Section 1:
Recognition and Diagnosis of Bipolar Disorder and Its Spectrum
Spectrum of Bipolar Disorders
• Bipolar I and II
• Hypomania
• Bipolar NOS
• Cyclothymia
• Rapidly changing mood swings
• Major depression with a strong family history of bipolar disorder
• Antidepressant-induced mania and hypomania
• Secondary mania, due to other illness or drugs
Adapted from American Psychiatric Association. Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Bipolar Disorder. 2nd ed. Washington, DC; 2002.
Bipolar TerminologyA distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated,
expansive, or irritable mood
• Mania
– Lasting at least 1 week with a significant decline in function
• Hypomania
– Lasting at least 4 days, (clearly different from the usual non-
depressed mood), but without a significant decline in
function and no psychosis
American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000.
Bipolar Terminology (cont)
• Mixed Episode
– The criteria are met both for a manic episode and for a
major depressive episode (bipolar I disorder)
• Cyclothymia
– Alternating mood states that do not meet full criteria for
depressive, manic, or mixed episode for at least 2 years
• Bipolar NOS
– A mood episode that does not meet specific criteria for
any specific bipolar disorderAmerican Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000.
296.80 Bipolar Disorder NOS
1. Very rapid alternation (over days) between manic symptoms and depressive symptoms that meet symptom threshold criteria but not minimal duration criteria for manic, hypomania, or major depressive episodes
2. Recurrent hypomanic episodes without intercurrent depressive symptoms
3. A manic or mixed episode superimposed on delusional disorder, residual schizophrenia, or psychotic disorder not otherwise specified
4. Hypomanic episodes, along with chronic depressive symptoms that are too infrequent to qualify for a diagnosis of cyclothymic disorder
5. Situations in which the clinician has concluded that bipolar disorder is present but is unable to determine whether it is primary, due to a general medical condition, or substance induced
The Bipolar Disorder Not Otherwise Specified category includes disorders with bipolar features that do not meet criteria for any specific bipolar disorder. Examples include:
American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000.
Diagnostic Criteria for Major Affective Disorders (DSM-IV)
Disorder Depressive EpisodeManic or Mixed
EpisodeHypomanic Episodes
Bipolar I DisorderCommon but not required
≥ 1 required Common but not required
Bipolar II Disorder ≥ 1 required None allowed ≥ 1 required
Bipolar Disorder NOS*
Common but not required
None allowedRequired, but do not meet criteria for a specific bipolar disorder
Cyclothymic Disorder
Dysthymia, but not major depression
None allowedNumerous periods over
2 years required
Major Depressive Disorder
≥ 1 required None allowed None allowed
Dysthymic Disorder≥ 2 years required but not major depression
None allowed None allowed
*NOS = Not otherwise specified
Adapted from the American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000:345-428.
Diagnosing Bipolar Disorder: Challenges
• Variability of age of onset and presentation
• Commonly presenting in the depressed phase and being misdiagnosed as unipolar depression
• Prepubertal onset depression or dysthymia carries a 20–40% risk of bipolar illness
• Symptom overlap with other psychiatric conditions
• Previous misdiagnosis common
• Many clinically prominent psychiatric and medical comorbidities
Thomas P. J Affect Disord. 2004;79(suppl 1):S3-S8.Berk M, et al. Med J Aust. 2006;184:459-462.
The Bipolar Spectrum: StrongerBipolar I
4 DaysBipolar II
Bipolar NOS
“Bipolar III” Antidepressant-related hypomania
Adapted from Akiskal HS, Pinto O. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 1999;22:517-534.
< 4 Days
1 week
The Bipolar Spectrum: Weaker
Hyperthymic “Bipolar IV”
Depressive Mixed State “IV ½”
Recurrent “Unipolar” Depression “Bipolar V”
Adapted from Akiskal HS, Pinto O. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 1999;22:517-534.Akiskal HS, et al. J Affect Disord. 2006;96:197-205.
Bipolar “Missed States!” (Mixed States)
• Bipolar mixed states: depression and mania co-occurring
• Dysphoric mania common especially in women • Depressive mixed states
– Core of depression, but with racing thoughts
• Mixed hypomania
Berk M, et al. Aust N Z Psych. 2005;39:215-221.Suppes T, et al. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62:1089-1096.
Self-Rated Screening Tool:The Mood Disorder Questionnaire (MDQ)
• Hyper or more energetic than usual• Predominately or thematically
irritable• Distinctly self-confident, positive
or self-assured • Less sleep than usual• More talkative or speaking faster
than usual• Racing thoughts• Easily distracted• Problems at work and socially• More interest in sex• Taking unusual risks• Excessive spendingHirschfeld RM, et al. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003;64:53-59.
Neither bipolar disorder nor depression diagnosis
Bipolar Disorder Diagnosis Is Often Missed
• > 85,000 US adults surveyed
• Positive screen rate for bipolar illness: 3.7% (> 6 million people in US)
• For those with positive screen
Only 20% of those with a positive screen had
been told by their doctors that they had bipolar disorder Hirschfeld RM, et al. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003;64:53-59.
Diagnosed withbipolar disorder
Diagnosed with depression
but not bipolar disorder
20%
31%
49%
Bipolar disorder misdiagnosed as unipolar depression in 37% of patients (N = 85)
Ghaemi SN, et al. J Clin Psychiatry. 2000;61:804-808.
Unipolar Misdiagnosis May Lead to Inappropriate Treatment
Pat
ien
ts (
%)
0
20
40
60
80
100
Mania/Hypomania
RapidCycling
n = 38
55%
23%
n = 35
Development of mania/hypomania or rapid cycling while taking antidepressants.
The Hazards of Misdiagnosis and Delayed Diagnosis in Bipolar Disorder
Increased risk of:
• Rapid cycling or mixed features
• Suicide attempts or completion
• Violent behavior; impulsive behavior
• Sexual and other indiscretions
• Worsening substance abuse
• Loss of job or significant other
• Treatment resistant
Self-Report Diagnostic Tools For Screening Bipolar Disorder
Scale Description Limitations
Mood Disorder Questionnaire (MDQ)
13 item questionnaire ( 7 is a positive screen)
More sensitive for bipolar I than II, should not replace a full diagnostic interview
Bipolar Spectrum Diagnostic Scale (BSDS)
Screens for subtle versions of bipolar and can rate the probability of bipolar as high, moderate, low, or unlikely
Should not replace a full diagnostic interview
Quick Inventory for Depression Symptomatology
(QIDS)
16 item inventory, each item rated 0-3Takes an average of 15 minutes to implement
Scale Description Limitations
Young Mania Rating Scale (YMRS)
11 item scale, each with a varied rating scale based on severity (mania = 12, depression = 3, euthymia = 2)
Usefulness of scale is limited in populations with diagnoses other than mania
Bipolarity Index
Evaluation of bipolar presentation based on 5 “dimensions”—each worth up to 20 points for a total of 100
Time consuming, not peer reviewed
Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HAM-D)
17-21 item scale initially intended for identifying depressed patients
Relies heavily on clinical interviewing skills and experience of the rater
Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale
(MADRS)
10 selected items are rated on a scale of 0-6 with anchors at 2-point intervals
Cost prohibitive and time consuming
Clinician-Administered Diagnostic Tools For Screening Bipolar Disorder
Subthreshold Bipolar Disorder(The “Soft” Bipolar Spectrum)
• Boundaries of bipolarity have expanded over the past decade
• Suggest that the diagnostic criteria for hypomania need revision
• Further study is needed to evaluate the ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ definitions of bipolar II, minor bipolar disorder, and hypomania
• A more expansive definition of bipolar II yields a cumulative prevalence rate of 10.9%, compared to 11.4% for broadly defined major depression
Akiskal HS. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2002;4:1-3.Angst J, et al. J Affect Disord. 2003;73:133-146.
The Rule of 3 Hinting at Soft Bipolarity (NOS) in a Clinically Depressed Person
• Three or more:– Major depressive episodes
– Failed marriages
– Failed antidepressants trials
– Distinct professions
– First degree relatives (or generations) with affective illness
– Fields of eminence in the family
– Substances of abuse
– Impulsive behaviors (gambling, car racing, sexual, etc.)
– Individuals dated simultaneously
– Simultaneous jobs
– Languages (for US-born citizens)
– Triad of past histrionic, psychopathic, or borderline diagnoses
– Triad of red car, necktie, or belt
Akiskal HS. J Affect Disord. 2005;84:279-290.
Importance of Interviewing the Patient and Their Family
• Patients admitted with major depression– NIMH study– Step 1: Patient screened for bipolar disorder– Step 2: Family member interviewed (by another
investigator interested in genetics)– Result: Twice as many bipolar I diagnoses
from interviewing both the patient and a family member
Blehar MC, et al. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1998;34:239-243.
Physicians Must Use Patient Perspectives to Improve Diagnosis and Care
Factors Necessary for Recovery:
1. Communication between patient and physician: best chance for recovery when patient feels he’s being heard; physician must try to understand how the world looks through patient’s eyes
2. Treatment plans that include patient input and preferences; physician must discuss all options so patient has complete understanding of illness
3. Recovery-oriented treatment based on mutually agreed goals so patient feels like a partner in care
Lewis L, et al. Adm Policy Ment Health. 2005;32:497-503.
• Bipolar disorder can masquerade in different or mixed mood states
• Bipolar disorder is often misdiagnosed as depression due to the prevalence of depressive episodes often as the presenting phase
• Misdiagnosis can have serious detrimental effects on treatment effectiveness and outcomes
Take Home Messages