LEARNING
Ask 3 questions:• Name something you’re good at • How you learned it • How you know you’re good at it
What is Learning?
“Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge through experience which leads to an enduring
change in behaviour.” (Huczynski & Buchanan, 2007)
Behaviourist and Cognitive Approaches
• Behaviourist • Studies only observable
behaviour• Problem solving occurs
by trial and error
• Cognitive• Studies also mental
process• Problem solving also
involves insight and understanding
Learning Styles
Honey & Mumford (1986)
• Activist
• Reflector
• Theorist
• Pragmatist
(Rollinson, 2008:185-8)
6
Reflection
• Learning is the creation of meaning from past or current events that serves as a guide for future behaviour
• Reflection is the process of stepping back from an experience to ponder, carefully and persistently, its meaning to the self through the development of inferences
• Reflection, then, is the process that turns experience into learning
References Honey, P. and Mumford, A. (1992) The Manual of Learning
Styles, Honey, Maidenhead.Huczynski, A.A. & Buchanan, D.A. (2007) Organisational
Behaviour, (6th Edn.) Harlow, Prentice Hall.Martin, J. (2005) Organisational Behaviour (3rd Edn.), London,
Thomson.Mullins, L.J.(2007) Management and Organisational Behaviour
(8th Edn.), Harlow, Prentice Hall.Rollinson, D. (2008) Organisational Behaviour and Analysis, An
Integrated Approach (4th Edn.), Harlow, Prentice Hall.
KEY AREAS OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
• Intelligence• Personality• Perception• Management of stress• Motivation
PERSONALITY
• “Personality is the relatively enduring combination of traits which make an individual unique and at the same time produce consistencies in his or her thought and behaviour”. Fincham & Rhodes (1999)
• “Those fundamental traits or characteristics of a person (or people more generally) that endure over time and account for consistent patterns of responses to everyday situations”. Furnham (2005).
PSYCHOMETRICS TESTS
• A psychological test is an instrument designed to produce a quantitative assessment of some psychological attribute (s) (BPS).
• Examples: –Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ).–16PF (Cattell)–Occupational Personality Questionnaire (OPQ)
(Saville and Holdsworth)–Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
PERCEPTION
• We do not perceive objective reality, but we believe that whatever we see is real.
• Our perceptions are our personal reality, and they influence our behaviour.
» Source: Wendy Bloisi (2003).
PERCPETUAL DISTORTIONS
Sources of perceptual errors:
–Selective perception–Stereotyping–Halo Effect – a cognitive bias that influences feelings and thoughts
–Projection
THE 4 TEMPERAMENTS
Humour Personality
Sanguineamorous, happy,
generous, optimistic, irresponsible
Cholericviolent, vengeful, short-tempered,
ambitious
Phlegmatic Sluggish, pallid, cowardly
Melancholic Introspective, sentimental, gluttonous
CATTELL’S 16PF TRAITS
Warmth
Reasoning
Emotional Stability
Dominance
Liveliness
Rule-Consciousness
Social Boldness
Sensitivity
Vigilance
Abstractedness
Privateness
Apprehensiveness
Openness to Change
Self-Reliance
Perfectionism
Tension
THE BIG 5 FACTOR MODEL
1. Openness to experience
2. Conscientiousness
3. Extraversion
4. Agreeableness
5. Neuroticism
•Openness to experience - Appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, and unusual ideas; imaginative and curious•Extraversion - Energy, surgency, and the tendency to seek stimulation and the company of others. •Agreeableness - A tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others•Neuroticism - A tendency to easily experience unpleasant emotions such as anxiety, anger, or depression. •Conscientiousness - A tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement.
THE BIG 5 FACTORS
EYSENCK 1965 EXTRAVERSION-INTRAVERSION
Extravert Introvert
Activity ExpressivenessImpulsivenessIrresponsibilityPracticalityRisk takingSociability
Inactivity InhibitionControlResponsibilityReflectivenessCarefulnessUnsociability
Learning OutcomesTo be able to:
• Understand what is meant by Organizational Culture
• Recognise why Culture is important in organizations
• Identify the ways Culture manifests itself in an organization
• Recognise different models to explain culture
Learning Outcomes
To critically analyse:• The meaning of organizational culture• The impact of organizational culture on
success and failure• The roles played by functional,
dysfunctional cultures and subcultures• The link between organizational culture
and national culture
Impacts of Organizational Cultures
• How decisions are made
• Who makes decisions
• How rewards are distributed
• Who is promoted
• How people are treated
• How organization responds to environment
Questions…
• What is culture?
• Is culture easy or hard to change?
• How might you try and change culture?
What is Organizational Culture? • Organizational culture may be defined in a number of
different ways
• Culture is present in a number of aspects of the organization
• There are a number of different types of organizational
culture
• “The way we do things round here” (Deal & Kennedy, 1982)
• Difficult to define!
• Boozing with the boss (New Scientist, 26 January, 2002)
Make up your own mind!
What is culture…
• History of organisational culture– Japanese miracle
• How did culture come to be and how did it persist?– Cultural evolution– Cultural replication
• Culture and Performance– Excellence– Strong culture
What is culture…
An organisation has culture
An organisation is culture
I swear as an employee
Recommended reading: Buchanan & Huczynski, 2004; Knights & Wilmott, 2007
Definitions• The pattern of values, norms, beliefs, attitudes,
assumptions, signs & symbols that may or may not have been articulated but which shape the ways in which people behave and get things done [Handry, 1995]
• A pattern of shared assumptions invented, discovered or developed within an organization as it learns to cope with problems or external adaptation and internal integration. [Schein, 1992]
Definition• “The way we do things around here
[Deal & Kennedy 1982, p 4]
• “A pattern of basic assumptions – invented, discovered or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration – that has worked well enough to be considered valuable and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, thing and feel in relation to those problems.” [Schein, 1992, p9]
Metaphors of Organizational Culture
• “Social Glue”
• Onion
• Umbrella
• Iceberg (example Schein, 1985)
(Morgan, 1989)
The Organizational Iceberg
FormalStrategy, structure, systems, management, products
InformalLeadership, behaviour, attitudes, values norms, beliefs, power, politics, conflict
Perspective 1 Schein (1990) layered Conceptualisation of culture
Basic Assumptions
Values & Beliefs
Artifacts & Creations
Schein’s iceberg model of org. culture
Recommended reading: Rollinson et al, 2002
Values and beliefs
Basic assumptions
artefacts
valuesartifacts
How can I recognize a culture?
Levels of Culture:
• Practices– rites, rituals, ceremonies
• Communications– stories, myths, sagas, legends, heroes
• Physical forms– layout of building, canteens, location of building, dress
code, technology
• Common language– jargon, acronyms
(Trice & Beyer, 1984)
Sources of Organizational Culture
Internal Factors
External factors
Experiences of employees
Core Beliefs
Values
Norms
Attitudes
Assumptions
Signs & Symbols
Behaviour
Characteristics of Cultures 2
• Dominant culture
• Sub-cultures according to structure:– geographical, functions
• Sub-cultures co-exist in over-arching dominant organizational culture
Can give rise to conflict!!
Recommended reading: Rollinson, 2005
Activity
• Reflect on the university. Using • Schein’s layered concept of culture…..try to
answer the following.• What artefacts and creations are there?• Are there any norms of behaviour, particular
language, symbols, ceremonies, myths, stories or taboos?
• What basic values can you identify?• What are the basic assumptions underpinning
the values?
Characteristics of culture 1
• Integrationist Perspective – top• Fragmentationist perspective – middle • Differentiationist perspective – bottom
These can exist side by side in the same organisation
Characteristics of Culture 2
• Strength of culture• How did culture come to be and how did it
persist?– Cultural evolution– Cultural replication
• Culture and Organisational Performance• Direction, pervasiveness, strength
Perspectives 5 Deal & Kennedy’s 4 elements of organizational culture
Values
Culture
Culturalnetworks
Organizationalheros
Rites &rituals
Type • Tough-guy, macho
• Work-hard/play-hard
• Bet-your-company
• Process Culture
Risk Feedback
high quick
few quick
high slow
low risk slow
Types of Organizational Culture
Deal & Kennedy, 1982
Different DebatesGendered Cultures• Discrimination
– Overt or covert• Which gender
(normally) dominates?
• Occupational segregation by gender – horizontal and vertical
National Cultures• Power Distance• Uncertainty
avoidance• Individualism• Masculinity/femininity • Long term/short
term orientation[Clegg, 2005; Hofstede, 2001]
Culture and gender• Women in a male culture
• The way women and men communicate(Deborah Tannen, mentioned in Linstead et al, 2004)
Recommended reading: Lindstead et al, 2004
Differences between feminine and masculine cultures:
Feminine Masculine
Management by intuition and consensus
is decisive and aggressive
Resolution of conflicts
by compromise and negotiation
by letting the strongest win
Rewards are based on equality
are based on equity
Preference More leisure time is preferred over more money
More money is preferred over more leisure time
Recommended reading: Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005
Culture change and management
• Change – modification of an existing culture
• Management – maintaining or making slight modifications to fine tuning an existing culture
• Methodology – analyse, experience, installation, evaluation
• Techniques – use current culture, socialisation, symbols, rewards, new members, culture shock, top people, involve members
Summary of culture
• Organizational culture may be defined in a number of different ways
• Culture is present in a number of aspects of the organization
• There are a number of different types of organizational culture
Summary
• All organizations have cultures, often more than one
• Cultures are influenced by gender and nationality
• Strong cultures influence progress but do they add to success?
References Buchanan, D. & Huczynski, A. (2004) Organizational Behaviour: An Introductory
Text (5th Edn.), Harlow, Prentice Hall
Drummond, H. (2000) Organizational Behaviour Suffolk, Oxford University Press
Knights, D. & Willmott, H. (2007) Introducing Organizational Behaviour & Management London, Thomson Learning
Linstead, S., Fulop, L. & Lilley, S. (2004) Management and Organization: A Critical Text. Suffolk, Palgrave
McKenna, E. (2001) Business Psychology and Organisational Behaviour – A Student’s Handbook (3rd Edition), Hove, Psychology Press
Rollinson D. (2005) Organisational Behaviour and Analysis (3rd Edn.) Harlow,Pearson
Trice, H.M. & Beyer, J.M. (1984) “Studying Organisational Cultures through Rites and Rituals”, Academy of Management Review, 9, pp. 653-669 cited in McKenna, 2001, pp. 473-4