From modern day
France…
1
Image:
http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_EBq9covCU9o/RotnNrG6YII/ AAAAAAAACDk/M1QEHmownhM/s400/YIMG_2326.JPG
Image: http://guidesofistanbul.com/eng/images/ bozdogan_2/766662-roman_aqueduct-Istanbul.jpg
to Turkey…
2
Image:
http://www.guenter-lehnen-koeln.de/Denkmaeler_62.jpg
Image:
http://i1.trekearth.com/photos/12917/dsc_2102-1124.jpg
from Germany…
to Tunis…
3
Image: http://www.aymavilles.vda.it/site/foto/DSC_0028_302_l.jpg
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/ilelouine4.jpg
from the Alps
mountains…
to the mountains of
Algeria…
4
Image: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/
thumb/1/19/Almunecar3042603.JPG/800px-Almunecar3042603.JPG
Image: http://www.greatcommission.com/ israel/CaesareaMaritimaRomanAqueduct.jpg
from the shores of
Spain
to the beaches of
Israel…
the Romans built one-storey aqueducts,
5 Image: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Aqueduc.jpg/800px-Aqueduc.jpg
two storey aqueducts…
6 Image: http://www.andalucia.com/province/granada/almunecar/image/3506-14monumentos.jpg
and four storey aqueducts. 8 Image: http://costablog.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/nerja_aqueduct.jpg
BUT,
these magnificent structures
which we call aqueducts today, were in reality,
only a fraction of the system
by which ancient Romans
acquired water.
Fully 80 % of Roman aqueducts
lay hidden underground
or in workaday disguise.
Let’s look at the aqueduct of Segovia
in Spain to discover how the Romans got their
drinking water.
9
ANCIENT ROMAN WATER ACQUISITION
10
Image: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Vista-aerea-del-acueducto-de-Segovia.jpg/800px-Vista-aerea-del-acueducto-de-Segovia.jpg
to
11
distribution
underground seepage
water collection
covered trench
tunnel
shafts
un
de
rgrou
nd
se
ep
age
o
tunnel
substruction
arcade
Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 12.
Headwater Collection: Caput Aquae
sedimentation
On a steep hillside in central Spain, a
small mountain stream…
12 Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/weirtopsegovia.jpg
…is slowed and strained to capture a supply
of pure, fresh water which is then sent…
13 Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/weirsegovia.jpg
…past the granite
dam…
14
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/ aquasite/foto/P5082778.jpg
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/
aquasite/foto/weirblockssegovia.jpg
and through a regulating
sluice gate.
to
15
distribution
underground seepage
water collection
open/covered trench
tunnel
shafts
un
de
rgrou
nd
se
ep
age
o
tunnel
substruction
arcade
Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 12.
Open and Covered Trenches:
Canales
sedimentation
It
then
would
have
flowed
along
an
open
stone
conduit…
16
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/weirblockssegovia.jpg
before being covered with large, flat
stones designed to shield the fresh water
from the sun and from contaminants.
17
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/coversegovia.jpg
These flat stones could be removed for access to
several small settling basins designed to slow the
flow of rushing water and let sand carried from the
mountain stream sink below the water’s current.
18
Image: http://roma.andreapollett.com/S3/roma-aq2.htm
to
19
distribution
underground seepage
water collection
open/covered trench
tunnel
shafts
un
de
rgrou
nd
se
ep
age
o
tunnel
substruction
arcade
Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 12.
Underground Tunnel: Specus
sedimentation
After passing the settling basins, the mountain
water entered a long underground tunnel called the
specus. In many locations, the Romans had no
choice but to cut these through solid rock, but if
possible, they built a specus by digging a trench in
the earth and constructing its side walls, floor and
roof, in that order. The roof could be flat, pointed,
or arched. A specus could be constructed of stone,
brick or cement; it was coated inside with
waterproof plaster, and when completed, it was then
buried, making it resistant to wind or storm damage,
enemy destruction, and even some earthquakes.
20
Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 11.
The specus: an aqueduct’s
undeground channel
21
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/P5062217.jpg
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/tekconduitmodel.jpg
Image:http://roma.andreapollett.com/S3/roma-aq2.htm
to
22
distribution
underground seepage
water collection
open/covered trench
tunnel
shafts
un
de
rgrou
nd
se
ep
age
o
tunnel
substruction
arcade
Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 12.
Shafts: Putei or Lumina
sedimentation
Above a buried specus, a series of evenly
spaced manholes, called putei, marked its path
across the countryside. Each puteus brought air
and light (lumen) into the buried specus and
allowed maintenance crews to descend into the
water channel for cleaning and repair.
23
Image: http://www.celtiberia.net/imagftp/ im199269499-Arquetas.jpg
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/ aquasite/foto/koelnputei.jpg
At the bottom of each
puteus, the flowing water
was aerated as it fell into
a drop basin designed to
catch and remove debris
from the main specus.
24
Image: http://www.celtiberia.net/imagftp/ im199269587-Agua-arquetas.jpg
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/ aquasite/foto/lijntekstillingbasin.jpg
Puteus and
sedimentation
drop basin
Workers would remove the
mud and debris by hauling
buckets up the puteus shaft.
They would also clean the
specus walls by removing
calcium and hard-water
deposits called sinter.
25
Image: http://www.TinyURL.com/287cux7
Image: http://i.telegraph.co.uk/telegraph/multimedia/ archive/01565/aquaduct_1565777c.jpg
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/a
quasite/foto/roupbridge.jpg
Image: http://news.discovery.com/ archaeology/2010/01/29/aqueduct
1-825x550.jpg
Related to settling and drop basins, regulation
basins might use a sluice gate to divert the flow of
water from a specus during its cleaning or repair. 26
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/P5190053.jpg
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/
aquasite/foto/P5082778.jpg
to
27
distribution
underground seepage
water collection
open/covered trench
tunnel
shafts
un
de
rgrou
nd
se
ep
age
o
tunnel
substruction
arcade
Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 12.
Sedimentation or Cleaning Tanks:
Piscina Limaria
sedimentation
As the flowing water neared its destination,
the specus rose again to ground level. At this
point, it entered a preliminary cleansing
facility called a piscina limaria; in Latin the
word for mud is limus.
28
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info /aquasite/foto/casapiedra1.jpg
In this little building,
incoming water would
slow its flow and settle
into a basin designed to
gather particles of dirt
and debris in a pit at
the bottom. Water
intake could be halted
with a metal sluice gate
while workers cleaned
and then flushed the
sediment from the pit. 29
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/ aquasite/foto/casapiedrain.jpg
After the
water
was
cleaned,
it left this
piscina
limaria
and traveled
on in its
open-air
conduit.
30
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/casapiedra1.jpg
A short distance ahead, the water flowed into
another, larger piscina limaria…
31
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/casaaquas.jpg
…where it fell into a deeper drop basin. As the water
rose back up again, a separate shunting channel… 32
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/casaaquain2.jpg
carried the water into a
side tank in which a
stone sieve filtered the
flow one last time
before it reached the
upcoming arcade.
33
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/P5082769.jpg
to
34
distribution
underground seepage
water collection
open/covered trench
tunnel
shafts
un
de
rgrou
nd
se
ep
age
o
tunnel
substruction
arcade
Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 12.
Elevating Wall:
Substructio
sedimentation
Leaving the large settling basin, the water continued
its trip forward on top of a substructio, a raised
stone wall, usually no more than 7-10 feet high,
supporting the specus without the use of arches. 35
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/casaaqua0.jpg
to
36
distribution
underground seepage
water collection
open/covered trench
tunnel
shafts
un
de
rgrou
nd
se
ep
age
o
tunnel
substruction
arcade
Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 12.
Elevating Arches or Arcade
Arcuationes
sedimentation
After travelling on the substructio for
463 feet, the water channel then rose slowly
onto the first level of the 2240 foot long
arcuatio, or arcade bridge, on which it
would cross the deep valley ahead.
37
Image: http://lh5.ggpht.com/_8uWGonu6jVk/SavtVX1YDvI/AAAAAAAAAvw/vqVBqCfF6Ks/s800/DSC00992.JPG
After a several sharp angles, the conduit finally
turned out onto a double arcade and…
38
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/curvesegovia.jpg
…crossed a long straightaway as the arches below…
39
Image: http://www.ige.csic.es/HWC2006/espanol/images/acueducto.jpg
rose to a dizzying height of 95 feet before…
40
Image: http://farm1.static.flickr.com/215/457600861_d67a0fdeb5.jpg
reaching the opposite side and descending once
again towards the ground, where the mountain
stream’s water would be distributed to the city.
41
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/finalarchessegovia.jpg
to
42
distribution
underground seepage
water collection
open/covered trench
tunnel
shafts
un
de
rgrou
nd
se
ep
age
o
tunnel
substruction
arcade
Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 12.
Water Distribution
sedimentation
Sedimentation Tanks and Cisterns
Piscinae et Cisternae
43
Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 18.
ground level pressurized subterranean pipes secondary
castella and
water towers
sedimentation/cistern
homes, industry baths public fountains
closed system (pressurized) open system (gravitational)
main castellum
At the end of an aqueduct, water was often
delivered to large holding tanks, called cisterns.
44 Image: http://pjspictures.me.uk/images/Cr_Cistern.jpg
These also served as final piscinae limariae, slowing
the water’s flow through multiple chambers and
allowing one last chance for sediment to cleaned out
of the water before delivery to the public. 45
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/p2castellumvirgo.jpg
Main Water House and Delivery Pipes
Castella Aquae, Pipae et Fistulae
Castellum Divisorium
46
Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 18.
ground level pressurized subterranean pipes secondary
castella and
water towers
sedimentation/cistern
homes, industry baths public fountains
closed system (pressurized) open system (gravitational)
main castellum aquae
The aqueduct’s water then arrived at the rear of
the main distribution house, called the castellum
aquae or the castellum divisorium. 47
Image: http://commondatastorage.googleapis.com/static.panoramio.com/photos/original/7287015.jpg
48
paraphrase of Vitruvius, De Architectura 8.6.1-2. cf. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/8*.html
When [aqueducts] are brought to the walls of the city a castellum is built, with a triple cistern attached to it to receive the water. In the castellum are three pipes of equal sizes, [each] connected in such a manner that when water overflows [from the side basins], it is discharged into the middle one. [From that middle basin comes a pipe for the public fountains, and from the side basins come pipes] a)for the supply of the thermae(baths), thus affording a yearly revenue to the people and b) for the supply of private houses… Vitruvius, De Architectura 8.6.1-2.
Castellum
divisorium:
sluice gates to
control and direct
flow of water
strainer
lead weir
public supply
thermae
private supply
49
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/ aquasite/foto/lijntekpompeii.jpg
Water entering the castellum divisorium… 50
Image: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Castellum_Aquae_Pompeii_271.jpg
…was divided into three channels… 51
Image: http://www.avignon-et-provence.com/tourisme/pont-du-gard/img/pont-du-gard-12.jpg
52
Image: http://www.eskimo.com/~mikeg/italy_2007/water_dept.jpg
…which exited the building in three pipes.
53
Image: http://roma.andreapollett.com/ S3/roma-aq2.htm
Image: http://roma.andreapollett.com/
S3/roma-aq2.htm
Image: http://www.eskimo.com/~mikeg/
italy_2007/water_dept.jpg
“That the flavor of water conveyed in
earthen pipes is better, is shown at our daily meals, for
all those whose tables are furnished with silver vessels, nevertheless use
earthenware vessels because the
purity of the water’s flavor is
preserved in them”
Vitruvius, De Architectura 8.11 http://penelope.uchicago.edu/
Thayer/E/ Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/8*.html
“Water conducted
through earthen pipes is more
wholesome than that through
lead; This may be verified by
observing those who work with lead; they are of a pallid color…”
54
Image: http://www.flickr.com/photos/sparker/2662921627/in/photostream/
Image: http://www.eskimo.com/~mikeg/italy_2007/water_pipes.jpg
Paraphrase of: Vitruvius, De Architectura 8.1-11
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/ Thayer/E/
Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/8*.html
55
Nevertheless,
lead pipes were almost essential for
delivering water under pressure
throughout many large Roman cities.
The possible side-effects of that lead
may well have been diminished,
however, by the natural buildup of
minerals within these pipes, mirroring
the accumulation of sinter within an
aqueduct’s specus.
Water Towers and Water Pressure:
Secondary Castella and Public Consumption
56
Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 18.
ground level pressurized subterranean pipes secondary
castella and
water towers
sedimentation/cistern
homes, industry baths public fountains
closed system (pressurized) open system (gravitational)
main castellum
Thirsty visitors gather for a drink.
Where will their water come from?
57
Image: http://farm1.static.flickr.com/94/260046813_06c17543b4.jpg
In most Roman cities, the castellum aquae was located, as it was in Pompeii, on the highest spot in town. There the great force of the mighty aqueduct pushed water into small diameter lead pipes and that water, further pressurized by gravity on its downhill route, continued on to secondary castella, which we call water towers, located in many local neighborhoods. There, lead pipes carried the water up into lead-lined basins at the top of brick towers 15 or more feet tall. Such gravity-feed mini-reservoirs reduced and regulated the pressure of the water as it entered the next set of pipes…
58
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/ lijntekwatertorenpompeii.jpg
Oleson, John. Handbook of engineering and technology in the Classical world. 1st. New York,, NY: Oxford University Press, USA, 2008. 303.
which actually delivered the
water for the public to drink
at a corner fountain…
59
Image: http://lejournaldelouise.com/wp-content/ gallery/rome/pompeii-water-fountain.jpg
Image: http://image09.webshots.com/ 9/8/79/35/115187935GPIMbo_ph.jpg
…or carry back in a bucket to businesses
or homes in their neighborhood.
60
Image: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_nHmUxKq2nz4/SiC_RBHjJeI/AAAAAAAAB3k/umlse2xG5NI/s1600-h/2008-05-22+257+Ercolano+-+Herculaneum.jpg
Image: http://www.ostia-antica.org/regio2/pr/viafon.htm
Some wealthy Romans paid to
have water piped directly into
their homes, where it often was
put to use for fountains in their
own private gardens (horti).
61
Image: http://enginova.com/water Image: http://farm2.static.flickr.com/1136/624800701_ee6a3e9e87.jpg
Image: http://museumvictoria.com.au/ melbournemuseum/discoverycentre/
pompeii/objects/water-pipe/
62
Remember, too,
that one- third of
the water leaving
a castellum
divisorium, was
directed to the
public baths.
In the thermae, it filled both
steamy hot-water soaking basins
and cold-water plunge pools…
63 Image: http://images.travelpod.com/users/bandglittle/
uk2006.1167413760.pc292754.jpg
Image: http://0.tqn.com/d/gouk/ 1/0/O/-/-/-/bath.jpg
… and, as a fresh
supply continually
entered, dirty water
was channeled from
the bathhouse...
into adjoining latrines, where it flushed away waste
and, in many Roman cities, carried it outdoors
64
Image: http://images.travelpod.com/users/bandglittle/uk2006.1167413760.pc292754.jpg
into cloacae (sewers) under
the street, which then carried
it to nearby rivers or the sea-
65
Image: http://0.tqn.com/d/ancienthistory/ 1/0/s/a/2/800px-040227_tevere16CloacaMaxima.jpg
Image: http://www.tempt.ee/uploads/ 3457_cloaca%20maxima1.jpg
underscoring why
Romans expended
such great effort to build the aqueducts that supplied fresh water from afar.