Scientific Writing:An Introduction
Writing Guidelines for Studentshttp://writing.eng.vt.edu/
The Craft of Scientific Writing3rd edition (Springer-Verlag, 1996)
How well you communicate affects your career
Survey (Richard M. Davis) Successful engineers spent 25% of work week writing
Survey (Virginia Tech) Recruiters claim that engineers need more work on their writing
Survey (Wisconsin) Professional engineers found writing their most useful subject in college
How well you communicate affects the well-being of others
Space Shuttle Challenger(January 28, 1986)
Explosion was caused by failure of O-rings in the solid rocket boosters
Engineers knew of O-ring problems well before fatal launch
Engineers failed to communicate seriousness of problem
[Report, 1986]
Scientists and engineers are called upon to communicate in many different situations
specifictechnical
audiences
non-technicalaudiences
generaltechnical
audiences
ReportsArticlesProposalsWeb Pages
ConferencesLecturesMeetingsPosters
Scientific writing differs from other kinds of writing
Subject Matter Writing Constraints
audience
purpose
occasion
Purpose of Writing
To inform
To persuade
[Franklin, 1952]
Writing Style
[Peterson, 1987]
You should begin the writing process by analyzing your constraints
Purpose
Audience
Occasion
Format
Formality
Politics and ethics
Process and deadline
Who they are
What they know
Why they will read
How they will read
To inform
To persuade
Three aspects of writing affect the way that readers assess your documents
Content
Style
Form
Style is the way you communicate the content to the audience
Structure
wordswordswordswordswordswordswordswordswordswordswordswords
wordswordswords
wordswordswordswordswordswordswords
Languagestyle
Illustration
[Peterson, 1987]
Form embodies the format and mechanics of the writing
format
typography
layout
mechanics
grammar
usage
punctuation
spelling
We can split the writing process into stages
Writing the First DraftWriting the First DraftGetting in the MoodGetting in the Mood
Revising, Revising, RevisingRevising, Revising, Revising
FinishingFinishing
Structure: the Strategy of Style
Beginning
Ending
Middle
If a man can group his ideas, then he is a writer.
Robert Louis Stevenson
Beginning
Ending
Middle
The organization of a scientific document can be viewed as a beginning, middle, and ending
TitleSummaryIntroduction
Middle Sections
ConclusionsBack Matter
Beginnings prepare readers for understanding the work
Summary tells readers whathappens in document
Introduction prepares readersfor the middle
Title orients readers todocument
Several names for summaries exist
Summary
Abstract
TechnicalAbstract
ExecutiveSummary
DescriptiveAbstract
InformativeAbstract
A document's introduction prepares readers for the discussion
Topic?
Importance?
Introduction
Arrangement?
Background?
The introduction defines the scopeand limitations of the work
Proposed Study on Effects of Alcohol
on Life Expectancy
Three classes of drinkers:non-drinkers moderate drinkersheavy drinkers
Ten-year study
Other effects,such as exercise,not considered
Medical historiesnot considered
Women may notexperience thesame effects
Men surveyed
scope
limitations
Common strategies exist for the middles of scientific reports
Chronological
[Maizels, 2001]
Spatial
[Pratt & Whitney, 2000]
Common strategies exist for the middles of scientific reports
Parallel Parts
Corel Corporation
Flow
[Sandia, 1985]
Section headings should be descriptive and parallel
Non-ParallelNon-Descriptive
IntroductionBackgroundMarx GeneratorsLine PulseBeam GenerationTransporting BeamPelletsResultsConclusions
IntroductionBackgroundMarx GeneratorsLine PulseBeam GenerationTransporting BeamPelletsResultsConclusions
ParallelDescriptive
Introduction
Past Designs for Particle Beam Fusion
New Design for Particle Beam FusionCharging Marx GeneratorsForming Line PulseGenerating Particle BeamTransporting Particle BeamIrradiating Deuterium-Tritium Pellets
Results of New Design
Conclusions and Recommendations
Introduction
Past Designs for Particle Beam Fusion
New Design for Particle Beam FusionCharging Marx GeneratorsForming Line PulseGenerating Particle BeamTransporting Particle BeamIrradiating Deuterium-Tritium Pellets
Results of New Design
Conclusions and Recommendations
Many journal articles follow a set organization named IMRaD
Materials and Methods
Results
Discussion
Introduction
In a strong ending, you analyze resultsand give a future perspective
Analyze results from overall perspective
Conclusions
Analysis of Results
Several options:Make recommendationsDiscuss future workRepeat limitations
Future Perspective
Failing to cite the contribution of others can be a fatal flaw in your career
James Watson surreptitiously looked at Rosalind Franklin’s work
[Franklin, 1952]
Watson did not give enough credit to Franklin
[Luzzati, 1950]
Avoiding Common Errors
of Grammar
One of the most important skills a writer can have is the ability to compose clear, complete sentences. The sentence is the basic unit of communication in all forms of English.
Funk, McMahan, and Day
Elements of Grammar
Not all mechanical errors bother readers in the same way
Errors thatdisturb
run-on sentenceits/it’sspell checker ignored
Errors thatdistract
missing intro commafaulty parallelismunclear pronoun ref
Errors that few even notice
different from/thancontractionsplit infinitive
The most important aspect of grammaris understanding what a sentence is
Sentence: A sentence is group of words with a subject and a verb that expresses a complete thought.
Fragment: A fragment being a group of words that either is missing a subject or a verb or does not express a complete thought.
Run-on: A run-on is two or more independent clauses that are not joined properly, for instance, a common mistake is to have a comma between the clauses.
Which are sentences (S), fragments (F), or run-ons (RO)?
Rubidium has no major uses, however, it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Although carbon dioxide occurs naturally, man has dramatically increased its concentration this past century.
Several systems can detect plastic explosives. For example, thermal neutron activation systems, nitrogen sniffer systems, and enhanced x-ray systems.
RO
S
S / F
Shown in yellow are corrections to the errors from the previous slide
Although rubidium has no major uses, it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Although carbon dioxide occurs naturally, man has dramatically increased its concentration this past century.
Several systems can detect plastic explosives. Examples include thermal neutron activation systems, nitrogen sniffer systems, and enhanced x-ray systems.
Note that there are several ways to correct each of these errors
Rubidium has no major uses; however, it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Rubidium has no major uses, but it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Rubidium has no major uses. This metal, however, is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Making lists parallel is another important aspect of grammar
Printed circuit board relays are limited to small coil voltages, contact ratings, and lack multi-pole configurations.
Printed circuit board relays are limited to small coil voltages and contact ratings, and lack multi-pole configurations.
Making lists parallel is another important aspect of grammar
Animals that come in contact with oil can develop rashes, sores, and may leave the area.
Animals that come in contact with oil can develop rashes and sores, and may leave the area.
Animals that come in contact with oil can develop rashes, sores, and wandering tendencies.
Placing a modifier in its appropriate place is also important in grammar
These proteins indicate to the body what hormones should be given off among other things.
These proteins indicate, among other things, to the body what hormones should be given off.
In meeting the staff of the Parks Department, the greatest problem was that of water leakage.
From the staff of the Parks Department, we learned that the greatest problem was that of water leakage.
Unclear pronoun references cause ambiguities
it???Because the receiver presented the radiometer with a high flux environment, it was mounted in a silver-plated stainless steel container.
If you receive an e-mail titled "Win A Holiday," do not open it. It will erase everything on your hard drive. Forward this e-mail out to as many people as you can. This is a very malicious virus and not many people know about it.
This???this???
Avoiding Common Errors
of Punctuation
Punctuation marks are the traffic signs and signals placed along the reader’s road. They tell him when to slow down and when to stop, and sometimes they warn him of the nature of the road ahead. Traffic engineers do not always agree on what signs should be used and where they should be placed, and neither do writers or editors.
Theodore M. BernsteinThe Careful Writer
,
Punctuation rules are designed to have sentences be read one way
Colon: a colon introduces a formal list, long quotation, equation, or definition.
Semi-Colon: a semi-colon either joins two independent clauses (closely linked in thought) or separates complex items in a list.
Dash: a dash acts as a parenthesis to separate items that cannot be separated by commas.
Comma: a comma separates details in a sentence.
A colon introduces a formal list, long quotation, equation, or definition
We studied five types of marsupials: opossums, bandicoots, koalas, wombats, and kangaroos.
The laboratory growth of this crystal made possible a new astronomical tool: a gamma-ray detector with high-energy resolution.
In formal writing, what is on the left side of the colon should stand alone as a separate sentence.
Once the list ends, the sentence ends.
Although equations are separated by white space, they should be treated as part of the sentence
To calculate the strain, , we used equation 1:
where is the stress estimated by FEPC and E is the modulus of elasticity of aluminum.
=E
(1),
Commas separate introductory phrases and clauses
After cooling the exhaust gases continue to expand.
After cooling, the exhaust gases continue to expand.
Commas separate parenthetical details
X-ray backscatter systems, which are relatively inexpensive require the operator’s attention.
X-ray backscatter systems, which are relatively inexpensive, require the operator’s attention.
Commas separate items in a list
Discharges of these hazardous substances occurred through spills when loading vehicles, spills and over-spills when filling the tanks, leaks from supply pipes and corroded welds, rust holes and cracks in the seams of the tanks themselves.
Discharges of these hazardous substances occurred through the following: spills when loading vehicles; spills and over-spills when filling the tanks; leaks from supply pipes; and corroded welds, rust holes, and cracks in the seams of the tanks themselves.
The criteria for assessing the environmental effects of acid rain (are / is) given in the next section.
So far, the daily number of engineers applying (has / have) remained constant.
The goggles protect a (persons / person’s) eyes from any damaging effects that a laser could cause.
In accordance with my (boss’ / boss’s) schedule, the first series of computers was replaced.
are
Two common usage errors are possessives and subject-verb disagreements
has
person’s
boss’s
The verb tenses of sentences that refer to the document depend upon position
Introduction
This report presents a design for connecting light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller.
Results and Discussion
...Figure 1 shows the circuit that connects the light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller.
Conclusions
This report has presented a design for connecting light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller. As was shown in Figure 1, the circuit...
Use numerals when referring to measurements
When to write out numbers
Counting (one or two words) twenty-three gages
Informal measurements two hours
First word of sentence Thirty-three...
When to use numerals
Specific measurements 3 volts, 2 seconds, 1 m/s
Percentages 15 percent
Monetary figures $3000
Large numerals 5 million
Language:the Way We Use Words
Short words are the best, and short words when old are best of all.
Winston Churchill
Concise
Familiar
Clear
Fluid
Precise
Forthright
wordwordwordwordwordwordwordwordwordwordwordwordwordwordword
wordword
word
word wordwordwordwordwordwordword
word
wordword
word wordword
Generalities that are not anchored with specifics are soon forgotten
After recognizing some problems with the solar mirrors, we took subsequent corrective measures.
Trash
After finding that high winds (and not hail) had cracked the ten solar mirrors, we began stowing all mirrors in a horizontal position during thunderstorms.
For precise language, you should avoid over-specifying details
The number of particular hydrocarbon combinations in our study is enormous. For example, the number of possible C20H42 is 366,319 and the number for C40H82 is 62,491,178,805,831.
The number of hydrocarbon combinations in our study is enormous. For example, the number of possible C40H82 is more than 62 trillion.
For precision, you must choose theappropriate level of detail
Operations at the plant stopped momentarilybecause the thermal storage charging systemdesuperheater attemperator valve was replaced.
Operations at the plant stopped for 1.5 hoursso that a valve in the thermal storage systemcould be replaced.
R.I.P.
Complex wording buries ideas
This study will consider why current solar energysystems, such as Solar One, have not reached thecommercial stage and will find out what steps we can take to make these systems commercial.
The goal of this study is to develop a commerciali-zation strategy for solar energy systems by analyzingfactors impeding early commercial projects (i.e., SOLAR ONE) and by identifying the potential actionsthat can facilitate the viability of the projects.
Stacking adjectives before nouns swallows the ideas
Solar One is a solar-powered pilot plant located near Barstow, California. Solar One produces 10 megawatts of electricity by capturing solar energy in a central receiver design.
Solar One is a 10 megawatt solar thermal electric central receiver Barstow power pilot plant.
Complex sentences misdirect readers
The goal of the work was to confirm the nature of electrical breakdown of nitrogen in uniform fields at high pressures and electrode gaps which approach those obtained in engineering practice, prior to the deter-mination of the processes which set the criterion for breakdown in the above-mentioned gas in uniform and non-uniform fields of engineering significance.
At high pressures (760 torr) and typical electrode gapdistances (1 mm), the electrical breakdown of nitrogen was studied inuniform fields.
The more muddled the original, the more revisions are needed to streamline it
At high pressures (760 torr) and typical electrode gapdistances (1 mm), the electrical breakdown of nitrogen was studied inuniform fields.
In our study, we examined the electrical breakdown of nitrogen in uniform fields. For these experiments, the electrode gap distances were typical (1 mm), while the pressures were relatively high (760 torr).
An ambiguity is a group of words that can have more than one meaning
We examined neat methanol and ethanol and methanol and ethanol with 10% water.
We examined four fuels: neat methanol, neat ethanol, methanol with 10% water, and ethanol with 10% water.
Ambiguities occur for many reasons
?????????
???????As light hydrocarbons evaporate the oil vapor pressure falls.
Although engineers realized the design flaws in the Titanic soon after its sinking in 1912, the reasons for the severe damage inflicted by the iceberg remained a mystery until its discovery in 1985.
????
The proposed schedule is discussed below for the next four years.
about
cause; bring about
carry out
individual
can operate
use
Pretentious diction often causesproblems with tone
approximately
facilitate
implement
individualized
operationability
utilization
Weak verbs hide the energy of your work
A new process for eliminating nitrogen oxides from diesel exhaust engines is presented. Flow tube experiments to test this process are discussed. The percentage decrease in nitrogen oxide emissions is revealed.
This paper presents a new process for eliminating nitrogen oxides from the exhaust of diesel engines. To test this process, we performed experiments in flow tubes. These experiments revealed a 99 percent decrease in nitrogen oxide emissions.
A formal definition has a specific form
Bremsstrahlung: the radiation emitted by a charged particle that is accelerated in the Coulomb force field of a nucleus.
nounterm +
noun naming class to which noun term belongs
information to separate noun term from other terms in class
noun term
noun term
noun term
noun term noun term
noun term
noun term
To tighten your writing, eliminate redundancies and writing zeroes
Vibration measurements made in the course of the Titan flight test program were complicated by the presence of intense high-frequency excitation of the vehicle shell structure during the re-entry phaseof the flight.
Vibration measurements made in the Titan flight were complicated by intense high-frequency excitation of the vehicle shell during re-entry.
Examples anchor abstract generalities
By the late Middle Ages, cities throughout Europe were building Gothic cathedrals. The only way, however, that architects could test a new design was to build the cathedral, a process that took more than forty years. Unfortunately, many cathedrals caved in during or after construction. What took forty years to test in the Middle Ages could have been done in minutes on a supercomputer.
William Wilson
Mount St. Helens erupted on May 18, 1980. A cloud of hot rock
and gas surged northward from its collapsing slope. The cloud
devastated more than 500 square kilometers of forests and
lakes. The effects of Mount St. Helens were well documented
with geophysical instruments. The origin of the eruption is not
well understood. Volcanic explosions are driven by a rapid
expansion of steam. Some scientists believe the steam comes
from groundwater heated by the magma. Other scientists
believe the steam comes from water originally dissolved in the
magma. We need to understand the source of steam in
volcanic eruptions. We need to determine how much water the
magma contains.
When sentence openers do not vary, the sentences do not seem to connect Z
Z
Z
Varying sentence openers allows for more kinds of transitions between sentences
Sentence #1 Sentence #2 Sentence #3
Topic of Sentence Subject
Time of action Prepositional Phrase
Location of action Prepositional Phrase
Manner of action Adverb
Subordinate action Dependent Clause
Reason for action Infinitive Phrase
Vary sentence openers to vary rhythm
Mount St. Helens erupted on May…
subject-verb
In minutes, the mountain emitted…
prepositional phrase
Recently, debate has arisen... adverb
Although the exact time of the eruption surprised scientists, evidence had been collected...
dependent clause
To understand the eruption, we have to...
infinitive phrase
Varying sentence openers enlivens the writing and allows connections
Mount St. Helens erupted on May 18, 1980. Its slope
collapsing, the mountain emitted a cloud of hot rock and gas.
In minutes, the cloud devastated more than 500 square
kilometers of forests and lakes. Although the effects of the
eruption were well documented, the origin is not well
understood. Volcanic explosions are driven by a rapid
expansion of steam. Recently, debate has arisen over the
source for the steam. Is it groundwater heated by magma or
water originally dissolved in the magma itself? To understand
the source of steam in volcanic eruptions, we need to
determine how much water the magma contains.
The Craft
of Editing
Editing isn’t a cosmetic process. It’s a thinking process.
Richard Rhodes, authorMaking of the Atomic Bomb