Running head: THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 1
The Effects of Social Identity on Stereotype Threat and Academic
Performance
Ashley R. Schneider
State University of New York at Cortland
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 2
Abstract
A review of the present research on stereotype threat reflects the impact
that this threat can have on the individual in several domains. Focusing in on
academics, stereotype threat can influence performance in multiple areas of
academics, specifically for women, mathematics. (Johnson, 2012) The
present research illustrates the influence stereotype threat has over
mathematic performance for women. The gender differences that arise with
stereotype threat are prevalent in relation to mathematics due to the current
stereotype associated with women and mathematics, which implies that
women are inherently not good at math. (Thoman, et al., 2008) This
stereotype produces a threat to the individual associated with the social
group of being a female and this results in performance deficits for math
exams. This paper examines the current research on the use social identity
manipulation as an intervention tool to influence the effect that stereotype
threat has on mathematical performance in women. (Gresky et al.,2005)
Keywords: stereotype threat, academic performance, gender, social identity
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 3
The Effects of Social Identity on
Stereotype Threat and Academic Performance
Stereotypes are judgments that are made about another social group,
and gender is one of those groups affected by these judgments. (Thoman,
White, Yamawaki & Koishi, 2008) Gender role stereotypes are prevalent in
western society and can influence the goals or self-schemata of an individual
which can have a direct influence on their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
when presented with the negative stereotypes associated with their gender.
Stereotype threat can result from anxiety felt when faced with a situation
that confirms the negative stereotype of that individual’s social group; in this
case, gender. (Johnson, 2012) A review of the present research indicates that
the influence on this threat can be counteracted with the use of social
identity manipulation. (Rydell, McConnell & Beilock, 2009)
Identity Formation
Formulating an identity deals with the fundamental question of, who
are you? This is a question that is commonly asked in adolescence, when
individuals begin to hold beliefs and search for their purpose in the world.
(Berzonsky, 2011) Throughout this process, adolescents develop different
styles when searching for their identity. The teenagers that are actively
exploring different identities and engage in self-exploration is the
informational processing style, which coincide with an achievement or
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 4
moratorium identity style. (Berzonsky, 2011) Adolescents with a normative
identity-processing style do not but as much effort into their self-exploration
and commit to identities without much research into other possibilities.
(Berzonsky, 2011) This type of processing style would be associated with the
foreclosure identity type, where adolescents are committing but not
attempting identity exploration. Lastly, a diffuse-avoidant identity-processing
style can develop in which case no commitment or self-exploration takes
place. (Berzonsky, 2011) The current review will focus on participants who
have an informational processing style and who have formulated the
achievement identity type, in which case they have explored different
identities and successfully committed to the identities that agree with the
belief system they have established.
Stereotype Threat
When adolescent commit to an identity, there is a possibility of a
stereotype being linked with their specific identity or social group that they
choose to associate with. A stereotype is a widely help oversimplified belief
or image of a type of person or group. Stereotypes can be negative or
positive, but in the case of it being negative, stereotype threat can result.
According to Johnson (2012), stereotype threat is defined by the situational
threat that derives from the possible exposure of a negative stereotype
associated with one’s group, causing the individual to act in such a way that
confirms the stereotype. A person can experience stereotype threat when
their group is stereotyped in a negative way, even if the individual does not
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 5
believe the negative stereotype assigned to them. (Johnson, 2012) A group
that a person can associate with are based on social categories such as:
gender, ethnicity, race, and more. Any of these groups can be subject to
negative stereotyping by ‘outsiders.’ The problem that arises with stereotype
threat is its potential to hinder an individual’s performance in a range of
domains. (Johnson, 2012) The affected domains are ones that are important
to the individual. If the domain is one that is highly valued, then the
stereotype related to that domain will be valued equivalently. (Johnson,
2012) Stereotype threat can influence intelligence tests, memory tests, math
tests and even mental rotation tests. (Rydell, et al., 2009) These tests will
not accurately measure ones abilities in each domain due to the potential of
stereotype threat playing a role in altering the test takers mental state.
Finding a way to account for stereotype threat will lead to an accurate
measure of the domain being tested.
Stereotype Threat Effecting Academics
Inconsistency between the group an individual associates with, the
concept of the self and the ability domain can lead to the performance being
affected. (Rydell, et al., 2009) If there are conflicting stereotypes in each of
those areas, it will cause inconsistencies which will lead to psychological
processes that impair the person’s chances of success in that domain.
(Rydell, et al., 2009) Woman are subject to this impairment in relation to
mathematics. Rydell, et al., (2009) describe how inconsistency between
being a women, who stereotypically are bad at math, the self which see’s
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 6
themselves as intelligent and the domain being mathematics, in which they
feel confident in. These conflicting views lead to the problem that stereotype
threat causes. (Rydell, et al., 2009) Even though they can be confident in
their mathematic abilities as well as their intellect, the social group of being
a female is creating conflict and providing the anxiety that lowers their
performance in math.
Sex Differences
Sex is a social group that can have an association to negative
stereotypes which allows the members of these groups to become victim to
stereotype threat. (Johnson, 2012) Although both males and females are
vulnerable to stereotype threat, both groups do not perform equally under
the same threat. The domain currently being researched is academics; more
specifically mathematics. The current stereotype that is associated with
mathematics and sex is that men have more natural ability than women in
mathematics. (Thoman, et al., 2008) According to Johnson (2012), women
performed worse on a mathematics test under stereotype threat conditions,
while men performed better under the same conditions. Since the current
stereotype states that men are superior to women in the mathematics
domain, women acknowledged defeat before the task began because they
applied the stereotype to their own abilities. (Johnson, 2012) The stereotype
favored men’s mathematical abilities so when the males of the study were
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 7
under stereotype conditions they performed better compared to the control
group. (Johnson, 2012) Due to the current stereotype favoring men’s
abilities, the stereotype threat did not have the same effect as it had on
women. To counteract stereotype threat, the individual must be able to
identify with another group that does not have the same negative
stereotyping which can be done through social identity theory. (Rydell et al.,
2009)
Social Identity Theory
Rydell et al., (2009) describe social identity theory as being based on
the motivation an individual experiences to feel good about their self and
this motivation leads to the affiliation with different social groups. An
increase in self-esteem will lead to good feelings about the self, so a person
will likely choose the identity that will increase their self-esteem. (Rydell, et
al., 2009) At any given time a person can be a part of a variety of social
groups which can lead to many social identities. When an individual is a
member of a social group that has a negative stereotype associated to it,
they have the option to leave that group and by doing so, they choose to
associate with an alternate social identity. (Rydell, et al., 2009) If the
individual has an option to choose which identity to activate, they tend to
choose the identity that will contribute to their self-esteem. (Rydell, et al.,
2009) The current research of Rydell, et al. (2009), examined female college
students through the use of an identity accessibility task which showed how
the availability of different social identities, that have conflicting stereotypes,
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 8
can impact stereotype threat. By identifying with an available identity that is
not associated with a negative stereotype, the participants were able to
maintain a positive view of the self. (Rydell, et al., 2009)
Present Position
The literature indicates that stereotype threat can have an effect on
whether an individual is able to live up to their full potential, in regards to
academic performance. In relation to this effect, the literature suggests that
through the use of social identity manipulation, these effects can be
lessened. Thus, it is conceivable that social identity manipulation may be
used as a successful intervention when individuals are faced with stereotype
threat in an academic setting. These individuals can make salient an identity
that is not associated with the stereotype being exposed and in turn,
lessening or eliminating the risk all together.
The current review draws on this idea and examines the relationship
between stereotype threat, academic performance and social identity
manipulation. It is hypothesized that stereotype threat will have a negative
impact on the performance of women on a mathematics test when faced
with the stereotype that women are innately bad at math. Using social
identity manipulation or making the identity of being a women less salient,
will ultimately prevent stereotype threat from effecting women’s
performance in these testing situations. The research that is related to these
relationships will now be assessed and discussed.
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 9
Research Evidence
The Relationship between Stereotype Threat and Academic
Performance
It has previously been predicted that stereotype threat may lessen or
eliminate the effect it can have on academic performance. Harrison, Stevens,
Monty & Coakley (2006) researched this relationship to examine whether
socioeconomic stereotypes produce stereotype threat among lower, middle
or upper income college students. The purpose of the study was to
determine if socioeconomic stereotypes related to academic performance
would activate a threat and in turn undermine the performance of the
college students who range in different socioeconomic status.
Harrison et al., (2006) used 260 participants from northern California
University, 205 women with a median age of 20.77 and 55 men with a
median age of 21.34. Out of this sample, there were 56 participants that
categorized themselves as lower income, 103 for middle income and 101
upper income participants. (Harrison et al., 2006) A demographic
questionnaire was administered to determine where the participants
categorized themselves in terms of socioeconomic status, gender and
ethnicity. (Harrison et al., 2006) For socioeconomic status the categories
ranged from lower income ($00-$39,000), middle income ($40,000-74,999)
and upper income ($75,000- over $150,000) per year. (Harrison et al., 2006)
Along with the demographic questionnaire, the researchers also
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 10
administered an effort exerted scale, a domain identification measure, a test
anxiety scale and a state self-esteem scale. (Harrison et al., 2006) These
were used to examine whether stereotype threat had an influence on
psychological factors related to academic performance.
Each of the participants were randomly assigned to either a diagnostic
or non-diagnostic version of the test. The test contained 19-items measuring
math ability and 19 items measuring verbal ability. The questions were items
taken from an SAT test, which is a standardized test containing tasks
measuring math, writing and reading. (Harrison et al., 2006) In the
diagnostic version of the test, the instructions explicitly stated that middle
and upper income students constantly performed better on standardized
tests when compared to lower income students. (Harrison et al., 2006) This
diagnostic version of the test was the stereotype threat condition. The non-
diagnostic version of the test had different instructions in which the
stereotype, that upper and middle class students outperform lower class
students on standardized tests, was not mentioned.
In relation to math performance, a 2 x 2 x 2 analysis of variance was
conducted and a man effect for socioeconomic status was found F (2,259) =
7.39, p<0.001, MSE=0.11, n2=0.06. (Harrison et al., 2006) As seen in Figure
1, upper income participants did better on the math test (M = 0.57) when
compared to the results of the middle (M = 0.40) or lower income (M=0.36)
participants in the diagnostic condition. (Harrison et al., 2006) In the non-
diagnostic condition, lower income students (M=.44) did better on the math
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 11
test when compared to the scored of both middle income (M=0.38) and
upper income students (M=0.40). (Harrison et al., 2006) These results
coincide with the assertion that stereotype can play a role in affecting an
individual’s performance in an academic setting.
For the verbal test, the results were similar to those of the math test. A
2 x 2 x 2 analysis of variance was also conducted for verbal performance and
a main effect was found for socioeconomic status, F (2,259) = 3.47, p=0.03,
MSE = o.o2, n2 = 0.03. (Harrison et al., 2006) Figure 2 shows that in the
diagnostic version of the test, upper income students (M=0.69) performed
better when compared to middle (M=0.60) and lower income participants
(M=0.51). (Harrison et al., 2006) In the non-diagnostic test, lower income
students (M=.60) performed equal to middle income students (M=6.0) and
outperformed upper income students (M=0.57). (Harrison et al., 2006) This
is consistent with the results of the math performance test and is a reflection
of the view that stereotype threat is having an effect on the individuals
taking the test.
The Relationship between Stereotype Threat and Mathematic
Performance for Women
To further investigate the effects of stereotype threat, Quinn and
Spencer (2001) decided to focus their research on the stereotype of women
are bad at math and see the threat deriving from this stereotype would
influence women’s performance on a mathematics’ exam. They conducted
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 12
two studies, study 1 hypothesized that women and men would perform
equally on a math test that was strictly numerical and that women would
underperform in comparison to men when the math test contained word
problems. Study 2 hypothesized that the cognitive stress and the emotional
state an individual experiences as a result from stereotype threat would
affect women’s performance on a math test that was composed of all word
problems. Each study had a different goal that will coincide to better
understand how stereotype threat impairs women’s performance on math
related exams.
Quinn and Spencer (2001) conducted the first study with 108
participants from SUNY Buffalo, 54 men and 54 women. The study had a 2 x
2 between-subjects design with gender and the type of test that was
administered; either a word problem test or a numerical test. (Quinn &
Spencer, 2001) The tasks from the word problem test derived from a GMAT
practice book and contained 25 problems total, with five multiple-choice
answers to choose from. The numerical test was created by taking the word
problem test and converting it to its numerical counterpart. (Quinn &
Spencer, 2001) Both tests required the same amount of mathematical
knowledge but the word problem had an additional step, which required the
participants to strategize and convert the problem to its numerical form on
their own. It was implied that due to this extra step, that stereotype threat
would be present for the individuals taking the word problem version of the
exam.
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 13
To examine the results of this study, an analysis of variance was
conducted and found a main effect for condition, F= 35.7, p<.001, and
gender, F = 3.76, p=.06; which was qualified by a significant interaction,
F=4.07, p<.05. (Quinn & Spencer, 2001) As seen on Figure 3, Men
outperformed women on the word problem t(50)=3.07, p<.01, but men and
women did not differ significantly on the numerical exam t(54)=.25, ns.
(Quinn & Spencer, 2001) Since the numerical problems were converted from
the word problems, the word problem scores should have been similar. Since
they were not, these results show that women have the mathematical ability
to be successful on the test but that something is hindering their
performance on the more difficult word problems. Study 2 hypothesized that
stereotype threat is hindering women’s performance and that the stress and
negative emotional state that results from this threat, is the source of the
problem.
The second study that Quinn and Spencer (2001) conducted involved
36 students from the University of Michigan who had scored between 650
and 700 on the SAT-M exam. This was to control for mathematical ability;
each of the participants had the knowledge and thus the ability to do well on
the math exam that the researcher were administering. The study was a 2 x
2 between-subjects design with gender and high vs reduced stereotype
threat conditions. (Quinn & Spencer, 2001) For the reduced stereotype threat
condition, the instructions stated “Prior use of these problems has shown
them to be gender-fair- that is, men and women perform equally well on
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 14
these problems.” (Quinn & Spencer, 2001, p. 64) By explicitly stating the test
is gender fair, this would in turn be reducing stereotype threat because it is
counteracting the stereotype of women underperforming when compared to
men.
The participants were given the test individually and told to think out
loud while they answered the questions. Quinn & Spencer used coding
categories that were broken up into three categories, conventional
strategies, unconventional strategies and no strategy. Using transcripts and
notes made by the students, the participant’s strategies were placed into
one of the three categories. This categorical coding had an interrater
reliability of .80. (Quinn & Spencer, 2001) This coding strategy was used
along with 18 challenging multiple choice questions from the SAT-M. (Quinn
& Spencer, 2001) They were 18 word problems and had 5 answers to choose
from. (Quinn & Spencer, 2001) Since each of the participants did fairly well
on their math portion of the SAT, they have the skills to be successful at
solving the problems on this exam.
An ANOVA of the results was conducted and found a marginally
significant interaction, F(1,32) = 3.56, p=.07. As seen in Figure 4, women
underperformed (M=4.64) in comparison to men (M=8.17) in the condition
that was high in stereotype threat. (Quinn & Spencer, 2001) For the
condition where the stereotype threat was reduced, women (M=7.05) did
slightly better than men (M=6.03) on the mathematics test. (Quinn &
Spencer, 2001) Although the difference was not statistically significant, these
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 15
findings show that without stereotype threat, women are able to do as good
as the men on the same exam. The women in the reduced stereotype threat
condition were able to reach their full potential and perform up to their
ability.
In regards to the strategies that were used, women in the high
stereotype condition were unable to develop a strategy for more of the
questions than the reduced stereotype group, t (32) = 2.19, p<.05. (Quinn &
Spencer, 2001) When stereotype threat is not interfering with the
performance for these women, they are able to formulate the necessary
strategies needed to be successful at the tasks. Furthermore, women were
more likely than men to not develop a strategy for the questions in the high
stereotype condition, t (32)=-1.99,p<.06. (Quinn & Spencer, 2001) Table 1
displays the percentages of the strategies used by each gender in each
condition and this shows that in the high stereotype condition, women could
not formulate a strategy 14% of the time, while men could not formulate a
strategy 2% of the time. (Quinn & Spencer, 2001) In the gender fair
condition, men could not formulate a strategy 9% of the time and women
could not formulate a strategy 4% of the time. (Quinn & Spencer, 2001)
When stereotype threat is reduced, women were able to formulate strategies
more often which indicates that stereotype threat is obstructing their ability
to effectively strategize.
Quinn & Spencer’s (2001), research was able to show that the
knowledge of stereotype’s can change the testing situation for women and
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 16
even hinder their performance. According to the results of study 1, women
have the knowledge and skills needed to be successful on a mathematics
exam but they are not able to use those skills due to stereotype threat.
Stereotype threat is interfering with their ability to strategize and correctly
solve challenging problems. Study 2 was able to show that when stereotype
threat is reduced, women and men performed equally and were able to use
similar strategies to solve the difficult tasks. Reducing stereotype threat is
essential for women to be effective at problem solving and strategizing for
the mathematics exams.
The Effects of Social Identity Manipulation on the Relationship
between Stereotype Threat and Academic Performance
The previous research has indicated that stereotype threat does have
an effect on stereotype threat and that in relation to women in mathematics,
it hinders their strategizing abilities which negatively impacts their
performance on math exams. Research conducted by Quinn & Spencer
(2001) illustrated that to counteract these negative effects, stereotype threat
must be reduced. The goal of this review is to show that social identity
manipulation can be used to reduce the negative impact that stereotype
threat has on mathematical performance for women.
Gresky, Eyck, Lord and McIntyre (2005) hypothesized that the
performance deficits resulting from stereotype threat can be reduced when
the individual is reminded of the multiple social identities that they fill. Their
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 17
study included 129 participants, 94 women and 35 men who ranged in ages
from 18-22 years old. (Gresky et al.,2005) The participants were told they
were taking two unrelated tasks, one involving concept mapping and the
other being questions from the GRE. Each of the participants were told that
they were studying the GRE to examine the stereotype that men do better
than women on math tests. (Gresky et al., 2005) All of the participants were
exposed to the stereotype threat because the focus of the study was the
intervention and not the threat itself.
A math identification measure was used which contained items such as
“How much do you enjoy math-related subjects?”(Gresky et al., 2005, p.705)
and “How important is it to you to be good at math?”. (Gresky et al., 2005,
p.705) These questions were rated on a scale of 1=not at all to 5=very much
and this measure was given to the participants early in the semester. The
other measure that was used was designed from the Graduate Record
Examination (GRE) in mathematics. Gresky et al., (2005) took 30 difficult
problems from a sample version of the GRE and combined them to create
the math test that would be used to measure math performance.
The participants were randomly assigned to one out of the three
conditions. The first 2 conditions differed based on how many nodes they
drew on their self-concept map. The participants were told that the self-
concept maps allow thoughts to be shown in graphical form. (Gresky et
al.,2005) They were told to draw a central node representing themselves and
to draw pathways with other nodes that branch out from the central node.
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 18
(Gresky et al.,2005) The examples for those nodes were “school”, “friends”
or “hobbies”. (Gresky et al.,2005) The experiment explained that only the
most essential information is necessary in completing their map. The second
condition was the many nodes condition where the participants were
instructed to provide multiple connections from their central node and the
example that was given to them contained 46 nodes. (Gresky et al.,2005)
The third condition was the no maps condition and they skipped the task
completely and took the GRE test without completing a self-concept map.
The results, as indicated in table 2, demonstrated that women high in
math identification who drew many nodes on their self-concept map
(M=6.20, SD=2.76) were able to get more items correct, compared to the
results of the few nodes condition (M=4.52, SD=2.82) and the no maps
condition (M=4.52, SD=2.27). (Gresky et al.,2005) Drawing few nodes or no
map proved to be ineffective in lessening the performance deficits caused by
stereotype threat. The many nodes condition was able to counteract the
effects of stereotype threat and perform better than the other two
conditions. These results are consistent with the view that reminding the
individual of the many identities they have can be used as a successful
intervention for the negative effects of stereotype threat.
Conclusion, Alternative Explanations and Future Research
Research has been conducted that exposed the negative impact
stereotype threat has on academic performance. This review validates the
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 19
assertion that stereotype threat hinders the performance of women in
mathematical tasks. Current studies (Harrison et al., 2006; Quinn & Spencer,
2001) have shown that women have the skills to perform as well as men at
these math tasks but are not performing to their full potential due to
stereotype threat obstructing their problem-solving abilities for challenging
math problems. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that the reduction of
stereotype threat will allow women to reach their full capabilities in a
mathematical testing situation.
The results from the study conducted by Gresky et al., (2005),
demonstrated that social identity manipulation could be used as a successful
intervention to the negative effects of stereotype threat on women’s math
performance. The women in the study were able to illustrate the different
roles they fill, which in turn allowed them to make salient an identity that
does not coincide with the stereotype that women are bad at math. Making
another identity salient, allowed the women in the study to not be effected
by the stereotype threat and thus, reach their full potential in relation to
their math performance.
The present research brought up numerous plausible alternative
explanations as to why women are underperforming in comparison to men in
the domain of mathematics. One being that women are innately bad at
math, which hinders their performance on a math test. This was falsified in
Quinn & Spencer’s (2001) first study when they converted the word
problems to its numerical form. Women were able to perform well on the
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 20
numerical form of the task because they have the knowledge and skills to
solve them. The word problem version of the task involved strategizing and
this is where the stereotype threat was present, which hindered their
performance. This study demonstrated that women are just as capable as
men to do well on these math tests and that stereotype threat is the reason
they are underperforming.
Another alternative explanation was that women were self-
handicapping for the challenging tasks and not putting in the necessary
effort to keep from hurting their self-esteem. This alternative was falsified in
Quinn & Spencer’s (2001) second study when the women were able to
perform just as well as the men when the stereotype threat was reduced.
The problems were just as difficult in both the stereotype and reduced
stereotype condition, so if self-handicapping was plausible then the women
would continue to underperform when the stereotype threat was removed.
Further research could look at the positive role that stereotype lift can
have in academic performance. Stereotype lift is the boost in performance
when a stereotype is exposed and the individual is part of the in-group. Many
of the studies demonstrated that men actually did better when under
stereotype threat because the stereotype was working in their favor. The
men in the study conducted by Harrison et al., (2006) did better on both the
math and verbal tests when they were in the stereotype threat condition. It
would be interesting to investigate stereotype life further and how it can
effect academic performance.
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 21
Social identity manipulation is only one type of intervention that can be
used to off-set the negative effects of stereotype threat on academic
performance. Future research could investigate different forms of
interventions and how they can be applied in academic settings. Researchers
could look into ways of making different identities salient in different
situations, the self-concept maps are only one way of doing this. Hopefully
these forms of interventions could potentially be mandatory on all testing
situations so that no student will have to be subject to performance deficits
due to stereotype threat.
Figure 1. Accuracy Scores on the Math Test as a Function of Test Type and Participant Income (Source: Harrison et al., 2006, p. 348)
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 22
Figure 2: Accuracy Scores on the English Test as a Function of Test Type and Participant Income(Source: Harrison et al., 2006, p.349)
Figure 3: Performance on Word Problem Test and Numerical Test by Gender
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 23
(Source: Quinn & Spencer, 2001, p.62)
Figure 4: Performance on Math Test as Function of Stereotype Threat and Gender(Source: Quinn & Spencer, 2001, p.65)
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 24
Table 1: Percentage of Strategy Use on Math Problems by Gender and Condition(Source: Quinn & Spencer, 2001, p.66)
Table 2: Mean Number of Items Correct on a Difficult Math Test by Men and Women who had High or Low Math Identification and Drew no Self- Concept Maps, Self-Concept Maps with Few Nodes, or Self-Concept Maps with Many Nodes(Source: Gresky et al.,2005, p. 708)
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL IDENTITY 25
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