Blitz, 55-56.
105. Ray, The Night Blitz, 80.
106. “The Week-end’s Raids,” The Manchester Guardian (1901-1959), August 26, 1940, 2.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 25
feet into the air.”107 Though these numbers paled in comparison to the devastation that
was about to come, the people began to clearly understand that this war was not to be
won any time soon.
The RAF easily became the toughest air force the Luftwaffe had faced.108 The
RAF pilots displayed great courage despite overwhelming odds and fought a smart fight.
The British strategy of only confronting the German bombers and avoiding direct
confrontation with the Luftwaffe fighters, frustrated the German command who were
looking for a decisive air superiority and complete victory over the RAF.109 In addition,
Germans were experiencing heavy losses during their daytime raids. According to the
Quartermaster General’s Department of the German Air Ministry, by September 30,
Luftwaffe bombers had already experienced sixty-nine percent casualties during their
daytime raids. 621 of their aircraft had been destroyed and 334 had been damaged.110
At this point in the war, the German pilots were still very inexperienced and
untrained in “group night-flying.”111 Additionally, there were not enough capable fighters
to escort the bombers, no reliable navigation aids, no radar flying equipment, and no
devices for blind bomb-aiming.112 The Germans could not withstand this kind of a
consistent loss to their air forces with so little return. These losses, coupled with the
107. “Bomb ‘Like a Torpedo’ Shakes a South Coast Town,” The Manchester Guardian (1901-
1959), August 22, 1940, 5.
108. Ray, The Night Blitz, 100.
109. Jacobsen and Rohwer, Decisive Battles of World War II, 87.
110. Williamson Murray, Luftwaffe (Mt. Pleasant, SC: Nautical & Aviation Publishing Co. of
America, 1985), 44, 55-57.
111. Jacobsen and Rohwer, Decisive Battles of World War II, 92.
112. Ibid.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 26
frustration of the British strategy, ultimately led to the decision to attack the one location
that was guaranteed to draw out the entire reserves of the RAF for what they thought
would be the final decisive victory that they needed, London.113 They just had to find the
right excuse to execute it.
The Blitz Begins
By mid-September, it became clear to Hitler that Operation Sea Lion was a
failure. The Germans had postponed the invasion several times due to the failure of the
Luftwaffe to gain control of the air.114 This failure on behalf of the German Luftwaffe is
what led Hitler to begin focusing on destroying civilian morale.
On September 6, the first German bombs fell on London proper. During
September 7 and the following night, 675 bombers escorted by 648 fighters, bombed the
industrial and military targets. In the first three nights alone, nearly a thousand people
were killed. On September 10th, a string of hearses lined up outside the Stepney cemetery
as the coroners prepared the coffins.115 This was only the beginning. After this, German
attacks were aimed at the power stations, docks, and supply centers.116 London endured
these raids for roughly two weeks, reaching their peak on September 15. After this day,
weather plagued the Luftwaffe’s attempts, forcing them to send fewer bombers. On the
113. Ibid., 87.
114. History of the Battle of Britain, “Operation Sealion,” Royal Air Force Museum, accessed on
October 20, 2016, http://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/research/online-exhibitions/history-of-the-battle-of-
britain/operation-sealion.aspx.
115. Harrisson, Living through the Blitz, 64.
116. Jacobsen and Rohwer, Decisive Battles of World War II., 88.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 27
16th, only forty bombers were sent and on the 17th only thirteen were sent. By the 19th,
only seven were sent.117
The day after the first major attack on September 7, Churchill visited the most
devastated areas in London to see for himself how bad the carnage was. London had been
waiting for this day for a long time and had greatly feared the destruction that could
ensue because of the German bombings. Churchill knew they would never truly know
how great the devastation would be until the raids started, thus Churchill insisted on
walking the streets himself.118 His personal detective, Walter Thompson said, “He
insisted upon seeing for himself what was going on . . . his [interest] was infinitely
greater than his fear of what might happen to him.”119
A backhanded reason he had for seeing the level of destruction was so that he
could mentally project the same damage onto Berlin. He was comparing the devastation
that the Luftwaffe had created to the amount of destruction he knew the RAF could also
create.120 Just five days earlier, he had told his War Department, “we must therefore
develop the power to create an ever-increasing volume of explosives to Germany, so as to
pulverize the entire industrial and scientific structure on which the war effort and
economic life of the enemy depend.”121 He knew that they needed to retaliate in any way
that they could. He also wanted to give hope and courage to a people that had just hours
117. Ibid., 89.
118. Ray, The Night Blitz, 104-105.
119. Walter Thompson, I was Churchill’s Shadow (London: Charles Johnson, 1951), 58-59.
120. Ray, The Night Blitz, 105.
121. Churchill memo, “The Munitions Situation,” September 3, 1940, 352, in Ray, The Night
Blitz, 105.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 28
before lost everything they had. Churchill knew that to win the war, morale must be
maintained, and the best way to do that was for the people to see their leader walking
among them.122 General Hastings Ismay walked with Churchill during this time and
recounted how the people swarmed him saying, “We can take it, we can take it – but give
it to them back” to which he responded “repayment, with compound interest.”123 The
British had the entire world watching and wondering the same thing. New York Times
writer James B. Reston wrote on September 8, the day after this massive bombing, “Can
Britain hold out? For how long can she withstand this relentless battering from the air?
Can these able and heroic people, outnumbered and outequipped, prevail against the
mighty German air force and beat this air force at its own game?”124
Churchill’s appearance in the streets of London was important to remind the
Londoners of their national pride.125 Churchill had a lot to be proud of. Though the
attacks were devastating to some, the mass civilian panic that was expected never
occurred. British citizens saw it as their duty to their country to endure. They knew their
lot and they accepted it. Amy Helen Bell calls this resistance “quintessentially British.”126
M. Mogridge’s 1942 memoir describes the British as “a people who can remain steadfast
under bombardment from dusk to dawn for weeks on end” and said they “deserve to win,
and Fate, in the end, gives the prize to the deserving. The victory of London was not won
122. Ray, The Night Blitz, 105.
123. Thompson, I was Churchill’s Shadow, 63.
124. James B. Reston, “War's Key Question: 'Can Britain Hold Out?'; "So This Is England," New
York Times, September 8, 1940, 75.
125. Ray, The Night Blitz, 105-108.
126. Bell, London was Ours, 53.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 29
with weapons it was won in the human heart, and hearts of such caliber can do many
things.”127 The British self-identified as “essentially domestic, home-loving, anti-heroic
but fiercely protective.”128 They prided themselves as a people who were simple but
tough; humble but fiercely protective. Many shops even displayed signs that read
“Business as Usual” to downplay the effects the Germans were truly having on them.129
This British identity and the support they felt from their leader allowed the civilians
enduring horrific losses to wait patiently for the end, doing their part in the fight to
preserve the freedoms of the West.
J. L. Garvin of the London Observer reported that Hitler “finds himself thwarted
again by British self-discipline; practical adaptability; humorous stoicism; and by the
general pluck of the men and women who are of the same flesh and blood as the fighting
services.”130 Stories of unusual acts of bravery abounded in London during this time. The
London Observer would release long lists of stories from its citizens every so often to
encourage the rest of the populace. One report wrote that shortly after her house was
destroyed by a bomb, an elderly women climbed to the top of the rubble and proudly
planted a Union Jack on the top.131 Another woman at the Channel port declared “the best
thing about the raids is that they usually wake you up in good time to get out of bed and
127. S. Mogridge, Private Papers (Imperial War Museum, 1942).
128. Bell, London Was Ours, 54.
129. Ray, The Night Blitz, 106.
130. J. L. Garvin, “The Second Year: Looking Ahead, Air War and Nerve War, A People’s
Battle,” The London Observer (1901-2003), September 1, 1940, 6.
131. “The People and the Air Raids: Coolness Under Fire The Lighter Side,” The London
Observer (1901-2003), August 25, 1940, 8.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 30
get your shopping finished early!”132 Another story spoke of a woman and her fourteen
year old son who captured a German pilot who had parachuted from a damaged plane.
The son held him under guard with his father’s rifle and the woman eventually even
served him some tea.133 There simply was no panic in the minds of the British people.
These attacks were utterly devastating to the areas that were hit. One lady named
Grace Foakes described it: “dirt and rubble trapped us in the shelter. . . with the help of
our neighbors we managed to make a hole big enough for us to crawl through. I shall
always remember what I saw then: Just a pile of rubble where our bungalow had stood.
Beside us was a large gaping hole. Everything we had possessed had gone into that
hole.”134 These bombs that had struck London had killed her neighbors and completely
leveled her home. From then on she walked the streets by day and slept in shelters at
night, all the while taking care of multiple children.
After the all clear signal was given, a large group of people arose from a shelter
into the streets. They screamed at the sight of all the demolished houses and buildings.
Calls for missing family, weeping, and screaming rung through the streets of London.135
Londoners had prepared for this for several months, but nothing could truly prepare them
for the feeling of being in the middle of a war zone as they slept in their own beds. These
attacks would be commonplace in London for the next several months. Apart from
132. Ibid.
133. Ibid.
134. Grace Foakes, My Life with Reuben (London: Shepheard & Walwyn, 1975), 66.
135. Harrisson, Living through the Blitz, 60-61.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 31
November 2, bombs were dropped every single night from the beginning of September
until mid-November.136
The vast number of bombers flying overhead was overwhelming to some
Londoners. Colin Perry witnessed the first raid on September 7 as he was riding his bike.
He said, “It was the most amazing, impressive, riveting sight. Directly above me were
literally hundreds of planes, Germans! The sky was full of them. Bombers hemmed in
with fighters, like bees around their queen, like destroyers around the battleship.”137 Ted
Harrison hopelessly said, “Blimey, we’ve lost the war!” in response to the imposing
German numbers.138 These bombs contained high explosives with incendiaries, oil
explosive bombs, parachute mines, and delayed-action bombs mixed in as well.139 These
were weapons designed to kill as many people as possible.140
As people lost their homes, the British scrambled to set up shelters for the hordes
of homeless. By the end of September, 250,000 people would be homeless.141 They set up
many shelters right in the heart of London, yet it was impossible to house every single
person forced out of his or her home. Many people were forced to leave the city and head
out into the open country to camp. Regular middle class families who had always enjoyed
136. Bell, London was Ours, 56.
137. Ziegler, London at War, 113.
138. Ibid.
139. Richard Titmuss, Problems of Social Policy: History of the Second World War, United
Kingdom Civil Services (London: HMSO and Longmans, 1971), 257.
140. Ziegler, London at War, 113.
141. Ken Long, “Growing Up in London 1939-1945,” WW2 People’s War, BBC, accessed on
October 21, 2016, http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ww2peopleswar/stories/02/a2065402.shtml.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 32
safe, comfortable lives were turned into “slum families” in the blink of an eye.142 Though
they were usually able to get their hands on bedding and food, the rest of their material
possessions were gone. John Gent, an eight-year-old at the time, described how his
grandparents came to stay with his family for a weekend during the Blitz. He said,
“While they were with us, a bomb fell near their home and rendered it uninhabitable. As
a result, their weekend visit lasted for the rest of their lives, until Grandma died in 1946
and Grandpa in 1957.”143 After a week or two of the Blitz, half the population of the
Stepney district in the East End of London was completely gone. Between death and
evacuation, many areas of London were looking empty. Typically, the most congested
parts of London saw the largest exodus. The less populated areas tended to stay in their
homes and stick it out. These individuals quickly developed a toughness about them.
After the first week or two anyone who was going to leave, did. Those who stayed,
endured until the end.144
This was the mental toughness that London would need to survive the next
several months of constant bombardment. These people quickly adapted to their new
reality. A sturdiness set in; a resolution to accept the new normal and move forward
despite the chaos all around. People even began downplaying the devastation of the
bombs by giving them soft pet names such as “the peanuts” or even the “potato
ludkies.”145 By September 19, scenes that previously created hysteria in the streets now
142. Harrisson, Living Through the Blitz, 61.
143. “The Blitz: Survivor’s Stories,” Independent, accessed on November 9, 2016,
http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/the-blitz-survivors-stories-2070845.html.
144. Harrisson, Living Through the Blitz, 65.
145. Ibid.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 33
saw neighbors conversing unfazed. Ed Murrow of CBS Radio News told his audience
that “Not once, have I hear man, woman or child suggest that Britain should throw in her
hand . . . it’s more probable that they’ll rise up and murder a few German pilots who
come down by parachute” than surrender.146 John Ray describes the “savagery of the
bombing . . . ‘is matched and defeated, by the heroism it evokes, the heroism of the
common men and women who know from the first moment the sirens sound at night that
they are potential victims.’”147
Women especially developed this toughness. Even crying became a rare sight in
the streets of London. One woman described one of the worst raids on September 18 by
saying that, “Everyone was frightened, but they controlled themselves. Hetty cried, but
she cried quietly, and no one saw her. Gertie fainted but she fainted at the back and didn’t
make a fuss.”148 Later that night a warden similarly described, “They got over it. A
dreadful shock, and they got over it quickly.”149 This toughness was created out of a slow
acclimation to the new status quo. Londoners did not panic and give up, they accepted the
new way of life they were under and moved forward, accepting their new position. This
mindset gave the bombings, death and destruction less power, because they clearly were
not destroying the morale of the British population like the German upper leadership had
hoped it would.
146. Norman Gelb, Scramble: A Narrative History of the Battle of Britain (UK: Harcourt, 1985),
235.
147. The Spectator, 13 September 1940, in Ray, The Night Blitz, 138.
148. Harrisson, Living Through the Blitz, 66.
149. Ibid.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 34
One of the unique aspects of the British population was that many of them acted
out their day to day activities as if all was right in the world. They may be getting
bombed at night but when the morning came, in their eyes at least, life was normal.
People whose houses had been seriously damaged near Croydon “took another air raid
[last week] with the greatest calm. Their roofs had been covered in tarpaulin; beneath it
wireless music went on cheerfully throughout the day.”150 Pubs, clubs, churches, and
women’s institutions all did what had to be done to run their normal routines as usual.151
This again displayed the hardened mental toughness of the British people. They may be
getting bombed with people dying and houses being lost all around them, however they
refused to be bothered. Germany would find it impossible to break the morale of the
people because the British refused to even allow themselves to notice that anything
dangerous was occurring around them.
By the middle of November, it became clear to the German leadership that the
plan of demoralizing the population by targeting the civilians in the capital had, for the
most part, failed.152 The people were still operating their daily lives to the best of their
ability and there had been no calls for a change in leadership. The British had accepted
their lot and were determined to endure through it. Over the next six months, the
Germans would expand their attacks to focus more intently once again on the chief
industrial and communications centers in the country.153
150. “The People and the Air Raids” The London Observer (1901-2003), 8.
151. Ziegler, London at War, 150.
152. Ray, The Night Blitz, 150.
153. Ray, The Night Blitz, 150.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 35
In mid-November, an especially large raid was made on the town of Coventry.
The city received no advanced warning prior to the attack.154 The raid began at 7:20 p.m.
on the night of November 14 and lasted until 6 a.m. the next morning. Over 500 tons of
high explosives and 30,000 incendiaries were unleashed across just a few square miles.155
A British citizen who stood miles away wrote, “I saw all the flames, sky-twinklings of
shellbursts, and bomb-flashes of the old days.”156 An estimated 568 people were killed,
863 badly hurt, and 393 had minor injuries.157 The incredible amount of devastation
wreaked over such a small area of land meant that “a civilian had a sixty percent greater
chance of being killed or seriously wounded during that one night in Coventry than
during the whole six years of war elsewhere.”158 This raid was a reminder to many British
citizens of the dangers of the war.
From this raid in November through Christmas of 1940, the Germans would
continue this trend of attacking cities other than London. This did not mean London was
left out. For the first time in either the Battle of Britain or the Blitz, London was not the
sole focus of the German attacks.159 Major raids were launched on Southampton on
November 23, 30 and December 1 to destroy the shipping ports that had long been used
by Great Britain. Over four hundred people were killed or injured in these bombings but
154. Ibid., 153.
155. Ibid., 155.
156. George Beardmore, Civilians at War: Journals, 1938-46 (Oxford: Oxford Paperbacks, 1986),
102.
157. Ray, The Night Blitz, 155.
158. N. Longmate, Air Raid: The Bombing of Coventry, 1940 (London: Hutchinson, 1976), 189-
190.
159. Ray, The Night Blitz, 160.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 36
the ports were left relatively intact.160 The Manchester Guardian reported that churches, a
clinic, cinemas, banks, public buildings, shops, hotels and flats were all damaged. The
raiders started several fires throughout the city with its incendiary bombs that were
dropped for several hours.161 Birmingham, Bristol, Liverpool, Portsmouth and
Manchester all experienced similar raids during this time with similar results and
casualties.162
As the war entered 1941, Hitler began to realize the futility in attacking the
British civilians. He announced that “no decisive success can be expected from terror
attacks on residential areas.”163 This did not mean that Germany was ending all raids on
London nor that Hitler would never again authorize an attack on civilians; however, it did
show that terrorizing the citizens was no longer his primary focus, so major raids would
occur progressively less. Another benefit for the British citizens was the weather. For the
first two months of 1941, the poor weather forced the Luftwaffe to make fewer raids.164
The period from March to May, 1941 represented the end of the Blitz for Great
Britain. There had been a slight break in the bombings during the January and February,
but in the next months before Hitler finally decided to invade the Soviet Union, Great
Britain would again endure immense devastation, particularly its seaports.165 Mercyside,
160. Ibid., 161-162.
161. “Heavy Attack in South-West: A Long Raid, More Bombs on London, Four Raiders Down,”
The Manchester Guardian (1901-1959), November 25, 1940, 5.
162. Ray, The Night Blitz, 164-174.
163. Trevor Roper, “Hitler Directive No. 18,” 12 November 1940, in Ray, The Night Blitz, 182.
164. Ray, The Night Blitz, 187.
165. Ibid., 202-204.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 37
a key trade center at the time, was hit particularly hard. The Luftwaffe targeted this city
and relentlessly bombed it for a week. At the end of this onslaught, over 1,900 were
killed and 1,450 were seriously injured. In addition, thousands of others were slightly
injured, while 70,000 were left homeless.166
On April 16 and again on the 19th, German raiders made surprise attacks on
London, killing over a thousand people each day. One hundred forty-eight thousand
houses were damaged in these two days compared to an average of 40,000 a week
leading up to this point. The 16th was from then on referred to as “The Wednesday” and
the 19th became known as “The Saturday” because of the loss that occurred each of those
two days.167 Yet again, though hurting and heartbroken, the people stood strong. The
people woke up the next morning and had “no sign of fear, only a passionately expressed
hope that there would be instant retaliation.”168
Though there was still a great passion in the British people to fight on, they were
certainly becoming exhausted. Homelessness was an epidemic in the city. One in six
London residents was homeless at one point during the Blitz between 1940-1941.169 Not
many were completely destroyed but with so many being so badly damaged, repairs were
very difficult and the people who knew how to fix them were very few.170
166. Ibid., 207.
167. Ziegler, London at War, 151-152.
168. Ibid., 152.
169. Ibid., 154.
170. Ibid.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 38
After “The Saturday,” Londoners were given a respite from the constant attacks
from the German Luftwaffe bombers. For roughly three weeks there was general calm.
No attacks occurred, and life somewhat reverted back to normal. Then, on May 10,
during a full moon and low tide, the Germans sent the largest force yet assembled to raid
London. The Germans sent 571 German bombers which dropped 711 tons of high
explosive bombs and 86,173 incendiaries.171 This attack would go down as the largest
and last major raid on London during The Blitz. By the end of the night over 1,400 were
killed. Including the injured, the casualty number climbed to over 3,000 people. The Law
Courts, the Tower, and the Mint were all damaged and every bridge became impassable.
Westminster Hall and the House of Commons also both took heavy damage. This attack
shook London residents to the core. They had taken everything the Germans could throw
at them but this raid almost pushed them over the edge. Fortunately, it would be the last
major bomber attack against London in the war. There would be other raids later on, but
none even close to the level of May 10, which essentially marked the end of the Blitz.172
Great Britain had survived the German onslaught and having had his fill, Hitler turned his
attention away from London and towards the Soviet Union.
Conclusion
Great Britain’s experience from 1940-1941 was filled with death, fear,
destruction, fire, bombs, and a profound sense that every day could be someone’s last.
Despite all that Germany threw at them, they endured. Londoners, especially, held a
171. History of the Battle of Britain, “The Blitz – The Hardest Night: 10/11 May 1941, 11:02pm -
05:57am,” Royal Air Force Museum, accessed on November 10, 2016,
http://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/research/online-exhibitions/history-of-the-battle-of-britain/the-blitz-the-
hardest-night.aspx.
172. Ziegler, London at War, 160-161.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 39
special kind of toughness that set them apart during the war. Morale was kept high and
people rallied together to preserve their national unity and their way of life. Normal
citizens quickly became the backbone of the British state as they protected each other and
endured every hardship Hitler unleashed upon them. Through their intense national pride
as distinctly British, their ability to see themselves in a greater historical context and the
dangers of allowing Germany to win, and finally their ability to develop a staunch mental
toughness, the citizens of Great Britain won the day and when the war ended a few years
later, Western Europe had them to thank for preserving its freedom.
ENDURING THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ 40
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