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Tuna al-Gebel: Millions of Ibises and Other Animals

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DivineCreatures:AnimalMummiesinAncientEgyptSalimaIkram

Printpublicationdate:2005PrintISBN-13:9789774248580PublishedtoCairoScholarshipOnline:January2012DOI:10.5743/cairo/9789774248580.001.0001

Tunaal-Gebel:MillionsofIbisesandOtherAnimalsDieterKesslerAbdelHalimNurel-Din

DOI:10.5743/cairo/9789774248580.003.0006

AbstractandKeywords

Tunaal-Gebelreferstoanaturallow-lyingbasinthatwasoriginallyregularlyfilledwithwaterbytheinundationoftheriver-canaloftheBahrYusuf.Ashifttoasemiaridclimate,resultinginhigherNilefloodsdramaticallyalteredthefloodplainaftertheNewKingdom.TheearliestextantarchaeologicalstructuresknownatthemouthofthegreatdesertvalleyofTuna-Southuntilnowdonotlieonthesurface,butunderground,consistingofthevastsubterraneanworldoftheanimalgalleriesofTunaal-Gebel.Thesearetheburialplacesofibises,baboons,falcons,andothersacredanimals,atthefootofthewesternlimestonecliffimmediatelytothenorthofthedesertwadi.ThischapterdiscussesthefoundationofthefirstEgyptianibisburialplace.Italsotalksabouttheculticfunctionofdeifiedibisesinthenewibiotapheion.

Keywords:Tunaal-Gebel,river-canal,BahrYusuf,NewKingdom,desertwadi,ibiotapheion


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TheSiteoftheAnimalCemetery(Tuna-South)ThemodernvillageofTunaal-GebelissituatedinMinyaprovince,sixkilometerstothewestofthevillageofal-Ashmunein,theancienttownofHermopolis(Magna)withitsfamoustempletoThoth,themoongod.ThevillagegivesitsnametothewesterncemeteryofHermopolis,anarchaeologicalzoneofaboutsevenkilometersinlengththatliesalongthewesterndesertedge,beginningonekilometertothenorthofthevillageofTunaal-Gebelandendingsixkilometerssouthofthevillageinabroaddesertvalley.Thename,Tunaal-Gebel,derivesfromanancienttoponymThone,meaningtheswamp.Itreferstoanaturallow-lyingbasinthatwasoriginallyregularlyfilledwithwaterbytheinundationoftheriver-canaloftheBahrYusuf.ThedepressionoftheTunabasin,todaydry,stretchesmorethensixkilometerstothesouth.

DuringtheNewKingdomtheremotewesterndesertedgewassurelyconnectedwiththetownofHermopolisbyadamraisedabovethefloodplain.AcemeteryofNewKingdomdatewasfoundedonekilometertothesouthofthevillageofTuna.ObjectsdatingtothereignsofAmenhotepIII(13881351B.C.)andRamessesII(12791213B.C.)havebeenlaterreusedintheanimalcemetery,indicatingaroyaltemple,perhapsassociatedwithanecropolis,locatednearbyinthesurroundingsofTuna.AftertheNewKingdom,groupsofhumanburialsweredugbehindandtothesouthwestofTunaintothelimestonecliffnearthemouthoftwosmalldesertvalleys.

Ashifttoasemiaridclimate,resultinginhigherNilefloodsdramaticallyalteredthefloodplainaftertheNewKingdom.ItseemsthatthelakeofTunaanditssoutherntipfavoredanintensifiedtrafficwith(p.121) theadministrativecenter,Hermopolis,probablybyusingthenavigableriverBahrYusuf.TheimprovedagrarianbaseofthevillagesalongtheBahrYusufcausedmorepeopletosettleintheareaofTuna-South.Thedonkeytrack,wendingitswaythroughthedesertvalleyofTuna-Southtothedesertplateau,andleadingfurtherontotheoasisofBahariya,musthavebeencontrolledbyamilitarygarrison.

ThesupposedearlySaitesettlementlocatedatthemouthofthegreatdesertvalleyofTuna-Southisyettobefound.Theearliestextantarchaeologicalstructuresknownatthesiteuntilnowdonotlieonthesurface,butunderground,consistingofthevastsubterraneanworldoftheanimalgalleriesofTunaal-Gebel.Thesearetheburialplacesofibises,baboons,falcons,andothersacredanimals,atthefootofthewesternlimestonecliffimmediatelytothenorthofthedesertwadi.


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Fig.6.1 AmapofthesubterraneanworldatTunaal-Gebel.Thepre-Ptolemaicpartsofthegalleriesareindicatedbylightercoloring.CourtesyofDieterKessler.

(p.122)

Fig.6.2 AmapofthesiteofTunaal-Gebel.CourtesyofDieterKessler.

(p.123)

(p.124) TheFoundationoftheFirstEgyptianIbisBurialPlaceAbout450B.C.,whenEgyptwasunderPersianrule,theGreekhistorianHerodotustraveledtoEgypt.IntheLowerEgyptiantownofBubastistalkativeprieststriedtoexplaintohimtheideasbehindtheEgyptiansacredanimals.Itisdoubtfulthatheunderstoodthemysteriescompletely,butapparentlyhecorrectlyreportsthosefactsthathehadheard.AshewritesinhisHistories(II,67),theEgyptiansbroughtallsacredibisestotheUpperEgyptiantownofHermopolis,i.e.,totheanimalnecropolisofthistown.ItispossiblethatasecondearlyibiotapheionexistedintheLowerEgyptiantownofHermopolis,knowntodayasTellBaqliya,whichwasthereligiouscounterparttoHermopolisMagna,althoughnofirmevidencehasyetemerged.

AlongtimebeforeHerodotus'svisit,probablyalldeadsacredibises,andnotonlythosethatwereusedduringprominentritualsintheEgyptiantempleprecincts,butalsothosekepttogetherwithothersacredbirdsataspeciallocalbreedingsite,calledtheibiotropheionbytheGreeks,werebroughttotheburialplaceofibises(Greek:ibiotapheion,inEgyptian:restingplaceoftheibis)atTunaal-Gebel.Judgingbyclayseals


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foundinsidetheanimalgalleriesthedecisionforacentralEgyptianibiotapheionwasmadeduringthereignsofthepharaohsPsametikI(664610B.C.)andAmasis(570526B.C.).Thiswassurelyorderedbyaroyaldecree,whichalsoannouncedthedeathpenaltyforanybodykilling,deliberatelyoraccidentally,asacredibisorasacredfalcon(HerodotusII,65).Furthermore,thegroupofprotectivegodsintheshapeofanimalseitherstandingasstatuesintheforecourtsoftheEgyptiantemplesorbeingcarriedduringprocessionsassacredanimalstandards,weresystematized,includingprobablynewrulesfortheirassociatedcultgroupsthatwereinstalledfortheirmaintenance.Theincomefromspecialfieldendowments,calledFields-of-the-Ibiswasattributedtosustainthelocalinstitutionoftheibiotropheion,andpartlyusedforthefeedingofthesacredanimals,andpartlyforthegroupofpriestsandservantsresponsiblefortheanimals'upkeep.

TheearlytransferofEgyptiansacredibisestoTunacanbeconfirmedbyobjectsexcavatedfromthesubterraneangalleries:demoticpapyri,foundinjars,togetherwithbundlescontainingbonesofibisesandothersacredanimals.DatingtothetimeofthePersianrulerDariusI(522486B.C.),thesepapyrirecordthetransportofthespecial(p.125) ibisesfromtheFayumregiontoTunaal-Gebelwiththehelpofcertaincultservants(Zaghloul1985),allprobablybelongingtothelocalreligiousorganizationsofThe-Ibis.Ageneralwasresponsiblefortheirsafetransfer.Inonecase,aGreekcalledAriston,presumablyamilitaryofficer,isalsomentioned.

Theibisandotheranimalfiguresthatappearonstandardpoleswereimportantsacredmilitaryinsignia,acceptedalsobyforeigntroops,whoparticipatedinthelocalEgyptiantempleceremonies,butstayedintheirownethnicunits.Sacredstandardswerekeptintheguardianshipofthemilitaryofficers,perhapsused,forexample,duringthefestivalsforthereigningkingwhowasalsotheirmilitaryleader.Accordingtothepapyrilogicalevidence,localibisassociationsseemtohavebeenunderthecontrolandleadershipofaperson,havingthetitleofageneral.InlatertimesthetitleofthegeneralwasalsoformallytransferredtotheleaderofeverysmalllocalcultassociationofThe-IbisandThe-Falcon,bothoftencombined.Ptolemaicpapyrievenmentionfemalegenerals(deCenival1972).

Forthecontinuinghabitofsendingspecialdeifiedmummifiedtempleibises,toTunaal-Gebelafter305B.C.,thereisabundantevidenceintheformofdemoticinscriptions(Thissen1991).Usuallyonetothreelinesoftextarefoundonspecialibissarcophagimadeofwood,clay,orlimestone.ThemummiesinsideoriginatefromplacesalloverEgypt,notonlyfrombiggertownslikeAswaninthesouth,Ptolemais-PsoisinUpperEgypt,HermopolisorHeliopolisintheDelta,butalsofromsmallersites,manyofwhicharestillnotidentified.

Thetypicaldemoticinscriptionohsuchibissarcophagioribisjarsruns,inamoreextendedversion:YearXmonthYdayZthegodofThoth,whomNNhasbrought,sonofNN,fromthetownAinthehandofthescribeNN,sonofNN.

ThesePtolemaicinscriptionsfirstmentionthepersonwhobroughtthedeadanimalfromhishomeinstitution,alreadymummifiedanddeified,totheadministratorsofthetemple


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precinctinTuna-South.Histitlesaregiveninonlyafewcases,demonstratingthatthesemessengersbelongedtoaspecialclassoflowerrankingcultservants.ThereceivingscribemusthavebeenthescribeoftheresponsibleorganizationofThe-IbisinTunaal-Gebel.Maybethehighstatusofsuchtempleibisesandthefinancialtransactionsnecessaryforthepaymentoftheexpenses(p.126) concerningtheirembalmingandtransportationledtotheirspecialtreatmentandexclusiveburialinsidethecatacombs.RenewingthedeificationbyagainperformingtheOpening-of-the-Mouthritual,thesingleibismummywascarrieddownintothesubterraneangalleries,placedindividuallyinajarorasarcophagus.Thecontainerwasthendepositedintoarecessinsidethewallsofthecatacombs,mostlyalongthemainpassageways.Oncefilled,thenichewasblockedwithmudbrick.Afewtracesinthesubterraneanpassagesshowthatsomeofthesebrickwallswereplasteredandpaintedwithashortdemoticinscriptioninredinkthatnotedthedeliveryoftheibis.

ThetransferofthespecialtempleibisestoTunacontinuesatleastintolatePtolemaictimes.UnfortunatelytheyeardatesontheircontainersfrequentlyomitthenameofthereigningPharaoh.Itcanbeobservedthatgradually,overtime,thecaretakenovertheibisburialsdeclined:sometimestwoorthreeoftheseibiseswereputintoonesinglejar,whichresultedintwoorthreeshortinscriptionsappearingonitsexterior.

ThedistantdesertsitechosenforthenewibiotapheionfartothesouthofthevillageofTunacanonlybeexplainedbythepresenceofanother,closersettlement,whichmayhavebeenfoundnow700mtotheeast,inthesettlementdebrisoftheKomal-Loli(HillofthePearls)attheedgeofthewesterndesert.Thisflourishingsettlementmayhaveincludedthepresenceofsoldiersandanadjoinedroyalsanctuaryfortheirworship.Wemayalsoimaginethatnearby,ontheedgeofthelakeofTuna,thetownofHermopolismaintainedacolonyofsacredibises.ThesemighthaveprovidedthesacredritualanimalsforthetempleprecinctofHermopolis,possiblyalreadyduringtheThirdIntermediatePeriod.PerhapsanewnecropolissanctuarywasinitiatedbythePharaohAmasis,thefounderofothernecropolistemplesinthecemeterieslikeSaqqara,Tehnaal-Gebel,andelsewhere.Hisnewlawsmayhaveforcedthelocalvillagerstoactascultservantsoftheorganization,andtoparticipateinthehardlaborofhewingoutthesubterraneanrockcatacombs.ApleaofafemaleservantoftheibisorganizationtothegodThothmentionsapre-PtolemaictoponymThe-Place-of-the-Sand,butitisnotsureifthisisindeedtheancientnameofthisvillageatthedesertedge.AnotherdemoticpleafromPersiantimesmentionstheibiotropheionincludingahouseforfeedingtheibises,thefemaleservantlivinginavillagecalledThe-Wall-of-the-General.

(p.127) TheCulticFunctionofDeifiedIbisesintheNewIbiotapheionAllspeciesofanimalsthatwereburiedasgodsinsidetheanimalcemeteries,madedivinebytheactoftheOpening-of-the-Mouthceremony,werechosenforhighlytheologicalreasons.ThelistedEgyptiananimalworld,classifiedincategories,waspartofthecontinuousrenewalofallcreation.ALateEgyptianpapyrusdescribingdifferentEgyptiansnakesrevealsthateverykindofmaleandfemaleanimal,distinguishablebyacharacteristiccolor,wasschematicallyattributedtoacertaingodoftheGreatEnnead


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(Atum,Re,Horus,Osiris,Isis,Hathor,Seth/Apophis,etc.).Theattributionimplies,thatthegodcouldtransformhimselfintotheshapeofthecorrespondinganimal.Thereforeanimalsinsideananimalcemetery,evenrats,worms,andpigs,wereallthosefromtheenvironmentandlandscapeoftheprimevalhill,andallformsthatweretakenbythegods,whocouldusethespecialanimalpower(theba-power)fortheirrebirth,theirfightagainsttheenemyontheprimevalhill,andtheirtransfertoheaventothesungod.Butitwouldbewrongtoconcludefromthelistingthattheanimalformswereattributedtoonespecialgodonly.Whenafterthecreationearthandheavenwereseparated,mostanimalsweretransferredtotheheavenasba-formsofthesolargod(Re,AmunRe,Sobek-Re,etc.,asvisiblegodsoftheheaven),andonlyafewspecieslikeshrews,snakes,catfish,worms,etc.,livinginthedarknessoftheearthorthehiddenwaters,appearedasba-formsofthehiddensungodAtum,whoaftersunrisegreetedthedistantsungodfromtheearth.Thesametransferchangedanddividedthefemaleanimalgroupintoformsofthegoddesses,likeNeithorHathor.TheanimalformsvisibleasminorgodsintheforecourtstatuesoftheEgyptiansanctuariesbecameba-formsofthesolargodagainatthetimeoftherisingsun.Theanimalgodswereneverformsoflocalgodswhoresidedinsidethetempleshrines,thusthereexistsnolocalramformofAmunofKarnakorlocalibisformofThotofHermopolis.Forthecultictransformationoftheseminorgodsintoanimalshape,specialsacredanimalswereneededastheirhosts/manifestations.

Certainlivingibises,usedduringdifferentritualactsatthetemples(seebelow),wereselectedoutofalegallyprotectedgroupofsacredibisesandothersacredbirds,whichwerekeptinalocalanimalcolony(p.128)

Fig.6.3 ViewoverthesiteofTunawiththeNileValleyinthedistance.CourtesyofDieterKessler.

nearabodyofwater,andmademoreorlessresidentialbyadditionalfeedingandcare.Ibisesandfalconsasthemostprominentbirdsofsacredritesintempleprecinctshadtobeprotectedbyprescriptionsofthestate.Selectedaccordingtotheirmarkings,thebirdswereusedtoannouncethecoronationofthekingduringtheEgyptiancoronationfestivalsbybeingreleasedintotheair.Singleibisesandfalconswereusedinsolemntempleprocessionsinaspecificroleasavisiblepowerofagod.DuringyearlyrepeatedfeastslikethemoonfestivalofThoth,therenewalfestivaloftheking(hisSed-festival),the


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Osiris-festivalinthemonthofChoiakorthefollowingNewYearfestivalintheEgyptianmonthofTybi,thegodintheformofthewalkingibisonthestandard-poleappearedtogetherwithotheranimal-godsbelongingtotheprotectinglessergods(deiminores)infrontofatemplebuilding.A(p.129) groupoflivingibises,falcons,baboons,andotherswereshownonthedaysofthefeastsontheirwindow-of-appearancenearthetemplepylon.Othersacredanimals,oftenchosenfortheirdistinctiveredcoloring,werekilledinofferingrituals.

Theibis,aspartoftheanimalgroupoftheEgyptianfeastofappearance,graduallybecameamajorfigureinthedominantcultcenterofthestateatHermopolisMagna,oneofthemainEgyptianfestivaltowns.ThemythicalHermopoliswithitsprimevalhillwastheplacewheretheibis-headedmoongodThothtransferredhimselffullyintotheshapeofanibis.ThefamoustempleofThothintheactualtownofHermopoliswasthesiteofthereappearanceandenthronementoftheimmortalHermopolitangodinhisformsasgodoftheskyandlordofHermopolis,andofhisjuvenileforms(thegodsofthecity),andofthekingduringtheNewYearfeastorthecoronationceremonies,performedandguardedagainbytheassemblyoftheEgyptianstandardgodswiththeirtotemicanimals(ibis,falcon,dog,baboon,andothers),whoaccompaniedtheking'sappearancesincetheFirstDynasty.InthetempleforecourtofHermopolisstoodthedominatinganimalstatuesoftheibisandthebaboon,representingthevisibleHermopolitancitygodsThoth-IbisandThoth-Baboon.ThemajorityoftheinhabitantsofHermopolismayhavebeenmembersoftheirrespectivecultassociation.BothminorgodswereneverformsofthelocalgodThothofHermopolis,butoffspring,i.e.,active,Horus-likeforms,inwhichthepoweroftheskygodbecamevisible,thatofthereigningsky(moon)godThoth,correspondingtothereigningking,whogot,asadescendantoftheskygod,thereligiouspredicateofasonofThoth.

Thepermanentrenewalofsuperiorgods,minorgods,andHorus-kingwasasecretreligiouspartoftheking'sfeastandpartofsecrettemplerites,thegodsusingtheanimalpowerfortheirtransformations.Theibisandalltheotheranimals,finallyvisibleonstandard-poles,wereanimalsofthefirstcreationoftheworldontheprimevalhill,emergingoutofchaos.Theylivedontheprimevalhill,aspartoftheso-calledHermopolitancosmogony.Theprimevalibiseggsgavebirthtothefirstcoupleofmaleandfemaleibises.

Theibisescouldbedangerousanimalstoo.Theyslaughteredtheenemy(Apophis)ofthereigningprimevalgod,thesungodoranothergodofthecreation,ontheriverbanksofthemythicallandscape.Later(p.130) onearthandheavennowseparatedibisesandfalconswereusedtohelpthekingtoflytoheaventothesungod.Thekingtransformedhimselfintoanibisandafalcontoachievetheunificationwiththedistantsungod.WealsoknowthetransformationofakingintoababoonsincetheFirstDynasty(thereisababoonstatueofKingNarmer),andlateprehistoricbaboonburialswerefoundinHierakonpolisinUpperEgypt.IbisandbaboonprobablycameintothetownofHermopolisbybeingoriginallyrepresentativeforms(standardsandstatues)ofakinglypresenceandprotectingasresidentialgodstheelitegroupoftheking,whohadto


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administerinHermopolistherevenuesoftheprovince.

ReligioussecretsandpublictempleprocessionsfromthetowntothenecropolistempleandbackcombinedthecultsofHermopolisMagnawiththatofthesanctuaryonthewesterndesertedge.TheGreatTempleofTunaal-Gebelbecamethemysterioussiteoftheprimevalhillandoftherenewedcreationoftheworld,aswellasthesiteoftheappearanceoftheskygodThoth-star(bull)-of-the-sky.TheOsiris-sanctuarybuiltovertheanimalcemeteryinTunawasthesiteofthereappearanceofOsirisandtheOsiris-godsinformofthedeifiedanimalsduringtheOsiris-Sokarfestival.Thedeifiedibis,nowinsidetheibiotapheionbelowthetemple,i.e.,thegodOsiris-ibisinitsvisiblecultformofarestingibis,wasconnectedtothefateandresurrectionofthegodOsirisduringtheyearlyprocessions,passingalsotheibiotapheionandreturningtothetempleofthemetropolis.

ItmusthavebeenthemythicalandtheologicalimportanceofthesacredibisasatempleanimalinadditiontotheEgyptiananimal-godvisibleintheshapeofanibis,whichguaranteedthroughitscycleofbirth,death,andreappearancetheimmortalityofkingandgods,andalsotheprotectingroleoftheibisfigureinEgyptasanaccompanyinggodforthereappearanceoftheking,whichfinallyledtothedecisiontoinstallanewcentralburialplaceforallsacredibisesinEgypt.TheearlyibiscemeteryinTunaisclearlynotinfluencedandpromotedbylocalworshipandpopularattitude.Itmaybethatthelocalgroupoflivingtemple-baboons,belongingtothecultoftheHermopolitancitygodThoth-the-Baboon,hadbeenburiedintheearlycatacombsaftertheirdeificationtoo.PerhapstheyrestwithinthewoodenchestsoftheSaitegalleryD.Buttheirburialwasexclusiveandknownonlytothosewiththetitleofoverthesecrets.

(p.131) TheGreatNecropolisTemple:AnEgyptianHermaionandGreekSerapeumTothesouthoftheburialplaceoftheibisesliestheculticcenterofthenecropolis,theGreatTemple.ItsscantyremainswereexcavatedbySamiGabra,headofthearchaeologicalmissionofCairoUniversitybeforeandaftertheSecondWorldWar.Besidesashortreport,theseexcavationswereneverpublished.Onlyfoundationblockshavebeenleft.Somecolumnsofthetemplehavebeenre-erectedfortourists.Behind,furthertothesouth,lietheremainsofwhatmightbetheearliestwellandsaqia(oxen-poweredwaterwheel)foundinEgypt.Thewaterfromheresuppliedbasinsandaconchoid-roundednymphaion.Astonetrough,foundontheground,wasinterpretedbytheexcavatorasafeedingplaceforsacredanimals:eitheribisesorasacredbull.However,theoutercolonnades,thecasemate-likesouthernwall,andthenymphaionhaveconvincedusthatthisisnotagenuineEgyptiantemple,butthegardenareaofaGreekSerapeum,rebuiltandenlargedinRomantimes,usingolderPtolemaicfoundations.Greekpapyriof


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Fig.6.4 EntrancetogalleryCwithremainsofthetempleofOsiris-Baboon.Intheforegroundthepriest'shouse.

(p.132) theHermopolitenomeandanostraconfoundinsitumentiontheexistenceofanalreadyPtolemaicSerapeumofHermopolisonthesand,withanadjacentPtolemaicandRomansettlementknownasvillageofSerapeon(Drew-Bear1979:233).Thisvillage,whichwenowmaycombinewiththesiteoftheKomal-Lolitotheeast,flourisheduntiltheseventhcenturyA.D.

ThecoreoftheGreatTemplemusthavebeenapre-Ptolemaicsanctuarywithanopencourt,probablyerectedanewunderPtolemyI(304284B.C.).ItwasrebuiltintheRomanPeriod,maybeundertheemperorNerva(A.D.9698),assuggestedbyasinglecolumninscription.TheEgyptiantemplewasasanctuaryofthesecretprimevalhill,theplaceoftheOgdoadofHermopolisandtheirspiritualba-forms,whereThothascreatorgodmanifestedhimself,andwhereheappearedafterhisunificationwithOsirisasbull-of-the-sky,asastargod,visibleduringthenight.Theking'sscribeandchiefadministratorofthewholenecropolisareanamedPadikem(whom-the-bull-has-given),whosetombliestotheeastofthatofthefamousPetosiris,servedashisprophet.Statuesofibises,baboons,andthatofabullprobablystoodinthetemple'sforecourt.ThetempleofThothwastheequivalentofaGreekHermaion.TheGreekscombinedtheirgodHermesonlywiththecreatorandoraculargodThoth,neverwiththelocalformofThothofHermopolis.Smallermud-brickchapelsprobablysurroundedthistemple.

After305B.C.,PtolemyI,followingtheideasofparallelGreekandEgyptianmaindeitiesadvocatedbyAlexandertheGreat,establishedthecultofthegodSerapisinEgypt.SerapiswasexclusivelyagodfortheGreeks.ArewesurethatnoEgyptianwouldworshiphim?Yes,ifhewasnotidenticalwiththeEgyptiangodOsiris-Apis!HehastobeseenparalleltotheexclusiveEgyptianoraclegodApis-OsirisinSaqqaraandisessentiallydifferentfromtheEgyptiangodOsiris-Apis(Greek:Osoroapis),representedinastatueintheshapeofarecliningbull.ByinstallingSerapisasagodofhisdynasty,PtolemaioslinkedtheGreekstothetraditionalfestivalsoftheEgyptianstate.AsinSaqqara,Alexandria,andelsewhere,theGreekSerapissanctuarywasastateinstitutionassociatedwithanalreadyexistingcentralEgyptiansanctuaryfortheroyalcultinthelocalnecropolis,anditsadjacentOsireion.GraduallytheGreekarchitecturalformsdominatedtheEgyptian,inTunachangingtheEgyptiantempleofThothtoamoreorlessGreek(p.133) Serapeum.ThisexplainsthegrowingattractionoftheareaneartheGreatTempleofTunaforthe


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burialsofthearea'sGreekinhabitants,andalsowhytheEgyptianadministratorofthetempleprecinctinHermopolis,Petosiris,livingunderPtolemyI,choseaveryobviouslyGreekstyleofdecorationfortheforecourtofhistomb-chapel.

PtolemyImusthavebeenactivelyinvolvedindevelopingnewrulesforculticactivitiesandtheliturgyinthenecropolisareasforbothethnicgroups,theEgyptiansinDemotic,andtheGreeksinGreek.PartofthisnewconceptforunifyingthetwogroupswasanenormousbuildingprogramthatincludedinTunanotonlyacompletelynewHermaion-Serapeum,butalsototallychangedthestructureoftheoldibiotapheion.Theburialplaceoftheibiswasenlargedtomakeitaccessibleforculticactivities.AnewOsiristemplewasbuiltinfrontofthenewentrancetothegalleries.Thus,ineveryPtolemaiccemetery,thecentralculttempleofthestate,thetempleofOsirisandhisfamily,andtheanimalcemeterynearbyformedaculticunitaspartofcommonGreekandEgyptianfestivalprocessionsfromthemetropolistothenecropolisandback.

TheTempleofOsiris-BaboonandthePracticeofGivingOraclesTheearliestentrancetotheanimalgalleriesintheSaitePeriodwastoonarrowtopermitextensivesubterraneandevelopmentofthegalleries.Between310and305B.C.,PtolemyIinitiatedanewaccessandexpandedthegalleriesintodifferentdirections.Itwasnowmuchmoreconvenienttoperformthedailycultdutiesdownstairsinthenewbaboonchambers,andtoconvenetherefortheweeklyoraclesessions.ThisentrancewasintegratedintoanewtemplebuildingofthegodOsiris-Baboonjustabovetheibiotapheion,clearlyinculticinterdependencewiththesubterraneanoraclegodsandthenewcultchambersforsingledeifiedHermopolitanbaboons.Betweenthetempleandthemainsubterraneanoracleroom(C-C-2)thereexisted,paralleltothestaircase,aconnectionformedbyarectangularholeintherock.Thisfavoredthetheologicallyimportanttransitionbetweenupper-solar/light/dayandlower-dark/nightregions.Thestepstothegallerieslieexactlybehindthetemple,inthewesteastorientationofthemainaxis.Totherightoftheentrancelayasmallchamber,nowoften(p.134)misidentifiedasanembalmingchamber,whichfunctionedinfactasaceremonialroomfortheOpening-of-the-Mouthritesthatwereregularlyperformed.Aftertheceremony,themummieswerebroughtdownintothecatacombsbyspecialcarriersoftheibis.Themummieswerestilldrippingfromtheoilsandunguentsthathadbeenquicklypouredoverthem;theseunguentsstillstainthestairway.

ThenewOsiris-Baboontemplewasbuiltonarockysurfacethathadbeenleveled.Theheavylimestonefoundationblockswerelaidagainstmud-brickwalls,liningtheinnersidesoftherockofthefoundationpit.Thepavedopeninnerspaceofthetemplehasnolimestonefoundationblocksbutconsistsonlyofaccumulatedsandandlimestonechips.ThetemplewasinitiallyexaminedbySamiGabra,andmorerecently,between1989and1994,bytheUniversitiesofCairoandMunich.Thisworkshowsthatthemajorityoftheblocksfromthebuildingproper,abovethefoundationlevel,hadbeenremovedinantiquity.

Thetemplewascompletedbefore305B.C.,anddatedtothereignoftheMacedoniankingAlexander(IV),sonofAlexandertheGreatandtheBactrianprincessRoxane.Its


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groundplanconsistsofabroad(26m),pylon-likeentrancefaade,thefrontpartofwhichwasopentotheceiling.Itwaslatercopiedinthefamoustemple-liketomb-chapeloftheHermopolitantempleadministrator,Petosiris.Theinnerpartofthebroadentrancehallisextremelynarrow,leadingtoaninneropencourt,surroundedbysymmetricallyarranged,roofedchambers.Thearchitecturalplanfollowstheprescriptionsforaso-calledEgyptianwabet,abuildingforpurificationceremoniesthatwasopentotheskyforsecretriteswiththedecanstarsandwiththemoonandsungod,andespeciallyusedinconnectionwiththesecretsoftheresurrectionofOsiris.WemayassumethatstatuesoftherestinggodsOsiris-BaboonandOsiris-Ibisprobablystoodinthecourtonstonepedestals.ThesupposedsixoreightmainchambersweremostprobablyusedforthesecretcultsoftheprimevalandcosmichighgodslikeOsiris'sfamily,Thoth,Re,Shepsi,andothers.Tothewestofthepavedforecourtinfrontofthetemplefaadestoodanaltarandagatebuilding.Onlythefoundationpitandsomelimestoneblocksremain.

ThewabetoftheOsiris-Baboonwasnotatempleforindividualworshipersofthisgod,butiscomparabletothewabetofthegodOsiris-Falconknownfromahieroglyphicstatuetext,whichiscombined(p.135) withtheanimal(falcon)cemeteryofAthribisintheDelta.Theinteriorwasaccessibleonlyforpeopleprivytothesecretsoftheresurrectionrites.Thehypostylehallinfrontofthewabetmayhaveshownarepresentationoftheking.TheAthribistextmentionsthepresenceofaroyalwoodenthroneinthisarea.InTunathelintelinscriptionleadingtotheinnercourtgivesthedifferentnamesofAlexanderIV,andcontainsthesceneoftheso-calledUniting-the-two-land(sema-tawy)rite.

ProbablyinlaterPtolemaictimesanannexwasaddedtothetemple,builtintothefoundationblocksatitssoutheastcorner.Stepsleaddowntoanantechamberwithculticinstallationsofnichesandofferingtables.Thenarrowmainroomisdominatedbyarectangularcageofabout1x1m,and2mhigh.Itismadeoflimestoneblocksplacedagainsttheinteriorsouthernwallofthebuilding.Asmallrectangularopeningonitswesternside,80cmaboveground,oncelockablebyawoodenbolt,suggeststhatthiswastherestrictedlivingplaceofaselectedsacredanimal,perhapsasmallsacredbaboon,whomighthavebeenusedinconnectionwiththeoracleservice(KesslerandNurel-Din1999).

Thepriestresponsibleforthedailycultandtheperformanceoftheoracularreadingseverytenthdayprobablylivedinthe(now)heavilyrestoredmud-brickbuilding6moppositethetempleonitssouthernside.Thepriest'shousewasbuiltinabout170B.C.Itconsistsofthreeseparatecomplexesofrooms,eachwithaseparateentrancethatwasfrontedbyasmallraisedporch.Thepriestandhisfamilypresumablywereinchargeofthetemplebuildingopposite.Aniche,locatedinthewestwallofthespecialshrineroom(V)inthewesternpartofthehouse,probablycontainedamovablecultimageofOsiris-Baboon,housedinawoodennaos.Acultstaircasehadbeenbuiltinfrontofthenichemirroringtheculticsituationbelowthehouse.Theupperfloors,usedforthelivingquarters,wereaccessedfromastaircaselocatedinRoomIV,whichalsoservedasanantechambertoRoomV.Findsofascribe'swritingpaletteandbrickbenchessuggestthatRoomIII,onthegroundfloor,wasusedasanadministrativeareafor


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recordkeeping,andthereceptionofvisitors.Achamberoftheeasternwing(roomI)wasakindofarchiveroom.Fragmentsofacorrespondencewithanoverseeroffieldswerefoundonitsfloor.PerhapsthefamousLegalCodeofHermopolis,ademoticdocument,containinglegalcasesandmathematicaltextsonitsreverse,wasoriginallystoredinthisroom.This(p.136) papyruswasfoundbyGabrainapotteryjar,lyingnearthisbuilding.Priestsneededscientifichandbookstosolvelegalmattersposedbytheoracle,questionswhichtheytookwiththemintotheoraclechambersofthesubterraneanibiotapheiontobeansweredbygods.

OneofthecompensationsforacommonEgyptianforhislaborasamemberofareligiousorganizationwasreligioussecurity.Hewasallowedtoaddressthegodofhisinstitutionbypassingpetitionstohisoraclepriest,probablyinfrontoforaclestatuesofcertainbaboon-andibis-gods.IntheareaofthetemplesofHermopolisandTunathebaboon-godMetasythmis(theHearing-Ear),theibis-godThoth-of-the-paletteandtheibis-godTeephibis(the-face-of-the-ibis)areallwell-attested.Livingsacredanimalsbelongedtothecultoforaclegods,theirritualuseguaranteeingthepermanenceofthereligiouscycleofrebirth.AtTuna,thepriesthimselfmayhavewrittendownsomeofthequestionsaddressedtotheoracle,especiallyifdelicatejuridicalmatterstouchedonthepersonalinterestsofhissuperiors.Heandhiscolleagues,whoservedaspriestsofthesubterraneanOsiris-Baboon-godsinsidethegalleries,tookthepetitionswiththemduringthefestivalsthatoccurredeverytenthdayofthemonth.Thisprocessculminatedinapersonalmeetingbetweenthepriestandtheprotectivegod,e.g.,thegodThoth,whokilleddangerous,evilcreatures,whichemergedinthedarknessofthenightandendangeredthepriest.Thenonthesettingoftheprimevalhilltherewasapersonalmeetingofthepriestintheroleasaservantsubduedtohismaster,thejudginggod,whodiscussedanddecidedthepetitionsintheassemblyofthegods,thengavehisdecisions.Allthiswasanexclusivecultactionofthepriest,carriedoutinsecludedchambersinsidethegalleries,andperformedduringthedarknessandthedawn.Thoth'sdecisionsandanswersweregiventothepetitionersduringthemorningofthefeastday.Theassemblyofthepastophors,perhapsinthescribe'sofficenearthetemple,wouldhavediscussedthecontentofthemoredelicateanswersearlier.

Demoticoracleinscriptionswrittenonsmallsheetsofpapyrus,linenstrips,roundedpebbles,oronpotteryvessels,foundinsidethegalleries,provethatoraclepetitionsweregiventopriestsbycommonEgyptianswhohadapersonalrelationshipwiththetempleanditspriesthood.ThereisnoevidenceatTunaofcommonpilgrimsfromotherdistanttownscomingtoindividuallyaddressthegods.Alocalvillagerwould(p.137) usetheoraclebywritingdownpersonalmatters(e.g.,accusationsagainstneighbors,relatives,orhissuperiors,whichsometimesrevealadeephatredandfeelingofpersonalinjustice,witharequestthatthegreatgod(Thoth)bringaboutjustice).Theseprivatelywrittenpleaswouldbegiventooneofthelesserpriestsofhisneighborhood,whoservedthesubterraneangods,anditwouldbethentakendownstairstothemoresecretculticoracularareaforananswer.Officialpetitionsonbehalfofpeopleofhigherstatus,especiallyofthosewhoparticipatedintheimportantfeastprocessionsandlegaldecisions,hadtobewrittenonpapyri,checkedandsealedbytheleadersoftheibis


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organization.

Anearthquakedamagedthetempleandthepriest'shouseinlaterPtolemaictimes,leavingbothinneedofrepair.TheunstableandweakrockformationsofsubterraneanbranchesingalleryGAcollapsed.Holestotheundergroundregioninsidethehouseandnearthetemplehadtobefilledinwithdebris.Agapbetweentheanimalgalleriesandthepriest'shouseonitsnorthwesterncornerhadtobeclosedcarefullywithalimestonefacing,thereafterallowingthedirectcommunicationbetweenthepriestandthesubterraneanarea.Thearchaeologicalevidenceshowsthatthehouse(andthetemple)werestillinhabitedduringthefirsthalfofthefirstcenturyA.D.Lateron,sandandrubblefromthedebrishilltothesouthanddirectlybehindthehousecoveredthebuilding,luckilypreservingitswalls.

TheIbisGalleries,theRestingPlaceoftheIbis-godandOthersTheofficialnameforthesubterraneanibiotapheioninTunamayhavebeen:restingplaceoftheibis,thebaboon,thefalconandthegodswhorestwiththem.TheanimalcemeterywasnotonlythedepotforthedeifiedsacredanimalswhowereregardedasgodscorrespondingtoOsiris,butwasalso,startingfromthetimeofPtolemyI,aplaceofnumerousotherreligiousactivities.Unfortunately,thesubterraneangallerieshavebeenrobbedcontinuouslyforcenturies.ObjectsfromthecatacombsaretobefoundinnearlyeverymuseumcollectioncontainingAegyptiaca.

TheregularexcavationsbyGabraandothers(e.g.,AhmedBadawy,ZakiAly)inpartsofthegalleriesbetween1933and1953yieldedthousandsofobjects,butthesewereneveradequatelypublished.Since1989the(p.138) EgyptologicalsectionsoftheUniversitiesofCairoandMunichhavejointlytriedtore-evaluatetheearlierexcavations,andtorecordandnumberthevariouspassages,aswellastoexcavateinafewselectedspots.Manypartsofthegalleriesweresurveyedforthefirsttime;othersarestillnotexploredbecauseofpartlycollapsedceilingsandsidewalls,whichmakesaccesssometimesdangerousorcompletelyimpossible.Notonlytime,butalsotheancientquarryworkersthemselvesareresponsiblefortheruinousstateofthesegalleries.Theworkershoneycombedandthusdestabilizedthesidewallsofthegallerieswithlargeniches,thusrenderingthewallsextremelyfragile.Inadditiontotheman-madedestabilization,therockinwhichthegalleriesarecarvedisunstable.Thus,theworkershadtofindsolutionstobypassthefragilerockformationsandgalleriesthatsometimesfilledwithsandintrudingfromthedesertsurface.

TheibiscatacombsofTunaformafantasticsubterraneanregion,fourtofivemetersbeneaththeground.Longmainpassageswerehewnintothefossiliferous(andthereforefragile)limestonerock,thechambersilluminatedonlybythedimlightofsmokingoillampsplacedintosmallnichescarvedintothesidewalls.Thegallerieshave,forthemostpart,atrapezoidalcross-section.Theyare2.5minbreadth,atthebottom,andbetweenthreeandfourmetersinheight.Sometimestheyareenlargedintowide,highhalls.Onlyafewareasareilluminatedbydaylight,eitherfromnaturalrecentbreaksinthesurfaceoftherockcausedbyearthquakes,orbyancientapertures,whichoncefacilitatedthetransportofthedebristothesurfacewhenthegallerieswerebeingcut.Themain


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passagesthat,informertimes,weremuchmoreaccessiblethantoday,arenowlargelyfilledinwithdebrisoffallenrock,collapsedwalls,andheapsofpotterythathavebeensmashedintopiecesbyrobbersandvisitors,intermingledwiththedustyremainsoftornbandagesanddisarticulatedanimalmummies.Tothesides,goingoffthelargemaingalleries,chambersofvaryingsizesarecarvedoutoftherock.Thesewereusedfortheinternmentofbaboonsandotherlargeranimals.Otherlongpassages,totallyfilledwithpotteryjarscontainingmummiesofdifferentspecies,alsobranchofffromthemaingalleries.Oncefull,theseweresealedwithmud-brickwalls.Onlyaveryfewintactpassageshaveescapedhumaninterferenceandpromiserichscientificresultsinthefuture.Otherintactstrataarestillhiddenunderthicklayersofdustanddebris.(p.139)

Fig.6.5 Agallery(BA)litteredwithpots.CourtesyofDieterKessler.

TheDevelopmentoftheEarlyIbiotapheionatTunaTheibiotapheionofTunaal-GebeloffersthechancetoevaluateandunderstandtheevolutionofananimalcemeteryinEgyptovermorethan700years.ThegalleryoftheearlySaitePeriodhadbeencutintothefragilerocktothewest,intheshadowofthesteeplimestonecliffthatliesbehind.Thepassageisoriented(andwasfilledwithanimalbundlesinpotteryjars)fromnorthtosouth;itssmallentranceliestothenorth.Twonarrowmud-brickwallsprotecttheentrancethatwasorientatedtothewest.Thestepsandtheentrancebuildingwereformedofthicklimestoneslabs.Asmallstaircaseleadsintothegallery.Airholestothenorthoftheentranceandinthesouthofthegalleryallowedthetransportofthesubterraneandebristothesurface.Theancientworkerssimplyheapedupthedebrisonthedesertsurfacebehindtheentrance.Thesandtransportedbytheheavywindsacrossthedesertplaincollectedatthefootofthedebrishill,sooncoveringtheentrance.Eveninantiquity,theaccesstothesegallerieshadtobeconstantlykeptfreefromsand.

(p.140) Rock-cutsidechambers,measuringabout10to20minlength,flankedthemainsubterraneanpassageoftheSaitePeriod.Thewidemouthedjarsdatingfromthisperiodwereclosedwithplasteredlinen,andcontainedlinenbundlesconsistingofthebonesofmaceratedibisesandothersacredanimals.Thejarswereplacedoneupontheother,formingahighwallofpottery.Inbetweenandneartothewallsoftheside


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passagesstoodlargewoodenchestsfortheburialsofanonymoussacredbaboons,probablythoseofthesacredHermopolitanbaboongroup.

Fig.6.6 AviewofasidebranchofgalleryCDshowingpre-Ptolemaicibispotsandscatteredwoodenboxesthatcontainedbaboonburials.CourtesyofDieterKessler.

Thesidewallsoftheearlypartofthemainpassagewerekeptfreeofburialniches.Insidethejarsoriginatingfromthesidegalleries,Gabra,whofirstexcavatedthearea,discoveredthreewoodenchestscontainingaquantityofbronzes,aswellasjarscontainingpapyri,faenceamulets,andothersmallobjects.ThesejarswereprobablyplacedtherebythepeopleresponsiblefordepositingtheanimalbundlesthatweredeliveredtoTunaandputinthelocallyproducedpotteryjars.Somejarscontainedsealeddocumentsnamingmembersoftheking'sadministration.InthemiddleoftheibisjarslaytheuntouchedburialofAnkhhor,aHermopolitanhighpriestofThoth.Hewasburiedinarockpitdeepenedintherockofasidepassage(GDD10).Afterbringinginhisheavystonesarcophagus,theceilingoftheburialchamberwasconstructedusinglargelimestoneslabs.

InthePersianPeriodthenumberofibisbundlesbroughtfromalloverEgypttoTunaal-Gebelnecessitatedanenlargementofthegalleriestotheeast(GallerypartCD).AbeautifullydecoratedwoodenibischestinscribedwiththenameofthePersiankingDarius,andpapyriof(p.141) thesametime,datethispassage.AramaicpapyrifoundinajarprovethepresenceofforeignmerchantsandmercenariespassingthroughTunaandparticipatingintheEgyptianfeasts.

Thebedrockofthisareaslopedgraduallytotheeast.Therefore,inordertoenlargethegalleriesandtoreachthedeeperrocklayers,asmallstaircasewasconstructed.Atthispoint,wheredaylightentersfromabove,illuminatingthisspot,theEgyptiansmadereferencetotheHermopolitantheologybyplacingtworowsofeightroundedlimestonecoffinswithibis-headedlids.

Thelastindigenousdynasty(Dynasty30)decidedtofollowtheharderrockformationsandcontinuedtheibisburialsbyturningtothenorth(southernpartofGCDandcrossinggalleryCDandCC).ThisalterationmighthavebeenmadeunderPharaohNectaneboII(360342B.C.),whoseemstohaveinitiatedmorelocalibisbreedingplaces


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(ibiotropheia)throughoutEgypt.Atfirstthebaboonswerestillinterredinsideniches,then(CC10ff.)alongthemainpassage.Unfortunately,thissectionlacksinscriptions.Oneofthefewchronologicalhintsisapaintedpre-PtolemaicinscriptiononareusedamphorafromthePhoeniciancoastmentioningoil,(belonging)tothekingofTyre(fromCC35).

Fig.6.7 GalleryBCshowingthenichesthatwereusedforibisburials.CourtesyofDieterKessler.

(p.142) ThePtolemaicGalleries:NewBaboonGodsandEnMasseBurialsofIbisesInthePtolemaicPeriod,ibiseswereburiedenmasseinlocalnecropoleis,ratherthanbeingtransferredtomajorcentersfromalloverEgypt.Infact,duringthisperiod,allthesacredspeciesinanyareaweredeifiedandburiedlocally.Thisreducedthetransportationcostsforlocalibisorganizations.Theirtaskwasinsteadlimitedtothetransferofveryspecialritualandfestivalanimals,whosecolorfulwrappingsbecameincreasinglyrefinedovertime,toTuna.Theabsenceofinscriptionsonpre-PtolemaicPeriodjarsfoundatTuna,however,makeitdifficulttotracethesechangesprecisely.FromthereignofPtolemyI(304284B.C.)thejars,stillclosedwithplasteredlinen,begintocontainforthefirsttimewhatcanbedescribedasrealibismummies,i.e.,actualcorpsesofbirds.Thebirdshadbeenleftwiththeirwingsandfeathers,andtreatedwithakindofturpentineoilandwrappedasawholeinlinenbandages.Chemicalanalysesareunderway.

Duringthistime,theburialofallsacredibisesandfalconsinEgyptwassystematicallyreorganized.PtolemyIseemstohaveestablishednewrules,andtohaveforcedvillagerstoworkandtopayforthenewcultassociations.IntheareaofHermopolisalonenearlyadozenibisbreedingplaces(ibiotropheia)areknown.Eachisanindependentinstitutionwithassociatedfields,providingcerealsforfeedingtheibiscolony,andforthemaintenanceofthegodsintheformofanimalstatues.AlthoughsituatedinthetoparchyoftheUpperCityArea(Peripolinano),thesacredterritoryofTuna-South,knownasHermopolis-the-protection,seemstohavehadsomeindependencefromthelocalnomeadministrationinHermopolis.ItiscommonlybelievedthatthenewmassburialsofibisesandtheincreasedinstallationsofbreedingplacesalloverEgyptwereduetotheimpactofpilgrimswantingtoofferapersonalibismummyontheirownbehalf.However,theTunagalleriesandtheirobjectsdonotsupportthistheory.Thenowstandardsingleanimal


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mummy,withfeathersandwingspreserved,seemstobetheresultofasimplechangeinembalmingtechniqueratherthaninreligiouspractice.Theinstallationsofnewcultstatuesintheareamayalsohaveprovidedacertaineconomicadvantageforthestatetreasury.

PtolemyIcreatednewpostsforpriestlyfamiliesbyintroducingthecultofthespecialOsiris-Baboongods.Everysacredbaboonof(p.143) Hermopolisboreanindividualname.Uponthedeathofthebaboon,apriestwasassignedtoitwithinthesubterraneanbaboonchamber,whichcontainedanicheforitsburialanddailyworship.Thispriestwasresponsiblenotonlyforthebaboon'sdailyworship,butalsotheweeklyoraclepraxis.ThedeceasedgodwasservedasOsiris-Baboon-NN-the-justified.ThePtolemaicadministrationsoldnumerousneworacleplaces,inTunaandelsewhere,toEgyptianfamilieswiththesimpleintentionofgainingmoneyforthenationaltreasury.InThebesthecostsforsuchacultplaceatanibiotapheionamountedto210Greekdrachmae:thepriesthiswifecouldbethepriestessforsubterraneangoddessesfor70drachmaecoulddivideandsellthesecultpositionsagainforprofit(UPZII,153155).

Hieroglyphicinscriptionsontheinnersideofthewoodenlidsofthepre-Ptolemaicbaboonchestscontainexcerptsfromreligiousspellstakenfromthemorethantwo-thousand-year-oldPyramidTexts.MostcommonisespeciallythespelloftheskygoddessNutwhoprotectedthegodOsiris-Baboon.IndividualnamesofbaboonsbegintoappearregularlyonlyfromthetimeofPtolemyIonward(ingalleriesCandB).Theyareincludedinhieroglyphicformulae,describingthenocturnalanddiurnaltravelsofthenewgodintheskyboatascompanionsofthesungodRa.Theseinscriptionsarewrittenonlimestoneslabsthatoncecoveredtheburialplacesofthebaboons.Asonemightexpect,thenamesarereligiousones,Thoth-has-come,Thoth-is-found,Thoth-his-flesh-may-live,Thoth-has-given-him,It-says-the-face-of-the-enduring-one,etc.,andareoftensharedbyhumanswhoareintheserviceofthesegods.Onlyinonecaseisthenameofthemotheranimalreported.Thepaintedslabsshowdifferentformsoffestivalkiosks,scenesoftheadoringkingorapriest,oribisesandbaboonssquatting.Theexpensesfortheearlycultplacesinfrontofthesubterraneanplacesforthebaboonsmusthavebeenhigh.Thefloorsoftherectangularrockchamberswerecarefullypavedwithlimestoneblocks,thelowerzoneofthewallsoftendecoratedwithreliefblocks,theupperzonepainted,andbothareasembellishedwithritualscenes.ThegodsintheritualscenesareprimarilythefamilyofOsiris,differentformsofthemoongodThoth,andthedeifiedindividualOsiris-Baboon.Referencestoraredivineforms,likethemoongodShepsiorOsiris,lordoftheOsireionoftheHermopolitannecropolis,alsoappear.TheceilingsshowthegoddessNutswallowingthesun,orastronomicalscenesofthenorthernandsouthernsky,thestar(p.144) constellationswiththeiraccompanyinggods,thedecanstarlistandtheirrepresentations,aswellaspicturesofplanets.

Priestlyactivityforthesinglebaboon-godswasfocusedontheburialniches.IntheearlyPtolemaicPeriod,eachnichewasfrontedbyastaircasemadeofstoneslabs,flankedbyapairofconicalstonecolumnsthatactedasbasesforflatbronzeofferingplatesforburntofferings.Betweenthemlayalimestoneoffering-tableforlibationsthatwerepouredoutofabronzesitula.Behindalimestoneslab,themummyofthebaboonrestedinawooden


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coffinplacedinalimestonesarcophagus.Thewoodenframewasdecoratedwithblueinlaidfaencepiecesandinlaidhieroglyphiccharacters.Faenceamulets,allinconnectionwiththeresurrectionofthemummygod(scarabs,figuresofNut,Djedpillars,falcons,lifesigns,faencebeads,etc.)wereinsertedbetweenthebandagesofthemummy.TheburialplaceofababooninGalleryCC4yieldedthirteenfaencefiguresofthebirthgodBesintwodifferentsizes,probablyarrangedinfrontofthelimestonesarcophagus.Linencloth,paintedwithdesignssimilartothosefoundontheslabs,markedsomeofthebaboonburials.

Thelongmainbaboonchamberneartheentrancebelowthetemple(CC2),anintegralpartofthenewtempleplan,servednotonlyascultplacefortwobaboons,butalsoasacentralassemblyandoracleroominconnectionwiththetemplecultabove.Analtar-likeconstructioninthemidstoftheroom,andfragmentsofgranitestatuesofawalkingibisandofababoon,pointtothereligioustransformationsfromOsiris-BaboontothereborngodThoth-Baboon,thecitygodofHermopolis.Winewasanimportantpartoftheculticritual,asattestedbythediscoveryofGreekwinelistsandlargeGreekwineamphora.OneostraconshowsaGreekalphabet.StoneseatsfortheassemblyofpriestswerefoundinGalleryCC;nodoubt,thepriestsgatheredherealsotodrink.

Differentdecoratedbaboonchambers(CA28andCA31)datingtothereignofPtolemyIaretobefoundinalargeareaofgalleryC,tothesouthofthenewPtolemaicentranceinbetweenthepassageoftheThirtiethDynasty(chamberCC34).Fromthebeginning,thenewgallerywasgenerouslyproportioned.Smallersidepassagesinbetweencontainedeitherrowsofthespecialdeliveredibisesinwallnichesorwerecompletelyfilledwithibisjars.Thetrapezoidsmallentrancewasthensealedwithmudbricks,anditsouterfacesometimespainted.Thefindsofbronzeofferingplatesinsidesomechamberswithsmallside(p.145) nichesforibissarcophagimakesitevidentthatallthemummy-godsofOsiris-ibisbroughtfromdistantEgyptiansitesandplacedinthechambersofthesidepassages,participatedinthecultatleastonceayear,whenpriestsenteredtheroomcarryingbronzeofferingstands.

DuringthereignofPtolemyI,theproductionofibisjarssuddenlychanged.Thebroadjarsclosedbyplasteredlinenwerereplacedbysmallerjarswithanarrowerbodyandshoulder.Theirsmalleropeningswereclosedbyapotterylid,fixedwithplaster.Anothertypeofpotterycontainerhadaroundedorflatbottom.Itcontainedonlyoneortwomummies.Itslidwascutoutofthebodyofthevesselduringproduction,usingawire,thenrefixedwithplaster.


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Fig.6.8 KingPtolemyIofferstoOsiris-IbisandothergodsoftheOsirisfamily.CourtesyofDieterKessler.

(p.146) InthesouthernpartofGalleryC,somebaboonchambersdatingtoPtolemyII'sreign(284246B.C.)werebuiltinbetweentheolderones.Themostimportant,alargechamberofababoonnamedThothefankh(CB2),wascarvedintothebedrocknexttotheentrancestaircase.Infrontofthebaboonchambersthefloorofthemainpassagewascarefullylaidwithstones,theceilingdecoratedwithstars,andthesidewallswithcoloredbands.

Fartothenorth,theceilingofthemainpassagemusthavecollapsedintheearlyPtolemaicPeriod.Themostnorthernpartsofthegalleriescouldbereachedonlythroughanewcomplicatedbypass.ThereforetheHermopolitanadministrationofPtolemyIIdecidedtobuildanewentrancetothegalleriestothenorthoftheearlierone.Afour-corneredaltarforburntofferingsstoodinfrontofaroofed,butundecoratedlimestonebuilding.Abroadstaircase,goingfirsttothenorth,thenchangingitsdirectiontotheeast,wasconstructed.Itledintoanewsubterraneanarea(GalleryB).Theentryismarkedbythehugepilesofdebristhatweredepositedasaresultoftheexcavationsthatcreatedtheundergroundgalleries.Asusual,theaccesswassooncoveredbyaeoliansand.

TheentrancetoGalleryBwasbuiltsome50mawayfromtheoldmainaxis,anddevelopedintwomaindirections:twobrancheswentsouthtomeettheformermainaxisofGalleryC,whileanotherpassage,beginningatthefootofthestaircase,ranstraighttothenorth.Oppositethestaircaseisasmallrectangularrockchamber.Anisolatedrectangularniche,suitableforanibissarcophagus,wascutintotherearwall.ThepainteddecorationofthesidewallsindicatethecultofthegodOsiris-Teephibis-thejustified,thenamemeaningTheOsiris,Itsaysthefaceoftheibis.Theimagedepictsanibissittingonapedestal,withthefeatherofthegoddessMaatinfront,adoredbyPharaohPtolemyII.TheibisburialnicheatthebackimpliesthatasinglelivingsacredibiswaskeptandreveredinadditiontothestatueofthealreadyestablishedoraclegodTeephibis.

ThenorthernmostpartsofgalleryBaredatedtothelaterPtolemaicPeriod.Atthistimethelargerrockchambersforbaboonsbecomerarer.Instead,theearlierPtolemaic


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chamberswerereusedfornewbaboonburials.InchamberGCC34,datedtothePtolemaicPeriod,thepaintedreliefscenesandtheceilingofPtolemyIwerepaintedover,(p.147) andthecartouchesofthepharaohleftblank.InGCB6theonceaccessiblepassage,tobedatedintothetimeofPtolemyII,wasrefilledwithheapsofpotteryjars,andtheformercultinfrontofthebaboonburialsdeserted.Priestscontinuedtocelebratethecultinsomeoftheolderbaboonchambers,butapparentlytheinstallationofcultareasfornewbaboonsdecreasedandfinallystopped.Sacredbaboonswereonceagaininterredinsimplewoodenbaboonchests.Thenumberofibismummiesoriginatingfromtheibiotropheiamusthavebeenstillhigh,butsignsofcarelesstreatmentofthemummiesarenoticeable.Thelimestonesarcophagiallbutdisappear.Singlemummiesareburiednowinlayersofresinincheaperwoodencases,nearlyallofwhichbearademoticinscriptionsimilartothosefoundonthelimestonesarcophagi.AnuntouchedsectioninthenorthernpartofgalleryBstillyieldedthespecialwoodenibiscoffinsforadeifiedanimal.However,thesewereplacedonthetopoftheheapsofthepotteryjars,filledwiththecommonibises.Afewofthesewoodencoffinsarewonderfullypainted,showingdifferentformsofthegodOsiris-Ibisasamummyoracrouchingibis,theinscriptionsforthesameibisformchangingfromOsiris-IbistoThoth.Speciallargeribismummies,60to80cmlong,wrappedinmulticoloredbandages,withagildedwoodenbeakorwoodencrowns,werealsofoundontopofthepilesofpots.Thesespecialmummiesmightoriginatefromoneofthemoreprominentfeastslikethatofthemoongod.Thelargeamphoraecontainingibiseggschangedtheirform,andbecomesmaller,usuallywitharidgedbodyandanarrowmouth.

ThenorthernpartofGalleryBwasextendedintogeologicallyunstablerocklayers.Largepartsmayhavebeencollapsedalreadyinancienttimes,maybeduetothesameearthquake,whichledtothedestructionofmanysectionsoftheearlyPtolemaicGalleryCA.ThismayalsobethereasonwhyinlaterPtolemaictimesanotherentrancefartothenorthhadtobebuilt(GalleryA).Onlythestaircasetothegroundislefttoday.ThelatestGalleryA,nearlytotallyclearedbyGabra,ispartlyunfinished.Broadandhighhallswithoutburialswerepreparedforfurtheruse.TojudgefromRomanoillampsandthepottery,especiallytheamphoratypes,thelastphaseofibisburialsherebelongstotheearlierRomanPeriod.Unfortunatelydatableinscriptionsareunavailable.(p.148)


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Fig.6.9 Ptolemaicliddedpotteryvesselscontainingibismummies.CourtesyofDieterKessler.

(p.149) TheEndoftheIbiotapheionatTunaFromtheGreatTempletothenorth,passinginfrontofthetempleofOsirisBaboon,stretchesamud-bricktrackinthedirectionofGalleryA.Itis261.5mlongand3.6mwideand,duetowinderosion,istodaybetweenoneandfourteenlayersofbrickshigh.Judgingfromitsorientation,itmusthavebeenbuiltaftertheentranceofgalleryA.Itwasfirstseenasagiganticwall,showingthetypicalundulatingmud-brickconstruction,whichhidthewesternOsirisregionsthatlaybehind.Itwaslateralsousedasaraisedmud-brickway,usedbygroupsofprieststoreachthesacredway(dromos)oftheOsiris-Baboontempleandthenortherngalleries.Thetrackstartsatthefootofthesouthernendofthedebrishill,tothesouthoftheOsiris-baboontemple.Onflatgroundnotracesofbricksremain.Thusthepriests,actingaspastophors,andmountingtheraisedtrack,didnothavetowalkthroughthedeeplysandedareasatthefootofthedebrishills.LimestonechipsdirectlyinfrontofthetempleofOsiris-Baboon,tothewestofthemud-brickpassage,indicateaformerpavedfloor.Themud-brickpassagewallremainedunfinishedlikegalleryA.

Thesuddencessationofibisburialsoriginatingfromthelocalibiotropheia,andthatofothersacredanimals,probablyincludingthosesentfromotherpartsofEgypt,isnotintelligiblewithoutsupposingafirmdecisionoftheRomanadministrationtostopthefinancialandpersonalsupportoftheextendedanimalcult.ThisdoesnotmeanthatthecultofthePtolemaicbaboongodsceasedentirely,althoughcurrentlywehaveonlyaroughideaaboutwhenthepracticeceased.GreekgraffitionthewallsofthebaboonchamberdecoratedinGalleryA(A-31)donotdatebeyondthefirsthalfofthefirst


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centuryA.D.MaybethedeliveryofanimalstotheibiotapheionwasstoppedmuchearlierthanthecultoftheOsiris-Baboontempleanditsoracularpractice.Furthermore,thenearbypriest'shousecontainsnopotterybelongingdefinitelytothesecondcenturyA.D.,thussupportingtheideathattheculticactivityattheOsiris-baboontempleendedataboutthistime.Christiantombinscriptionsofthefifth/sixthcenturiesA.D.,foundinsidethegalleriesandperhapsoriginatingfromtombsabove,arethelatestancienttracesknownuntilthetimeofthemoderntravelersandrobberswhoenteredandplunderedthesitecontinuouslyfromtheseventeenthcenturyA.D.untiltoday.Thewholedesertarea(p.150) totheeastofthetemplewasafterwardsusedextensivelyasahumanburialgroundinLateRomantimes.

Recentexcavations(20022003)totheeastoftheanimalcemeteryrevealedhugemud-brickbuildingsofPtolemaictimes.Thesearesituatedalongadeserttrackleadingfor700mfromthesettlementareaatthedesertedgetotheOsiris-baboontempleinthewest.ThecompoundCtothesouthoftheTahaHusseinhousehadnumerousadministrativerooms,rowsofvaultedgranaries,ovensinopencourtyards,androwsofsmallchambersfilledwithspeciallargestoragejars,paintedaroundtheirshoulderswithafloraldesign.Tothenorthlayacultroomwithalimestonestaircase,probablyerectedinfrontofawoodennaos,asisknownalreadyfromthebaboonburialsinsidethegalleriesandfromroomVofthepriest'shouse.Itwasfollowedtothenorthbyanassemblyroom,usedfordrinkingandgambling,asrevealedbythefindofnumerousgamestones,dices,anddrinkingcups.AllbuildingsseemtohavebeenchronologicallycloselyconnectedwiththeinstallationofnumerousnewcultplacesforpriestsinandoutsidethegalleriesduringthereignsofPtolemyIandII.Theywouldhaveprovidedresidencesforthefamiliesofthenewcultpersonal.Evenhere,theadministrativebuildingsseemtohavebeentemporarilyoutoffunctionatthebeginningoftheRomanPeriod.TheroomsofcompoundCwerereusedforsometimeasaproductioncenteratleastduringthesecondcenturyA.D.

CommonPeopleandInsiders,orWhoEnteredtheIbisGalleries?Textsfoundinsidethegalleriesmentiongenerals,administrators,scribes,andotherpriestlypersons,allofwhomhadtherighttoenterthegalleriesontheoccasionoftheprocessionsfromHermopolistothenecropolis.Thesecondgroupofpeoplewhohadaccesstothesacredsubterraneanspacesconsistedofthecultservantsresponsiblefortheadministrativeorganization:cultpriests,whobroughtinpersonalobjectsandpetitionsgiventothembyvillagers;andthebearersofanimalmummies.Allthesepeoplealsoparticipatedinthecyclicrenewalceremonies,aprocessperformedduringthefeastdays.ThothasaHighGodgavelifetohisjuvenilesongods.Hismanifestationwasintheshapeofaprotectiveibis-god,suchaswasfoundateveryEgyptian(p.151)templesite.Thesocialstratumofpeoplewhocouldenterthegalleriesisrecognizablebytypicalinscriptionsonvotivebronzesdedicatedhere(Naguib1943):

1.BronzefromtheSaitegalleryD2:Thoth,twice-great,lordofHermopolis,hemaygivelife,prosperityandsanityandthelifetimeofRaandahighandbeautifulageforthegeneralPetosiris,sonofthegeneralNakht-ef,bornoftheladyofthe


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house().2.BronzeshowingthewalkingibisinfrontofthegoddessMaat,fromtheSaitegallery(numberedbyGabra1134):WordsspokenbyThoth,theverygreat,lordofHermopolis,lordofthewordsofgod,firstoftheHouse-of-the-Net,beingoverallPat(?)andRechit.Mayhegivelife,prosperity,andsanity,ahighlifetimeandahighandbeautifulagetotheProphetofHorus-Re(?)lordoftheDju-efregionIset-juf-ankh,sonoftheGreatLeaderoftheMaTakelothis.3.BronzefromanunknownSaitegallery(numbered1104):Thoth,twicegreat,lordofHermopolis,givenlife(tothe)servantofThothAmenirdis,sonofPeftjau-khent-Neith.

Thediversityofthepre-PtolemaicbronzegroupsisimpressivecomparedtothemoreuniformshapeoftheOsiris-andibisbronzesfoundinPtolemaictimes.Oneearlywoodenchestcontained123bronzes.PhotosofGabrashowthatmostbronzesoriginatingfromtheearlierbranchesofthesubterraneangallerieswerewrappedinlinen,comparabletothecommonritualofcoveringstatueswithlineninthedaysoftheOsirisfeast.Outnumberingallothers,arebronzesofthegodOsiris(inastandingandsittingposition,fixedonawoodenbase,sometimesinscribedindemotic).ThesewerefollowedbyimagesofIsisandHarpokratesinallsizes,andthen,finally,figuresoftheibisintwoforms:asasquattingandwalkinganimal,representingformsofthegodsOsiris-IbisandThothandtheirtransformations.Imagesofotherdivinitiesthatparticipatedinthemajorfestivalswerealsorecoveredfromthegalleries:Ptah,Maat,Amun,Sekhmet-Bastet,Hathor,Khnum,Bes,TheHorus-Falcon,aswellasbronzeandclayfiguresofanimals,suchasbaboops,dogs,cats,bulls,andrams.Otherfindsincludeabronzeaegisplate,theMenatcounterweight,anddifferentstaves,somesurmountedbyanimalfigures.SometimesthebronzesformcomplextheologicalgroupsofEgyptiangods.Statuesandstatuettesofprivate(p.152) persons(menandwomen),canbeattributedtothegroupofactingandadoringpriests.

Bronzesfoundinsidepotteryjarswerecertainlydedicatedbylocalpeoplewhoplacedtheanimalbundlesintothelocallyproducedpotteryjars.Bronzedepositsfrompeoplewhoparticipatedinthefeastdaysabovegroundhaveyettobediscovered.ThescarcityofbronzefindsabovegroundareaclearindicationthatvisitstotheOsiris-Baboonsanctuaryweretransitory;thetemplemusthavebeentheaimofreligiousactivitiesmainlyduringthegreatprocessions.

AnimalsBuriedintheIbiotapheionofTunaal-GebelEveryEgyptiananimalcemeterycontainsavarietyofdifferentanimalspecies.ThefollowinglistofsacredanimalsrepresentstheresultsofthesurveyofmummiesoranimalbundlesfromtheTunacatacombscarriedoutbetween1983and2002.Furtherexcavationsofcertainselectedspotswilldefinitelyaddnewspeciestothelist.TheidentificationoftheanimalsismostlyduetothecontinuingresearchoftheInstituteforPalaeoanatomy,AnimalDomesticationandHistoryofVeterinaryMedicineattheUniversityofMunich(J.Boessneck(+),A.vondenDriesch,J.Peters).

MammaliaMammals


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Wildmammals

Crociduraolivieri GreaterMuskShrewPapiohamadryas HamadryasBaboonPapiocynocephalusanubis OliveBaboonCercopithecusaethiops GreenMonkey,GrivetErythrocebuspatas RedGuenonMacacasylvanus BarbaryApeHerpestesichneumon EgyptianMongooseSusscrofa WildBoarGazelladorcas DorcasGazelleArvicanthisniloticus AfricanGrassRat

(p.153) DomesticMammals

Canislupusf.familiaris DogFelissilvestrisf.catus CatSusscrofaf.domestica PigOvisorientalisf.aries SheepCapraaegagrusf.hircus GoatBosprimigeniusf.taurus Cattle

AvesBirdsWildbirds

Pelecanusonocrotalus WhitePelicanPodicepscristatus GreatCrestedGrebePhalacrocoraxafricanus ShagAnhingamelanogaster DarterPhalacrocoraxcarbo CommonCormorantCasmerodiusalbus/Ardeacinerea GreatWhiteEgret/GreyHeronEgrettagarzetta LittleEgretBubulcusibis CattleEgretNycticoraxnycticorax NightHeronPlatalealeucorodia SpoonbillPlegadisfalcinellus GlossyIbis


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Threskiornisaethiopicus SacredIbisCiconiaciconia WhiteStorkAnastomuslamelligerus AfricanOpen-billStorkAnasclypeata NorthernShovelerHaliaeetusalbicilla White-tailedEagleMilvusmigransmigrans BlackKiteMilvusmigransaegyptim BlackKiteElanuscaeruleus Black-wingedKiteCircaetusgallicus EuropeanSnakeEagleAccipiternisus SparrowhawkAccipiterbrevipes LevantSparrowhawkMicronisus-gabar GabarGoshawkAccipitergentilis GoshawkButeobuteorufinus BuzzardButeolagopus Rough-leggedBuzzardButeorufinusrufinus Long-leggedBuzzardButeorufinuscirtensis Long-leggedBuzzardAquilaheliaca ImperialEagleAquilapomarina Lesser-SpottedEagleTorgostracheliotus Lapped-facedVultureGypsfulvus GriffonVultureNeophronpercnopterus EgyptianVultureCircusaeruginosus MarshHarrierCircusmacrourus PallidHarrierCircuspygargos Montagu'sHarrierFalcocherruq SakerFalconFalcobiarmicus LannerFalconFalcoperegrinusperegrinoides PeregrineFalconFalcosubbuteo HobbyFalconaumanni LesserKestrelFalcotinnunculus KestrelFulicaatra CootGallinulachloropus CommonMoorhenGrusgrus CommonCraneHoplopterusspinosus Spur-wingedPlover


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Pteroclessp SandgrouseTytoalba BarnOwlBubobuboascalaphus EagleOwlAsioflammeus Short-earedOwlAthenenoctua LittleOwlCaprimulguseuropaeus NightjarCaprimulgusaegyptius EgyptianNightjarCoraciasgarrulus EuropeanRollerUpupaepops HoopoeGaleridacristata CrestedLarkMotacillaalba WhiteWagtailCorvuscoronesardonius CarrionCrow

(p.154) DomesticBirds

Anseranserfdomestica Domesticgoose

(p.155) ReptiliaReptiles

Crocodilusniloticus NileCrocodileNajahaje EgyptianCobraMalpolonsp. SnakeGen.etsp.indet. Lizard

PicesFish

Mugilsp. MulletMormyridae Mormyridspec.Clariassp. CatfishBagrusspec. Bagrusspec.Synodontisschall GraycatfishLatesniloticus NilePerchBarbusbynni BarbTedraodonfahaka Nilepuffer

Itappearsthatallmummiesofsacredanimalsandevenallpartsandremainsofsacred


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animalsfoundinsidethebundlesandmummiesoftheibiotapheion,wererituallymadeintogods.Theburiedanimalsconsistoftwogroups.Onearetheselectedsacredanimalswhowererituallyneededforprocessionsandofferings,actingintheroleofagod,eventhosewhooftengotkilledcruelly,strangled,burnt,martyred,anddecapitated.However,aftertheyhadservedtheirpurpose,theirbodyorwhatwasleftofit,wasdeifiedandcarriedtotheirfinalrestingplaceasgods.Theywerealwaysdistinctfromthesecondgroupoftheirsacredcompanionbytheircolorationandmarking,wholivedanddiednearorwithinthesacredfeedingenclosures.Thedistinctionmaybereflectedinhowtheywerewrapped,andinthechoiceofamoresolidandexpensiveburialcontainer.

Thevastmajorityhundredsofthousands,ifnotmillionsofanimalsburiedatTunawereibises.Itisdifficulttogiveexactnumbersbecausethepre-PtolemaicbundlessentfromalloverEgypttoTunamainlycontainpartsofibisesandotherbirds,ratherthansingleintactcreatures.Consideringthetimefactor,thePtolemaiceraprobablyyieldedareasonablenumberofsometimesmoreorlessonethousandannualmummiesfromeachofthenumerousHermopolitanbreeding(p.156) places.Sowemayassumethataltogetheraboutfifteenthousandibismummiesayearwerebroughttothegalleriesfromtentofifteenlocalibiotropheia.ManyPtolemaicmummiesarealsooftenmadeofpartsofsacredibises:ofsinglebones,feathers,orsimplyofdriedgrassfromabird'snest.Manyscholarsexplaintheseawayasdeliberatefakes,providedbyprieststogulliblepilgrims,oralternativelysuggestthattheseweremadewhentherewasasupplyproblemtofulfillaheavydemandformediumgods.Onthecontrary,thesedummymummiesareevidenceforthecarefulcollectionofallanimalremains,evenfragments,fromthesiteofthesacredlocalibiscolonies.Someofthemummiesintheshapeofafalconmaycontainbonesoffalconsornot,demonstratingalsothecloseinstitutionalandreligiousconnectionbetweentheibisandfalconorganization.Itisnotsurprisingtofindibisboneswithinbaboonmummies.

APtolemaicibisjarnormallycontainsthreetofourlargeibismummies.Pre-Ptolemaic-Periodjarsaresometimesfilledwithavaryingbuthighernumberofbundles.Severalsmallerbundlesarewrappedtogetherwithinanouterbundleandfixedwithdifferentkindsofstring.Manyofthesebundlescontainfeathers,reeds,grass,orpartsofwingsonly.Itappears,thatinmanyinstances,birdswereinterredtomaceratethefleshandtoskeletonizeit.Whenmummybundleswereprepared,theembalmersfeltnoneedtocollectandwrapawholebirdagain,ortoaddthefeatherstothebones;theysimplydugoutwhatremainedoftheskeletonizedbonesofabird,andmixedthemwithsinglebonesbelongingtoothersacredanimalsfromthelocalbreedingplace.ThentheyformedabiggerbundletosendtoTuna.Thecombinationofanimalpartsinsideabundlevariesfromonesampletotheother.Forexample,wediscoveredthecompleteskeletonofafish,togetherwithtwoisolatedibisheads,allgluedtogether.Anotherbundlecontainedpartsofthreecats,smallpartsoffishes,aboneoftheglossyibis,theskullofanichneumon,andbirdsofprey.Ahumanribinbetweenanimalremainsmaybeduetotheproximityofahumanembalmer'sworkshoptothatoftheanimalembalmers.

Fromtheinceptionofthetraditionofdepositinganimalsinsideanibiotapheion,allremains


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ofsacredanimalskeptaroundthelocalibisbreedingareathatwasconnectedtoatempleinstitutionwerecollectedandsenttoTunaregardlessoftheirspecies.Thecombinationsofparts(p.157)

Fig.6.10 Agallery(BE)showingnichesforibisburialsandemptiedpotsthrownintothemainpassage.CourtesyofDieterKessler.

ofcats,fishes,birds,snakes,crocodiles,mongooses,shrews,pigs,etc.,continueuntilPtolemaictimes.However,startinginPersiantimestheembalmingtechniquechanges.Fromthisperiodonward,akindofturpentinewasspreadoverthebonesinordertoshortentheprocessofmaceration.Nodoubtthesweetsmelloftheliquidhidtheterriblesmellofrottingflesh.Duetotheintensiveuseofturpentineand/orbitumen,anoxidationprocessstartedwhichburnedthebonesfrominside,sometimesleavingjarsfilledonlywiththecrumblingdustofthebundles.ThroughculticreorganizationinPtolemaictimes,certaingroupsliketheinstitutionsofCatsandDogs,supportedbynewlandsgiventothem,seemtohaveactedlocallyinanincreasinglyindependentmanner.Finally,attheendofthereignofPtolemyI,againthroughthesupportofthestatethatguaranteedthecostlyregulardeliveryofturpentineandlinen,thecompleteibismummyappearstotallyimmersedinturpentineorbitumen.Unfortunately,inmostcasesthesemummies(p.158)

Fig.6.11 AnearlyPtolemaicbaboonchapel(CC34)reusedanddecoratedwithritualscenesbyalaterPtolemaicking.CourtesyofDieterKessler.


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weretotallyburntandthenwrapped.Mummiesthatareapparentlywellwrapped,atleastexternally,mighthavebeenusedduringspecialfeastceremoniesforanunknownpurpose.Occasionally,someoftheearlierPtolemaicwrappedmummiesareadornedwithpaintedappliqus,representingThothonathrone,thefetishofAbydos,andevenafigureofPtah.

FromtheSaitePeriodonward,eggsfromibisesandothersacredbirds(falcons,pelicans)werecollectedatEgypt'sbreedingplacesandsenttoTunatogetherwiththewrappedbundles.Thefertilityoftheeggwasapparentlyirrelevanttotheeggcollectors.Sometimeseggswerekeptinlessernumbersinsmallwoodenchestsandbaskets,butinmostcasestheeggsareintermingledwithanimalbundlesinsidethetypicallargejars.InthePtolemaicPeriodibiseggsweresometimeskeptin(p.159) largeGreekwineamphorae.AsmallerearlyRomanamphoracontainedmorethansixtyibiseggs.Perhapstheamphorahadbeenfilledwithwatertostoptheeggsfromcracking.Singleeggsweresometimesembeddedinaclaymantle.Wehavenoproofthattheeggscamefromanartificialbreedingapparatusasitissometimesclaimedbysomescholars(Meeks1997:134).Itseemssufficienttoassumethatcultservantsoftheibisorganizationcollectedmanydesertedibiseggsdirectlynearthelakeofthebreedingplace.Theibiseggitself,likeothereggs,hadacertaincosmogonicalsignificance.

Manyibisbundlescontaintheremainsoftheglossyibis,whichhasaredorbrownishshiningplummage.Itmaybethatthisredcolorhadacertainnegativeconnotation,correspondingtothatofotherredanimals,whichwereoftenusedforofferings(duetotheiridentificationwiththegodSeth).Falcon-shapedmummiesoftencontaindifferentkindsoffalcons,orfragmentsthereof,sometimesmixedwithportionsofibises.Untilnowtheoriginofthesefalconsisunknown.Maybetheywerecaughtandthenkeptinspecialcages?Herons,belongingtotheanimalsofthesacredlakearea,weredepositedinthegalleriespriortothePtolemaicPeriod.Insteadofibises,singleheronswerefoundinaseriesofabouttwelvesmalljars,eachwithaspecialrectangularopening.AllthesewereinscribedwiththesamedemoticinscriptionofacertainThothirdis,sonofHarsiese,apparentlythescriberesponsiblefortheibisorganizationatTuna.ItmaybethattheheronhadbeenananimalsomehowconnectedtotheextinctibiscomataandthePhoenix-bird.Vultures,keptinspecialpotterycontainers,togetherwithotherbirdsofpreyweredepositedingroups,butthereisstillnoexactarchaeologicalevidencefortheiroriginalpositioninthegalleries.

Surprisingly,insomepartsofthePtolemaicbranchesofthegalleries,acertainpercentageoftheibisjarsdidnotcontaintheusualblackenedibismummies,butratheramixtureofbodypartsofvariousanimals,birds,shrews,etc.,includingafewhumanbones.Onejarcontainedmorethanseventhousandsingleboneswrappedintoalinencloth.Ninetypercentofthesebelongedtoibises,whiletheotherisolatedbonescamefromotherbirds,shrews,andothersmalleranimals.Theswallowandthenightjarwerefoundamongstthem.Thesebirdswerediurnal,and,likethegroupofowls,theyapparentlybelongedtotheirowntheologicallywell-definedanimalgroup.


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(p.160) BaboonswereinterredinTunafromthebeginning.Morethantwohundredbaboonskullshavebeenexamineduntilnow,perhapsaboutonlyonetenthofallburiedbaboons,tojudgefromthenichesfoundalongthewallsofthemainpassagesorinspecialchambers.MostofthemareOlivebaboons(Papiocynocephalusanubis),simplyplacedinawoodenbox.ThefirstintactHamadryasbaboonburialwasfoundingalleryCD4(ThirtiethDynasty),itsnichesealedwithmudbricks.Thewrappedbodyofthebaboonwasprotectedunderaheapofgypsum-likepowder.Surprisingly,theneighboringbaboonnichesinCD4wereusedonlyforthedepositoftheembalmingvessels:twotothreeoilvesselsandtwotofoursmallbowls,usedprobablyduringtheOpening-of-the-Mouthceremony.Theearlierbaboonmummiestheboneswereheldtogetherbythicklayersofbandagesonlyhadnooronlyafewamuletsbetweenthelinenstrips:stringsoffaencebeadsorsinglefaencescarabs.Flowergarlandssometimescoveredthewoodenboxes.Laterontheirwrappedbodywasoftenembeddedinthicklayersofresin.Themoreexpensiveouterlimestonecoffinsforbaboons,typicaloftheearlierPtolemaicPeriod,containedinnerwoodenboxesdecoratedwithanUraeusfrieze,withmoreamuletsadorningandprotectingthemummy.

Manyofthebaboonsdiedveryyoung,whichmightreflecttheharshconditionsoftheircaptivity.Deformationsofbaboonbones(arthrosis)arecommon,hintingatrachitis,insufficientnutritionandlackofspace.Tuberculosisseemstohavebeenfrequent.Theirteetharegenerallyinadeplorablecondition.Continuousstressledtoapermanenthormonaloverproductionoftheparathyroidglands,whichheavilyaffectedtheconsistencyofthebones.Ontheotherhand,ibiseswithbrokenbones,orababoonwithaheavydeformationofthejawbonecouldnothavesurvivedwithoutspecialhumanaidandadditionalfeeding.SomebaboonsfoundinTunamighthavebeenborninEgyptlikethoseinSaqqara(seeNicholson,thisvolume),whilemonkeysliketheGreenmonkeysandtheBarbaryapes,wouldhavebeenimportedfromabroad.

Partsoftwomightycrocodiles,onemorethanfivemeterslong,werefounddispersedinthegalleriesBandC.Togetherwiththefish,theybelongtothetheologicallyimportantgroupoftheanimalsofthewater,theanimalsoftheprimevallandscape,whichcouldalsobedangerous.ThegodsSobekandSethcouldtransformthemselvesintocrocodiles.Thesacredcrocodilesmusthavebeenkeptnearatemplelake(p.161) (perhapsinHermopolis),servedbythemembersofasmallassociationofthegodSobek(Suchos)withasanctuary(Suchieion)nearby.Partsoffisheswerealsooftenfoundinpre-Ptolemaicgalleries,perhapsincloseconnectionwithcatburials.CatsandfisharebothfoundonstandardspicturedinNewKingdomtombs.

Dogsandcatsarebothfoundfromthebeginningofburialanimalcults,butrarelyascompleteskeletons.Theyaregenerallyrepresentedonlybyafewbones.ItseemsthatinSaitetimesthebulkofsacredcatsanddogsoftheEgyptiantempleritesmayhavebeenbroughttoandburiedcentrallyinspecialmainburialplacesofEgyptlikeKynopolisorBubastis(notinSaqqarawhichdoesnotshowcatordogburialsuntillater,totheauthor'sknowledge),leavingonlyafewcatsanddogsofthelocalbreedingplacestobecombinedwiththeibises.Demotictexts,datingtobeforethePtolemaicPeriod,mention


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fieldsofthedogandcatorganizationthatwereusedforthemaintenanceofthecult.Theirlocalreligiouscultbuildings,alwayscloselyconnectedtooneanother,theAnubieionandtheBubasteion,musthavebeenlocatedsomewhereneartheGreatTempleofTuna.

Concentratedburialsofbovids,mostlycowsandoxen,werealsofoundinthepre-Ptolemaicpartofthegalleries(CCD).ItisprobablethattheseanimalsweremembersofthesacredbovineherdofThoth.Thothtransformedhimselfintotheformofabull,inamannerparalleltothegodPtahwhowasmanifestedastheApis-bull,andRe'sincarnationastheMnevisbull.ThecommonHermopolitannameTheone,whomtheGem-calf-hasgivenhintsatacultimageoftheyoungThoth-bullinthecourtareaoftheGreattempleinTuna-South.Thebovidsmusthavebeenburiedinlargewallnichesontheground.OtherboneswerediscoveredintheearlyPtolemaicpart(GCA6)andinamiddlePtolemaicsectionbefore(GBE14).Insomecasesallthebonesareburntexcepttheirforepart.Itseemsthatmostofthebonesoftheirskeletonwerelaidinlayers,thewrappinggivingonlyaroughoutline.AsinglegazellemummywasfoundlyingontopofibispotteryjarsinanuntouchedsidechamberinGalleryA.

Thediscoveryofpigbonesincertainjarswassurprising.TheyfirstcametolightinthemiddlePtolemaicGalleryB,inaSaitecontext,associatedwiththebonesofotheranimals.PigsarenormallyexcludedfromEgyptiantemples,becausetheywereassociatedwiththeclassof(p.162) theabominableanimalsofthegodSeth.However,onemayassumethattheytoolivedontheprimevalhill.PerhapsintheLatePeriodsacredpigswererelatedtothefeastofIsis,whotransferredherselfintoasow.Thepigboneswereoftenburnt,andconsistedonlyofsmallpieces.Untilnowwemayofferonlypreliminaryconsiderations,indicatingthattheseanimalswhichwereburntinofferingsasdangerousanimalsalsohadtobetransferredintothestatusofimmortalgods.

Theclassofsacredanimalsoftheearth,i.e.,worms,rats,smallsnakes,beetles,rats,lizards,andtheshrewarefoundalreadyinlinenbundlesdatingtotheSaitePeriod.InPtolemaictimestheyweresometimeswrappedinroundedbundles,whichwereintermingledwithmummiesofibisesandfalcons.Allthesesmallanimalsweredeified.Thecontentsofthebundlesvary.Forinstance,onebundlecontainedtensmallsnakesandthecompletebonesofoneshrew.Thesimpletheologicalideabehindtheircombinationsseemstobethatantagonisticanimalspeciescoulddestroyeachother.Thiswouldbedangerousforgodsintheformofanotherspecialanimal,andthusalsoforthetransformationoftheHorus-king.ThiscouldbeespeciallytruewhenSeth/Apophis,theopponentofHorus,tooktheshapeofsuchdangerousanimals.Duringthefightontheprimevalhill,Sethcouldusethepowerofdangeroussnakes,whiletheibisesfoughtagainstthem.Becauseallkindsofsnakesandalsowormsbelongedtotheterrestialanimalcategory,headedbythesnakegod,theibiswasultimately(butincorrectly),classifiedasasnakekiller.Infact,theibisseemstodevouronlysmallwormsorsmallfishes.TheEgyptiansknewthatfalconsdevourmiceorrats,thatasnakekillsashrew,anichneumonattacksasnake,thatacateatsafish,acrocodilekillsaram,andsoon.Butasdeifiedgodstheantagonisticanimalscouldnotbeeliminated.Thereforetheirboneswrappedtogether


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havenothingtodowithburiedanimalsgettingtheirproperfoodasissometimesclaimed.Theprotectiveaspectsofthesnakewasvisiblyassociatedwiththesacredibisstandard;statuesoframsandcrocodilesstoodneareachotherinEgyptiantemples;catsandfishwerefoundonthesamestandard.Catandfishactedtogether,e.g.,duringtheNewYearfestivals,especiallyinthetownofBubastis,wherethemalecat(asthevisiblepowerofthesungodRa)andthecatfish(asapowerofthehiddengodAtum)weretheprotectingcitygods.(p.163)

Fig.6.12 BaboonchapelCC34withlaterPtolemaicritualscenes.CourtesyofDieterKessler.

Similarly,thenocturnalshrewandthediurnalfalconwereformsofthehiddenandthevisiblesolarfalcongod.Haroeris(theoldHorus)andtheyoungHorusbothtransformedthemselvesintoashrewandafalcon,respectively.Themongoosewasconsideredasbothsnakekillerandananimalofthesolargod.Hewasanopponentoftheanimalsoftheearth,i.e.,oftheshrew.Woodensarcophagisurmountedbythefigureofashrewdonotalwayscontainshrews,butcanalsoincludeNilerats.Theprecisecontentsofthenumerousothersmallwoodenorstonesarcophagiofthescarab-beetleorofthewoodenobelisk-likecontainers(ofthegoddessSekhmet)needfurtherstudy,butherealsocanoftenbeobservedacertaindistinctionbetweentheanimalformofthehighgodandthekind,color,orspeciesoftheburiedsacredanimal.

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