1. Introduction to Linguistics Professor: Dr.Aida A. Dianela
Reporter:ALVINT.VARGAS Sat. 7:30-10:30 Structure of Words:
MORPHOLOGY
2. A.Words 1. Notion of Words a.Structure of Words Simple words
Complex words B. Morphemes, Allomorphs and Morph 1.Morphemes
2.Allomorphs 3.Morphs C. Main Types of Morphemes a. According to
Occurrence Free Morphemes Bound Morphemes
3. b. According to Function Lexical Morphemes Bound Roots -
Derivational Affixes Grammatical Morphemes - Free Grammatical
Morphemes - Bound Grammatical Morphemes - Inflectional Affixes
Clitics - Enclitics - Proclitics
4. D. Allomorphs and allomorph conditioning Types of Allomorph
Phonological allomorphs Suppletive allomorphs Types of Conditioning
factors Phonological conditioning Lexical conditioning
Morphological conditioning
5. The boundaries of words in spoken utterances are not overtly
marked, so we need criteria for their identification.We introduce
the widely used notion of word as minimal free form.We also examine
the internal structure of words, that is, how they can be divided
into smaller meaningful units.The scientific investigation of this
domain is called MORPHOLOGY.
6. Morphology is the study of word formation, of the structure
of words. Some observations about words and their structure: 1.
Some words can be divided into parts which still have meaning. 2.
Many words have meaning by themselves. But some words have meaning
only when used with other words. 3. Some of the parts into which
words can be divided can stand alone as words. But others cannot.
4. These word-parts that can occur only in combination must be
combined in the correct way. 5. Languages create new words
systematically.
7. Words Notion ofWords Speakers generally have some notion of
words in their language, and all languages probably have a word for
word that is, a word that can translate word in some context.
Speakers of English generally have a good feel for how an utterance
can be divided into words.This may seem trivial: surely words are
the things that are separated by largish white spaces in writing.
But this does not work smoothly. Ex. Bookcase and Bookshelf Church
mouse and Churchman In speech we find no corresponding pauses
between words - Ex.The farmer kills the duckling. Nevertheless,no
speaker of English would have any doubt that there are five words
in this sentence.No one would say that there is a word boundary
between farm and erkills or between kill and s.
8. The farmerkills the duckling orThe um:farmer kills um the
duckling. The farmer kills the duckling. Extension: Ex. The hairy
farmer always kills all the little ducklings. De farmer kills de
duckling /The farmer kills the duckring. Words are thus minimal
free forms: they have a degree of independence from other words in
the sentence in the sense that they can be separated from them
(free bit) and no smaller part of them has such freedom(minimal
bit)
9. Structure of Words Simple words - no internal structure Ex.
farm,kill,duck Complex words do have internal structure Ex.
farmer,kills,duckling The pieces we have been talking about are
minimal linguistic signs: they have a form and meaning, and cannot
be divided into smaller linguistic signs. Such pieces are
morphemes. Morphemes are in a sense atomic signs: they cant be
split up further. Simple words consist of a single morpheme;
complex words of more than one morpheme.
10. Language differ vastly in terms of the word-complexity they
permit. By comparison, words inYupik (Eskimo,Aleut,Alaska) tend to
be more complex, and often correspond to full sentences in English.
Ex.kaipiallrulliniuk means the two of them were apparently really
hungry, and is made up of six morphemes. Kai- -pia- -llru- -llini-
-u- -k- be; hungry- -really- -past- -apparently- -statement-
-they:two
11. Morphemes, Allomorphs and Morph Morphemes sometimes come in
different phonological shapes. For instance, we identified a
morpheme with the shape /z/ in kills,which indicates that a single
person is doing the event now. For cat the corresponding form ends
in /s/, and for touches,it ends in / z/.These variant forms are
called allomorphs. Other allomorphs in English are /t/, /d/, and /
d/ that are variant forms of the morpheme that attach to verbs and
indicate past time.
12. Ex. kissed /kIst/, killed /kIld/ and batted /bt d/,
respectively. Allomorphs Maybe complementary distribution Ex. / /
and /n/ = a and an or free variation Ex. exit as /gzIt/ and /ksIt/,
and off as / :f/ and / f/.
13. Morphs Sometimes used on analogy with phone in phonetics to
refer to any meaningful form in a language. Some morphs are grouped
together as allomorphs of a morpheme. Ex. /z/, one going on nouns
and specifying plural (more than one), as in dogs /d gz/, the other
going on verbs, and indicatinghe, she or it is doing
something.
14. Main Types of Morphemes According to Occurrence Free
Morphemes a simple word consists of a single morpheme, and so is a
free morpheme, a morpheme with the potential for independent
occurrence. In The farmer kills the duckling,the free morphemes are
the,farm,kill and duck. Bound Morphemes by contrast, require the
presence of another morpheme to make up a word; they cant occur
independently.The morphs er, -s and ling in the given example are
bound morphemes.
15. Other morphemes like ish,-ness,-ly,pre-,trans-, and un- are
never words by themselves but are always parts of words.These
affixes are bound morphemes. Prefixes occur before the morpheme, as
in un-happy. Suffixes occur after a morpheme, as in friend-ly.A
third type of bound morpheme is an infix, that goes inside another
morpheme, as in 'absofreakinglutely' (some languages make more use
of this than English). Collectively, suffixes, prefixes and infixes
are called affixes.
16. According to Function Lexical Morphemes are those like
farm,kill,happy that convey the majorcontent of a message,
specifying the things, qualities and events spoken about. Words
that have meaning by themselves are called lexical morphemes. Bound
Roots - Most roots in English are free however there exist a number
which are always bound as they carry no meaning apart from the word
in which they are found. (Ex. cranberry) There are other roots
which are bound in the in certain contexts and free in
others.(Ex.blackboard)
17. Derivational Affixes these are affixes that attach to a
lexical root and result in a new word, a complex lexeme called
stem.The suffix er / / in English is a derivational suffix. Adding
it to a lexical root gives a stem with related meaning. Ex. bake
baker, boil boiler. These suffixes do not only change the meaning
of the morpheme they are attached to, they also change its
part-of-speech.
18. Ex. Noun Adjective Verb Noun Adjective Adverb boy + ish
sing + er exact + ly Noun Verb Adjective Noun Verb Adjective vapor
+ ize free + dom read + able Some derivational suffixes do not
cause change in grammatical class. Ex. Noun Noun Verb Verb
Adjective Adjective Friend + ship un + do pink + ish
19. Grammatical Morphemes Whereas lexical morphemes give the
major meaning content of an utterance, grammatical morpheme mainly
give information about the grammatical structure of the utterance,
about how to put the content together to form a coherent whole.
Those words that function to specify the relationship between one
lexical morpheme and anotherwords like at,in,on,-ed,-sare called
grammatical morphemes. Free Grammatical Morphemes -Words that can
stand alone which (1) Signal grammatical & semantic roles &
relationships; (2) Qualify or modify meaning (e.g., gender for
pronouns)Articles, prepositions, conjunctions, disjunctions,
pronouns Ex. the, a an, to, of, by, for, and, but, his, her
20. Bound Grammatical Morphemes Suffixes that (1) indicate
grammatical & semantic roles and relationships; and (2) Qualify
or modify meaning. Complete list: {-pl}: plural morpheme {-poss}:
possessive {-3rd person sg. present} {-present participle} {-past
participle} {-er comparative} higher {-est superlative}
highest
21. Inflectional Affixes are bound morphemes that give
grammatical information relevant to the interpretation of a
sentence.They do not give rise to new lexical words, but to
different forms of a single lexical word, different forms that are
appropriate for the use of the lexical word in the sentence.
English has only eight inflectional affixes: {PLU} = plural Noun -s
boys {POSS} = possessive Noun -s boys {COMP} = comparative Adj -er
older {SUP} = superlative Adj -est oldest {PRES} = present Verb -s
walks {PAST} past Verb -ed walked {PAST PART} = past participle
Verb -en driven {PRES PART} = present participle Verb -ing
driving
22. Clitics - A word or part of a word that is structurally
dependent on a neighboring word (its host) and cannot stand on its
own. Not all bound grammatical morphemes are inflectional affixes.
The bound form of have,written ve,as in Theyve broken in againis an
example. Bound grammatical morphemes like this, which behave
grammatically as separate word, but are phonologically part of the
preceding word, are called enclitics. If they are part of the
following word, they are called proclitics
23. The negative word not and a relatively small number of
frequently occurring words (mostly verbs) can be contracted and
attached to other words. Usually they are attached at the end as
enclitics: she's (she is or she has), don't (do not). Occasionally
they are proclitics: d'you (do you), 'tis (it is). The combination
of both types of clitics appears in 'tisn't.
24. Allomorphs and Allomorph conditioning Types of Allomorphs
Phonological allomorphs morphemes that are phonologically similar
Ex. /s/ - /z/ - / z/ ( plural and possessive allomorphs) Suppletive
allomorphs morphemes that are quite different phonologically. Ex.
good,better,best (The derived comparative and superlative forms of
good with the regular derivational suffixes er and (e)st
25. Types of Conditioning factors Phonological conditioning ex.
/ / and /n/ = a and an (conditioned by the following phoneme)
Lexical conditioning ex. en, (in the past participle) -ed, (the
form of the verb used after have and had. (the choice of allomorph
depends on the particular word the morpheme is attached to.)
Morphological conditioning (Grammatical morphemes condition the
presence of the allomorph.)
26. There is no longest word in English What is the longest
word of the English language? Some have mentioned the following:
(1) a. antidisestablishmentarianism (28 letters) b.
Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious (34 letters) c.
pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanokoniosis (45 letters) As it
turns out, there is no longest word in English. To see this,
consider simply the following two series, each of which can be
continued without limit to create a potentially infinite number of
new words:
27. antidisestablishmentarianism The word construction is as
follows establish (9)to set up, put in place, or institute
dis-establish (12)to end the established status of a body, in
particular a church, given such status by law, such as the Church
of England disestablish-ment (16)the separation of church and state
anti-disestablishment (20)opposition to disestablishment
antidisestablishment-ary (23)of or pertaining to opposition to
disestablishment antidisestablishmentari-an (25)an opponent of
disestablishment antidisestablishmentarian-ism (28)the movement or
ideology that opposes disestablishment
28. Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious The roots of the word
have been defined as follows: super- "above", cali- "beauty",
fragilistic- "delicate", expiali- "to atone", and docious-
"educable", with the sum of these parts signifying roughly "Atoning
for educability through delicate beauty."Although the word contains
recognizable English morphemes, it does not follow the rules of
English morphology as a whole.The morpheme -istic is a suffix in
English, whereas the morpheme ex- is typically a prefix; so
following normal English morphological rules, it would represent
two words:supercalifragilistic and expialidocious.
29. (2) a. great-grandmother b. great-great-grandmother c.
great-great-great-grandmother (3) a. sensation b. sensational c.
sensationalize d. sensationalization e. sensationalizational f.
sensationalizationalize
30. MORPHEMES BOUND FREE FUNCTION OR GRAMMATICAL WORDS CONTENT
OR LEXICAL WORDS ROOTAFFIX DERIVATIONAL INFLECTIONAL PREFIX SUFFIX
SUFFIX Conjunction (and) Preposition (in) Articles (the) Pronouns
(she) Auxiliary verbs (is) Nouns (girl) Adjectives (pretty) Verbs
(give) Adverbs (easily) -ceive -mit -fer pre - un - con- -ly -ist
-ment -ing -er -s -s -est -s -en -ed