Workplace sociology
Gerhard Ohrband3rd lectureJob Analysis and Design
Course structurePart I Introduction1 Managing diversity2 History and context for Work and Organizational
Psychology / Roles and methods
Part IIPeople at work3 Job Analysis and Design4 Personal Selection5 Training
Course structure6 Performance Appraisal: Assessing and Developing
Performance and Potential7 Job Stress and Health
Part IIIHuman Factors at Work8 Workload and Task Allocation9 Work Environments and Performance10 The Design and Use of Work Technology11 Safety at Work
Course structurePart IVOrganizations at Work12 Leadership and management13 Work motivation14 Teams: the challenges of cooperative work15 Organizational development (OD)
Part II – People at work3 Job Analysis and DesignOutline:1. Why carry out a Job Analysis?2. Major categories of Job Analysis Data3. Steps in a Job Analysis Project4. Job Analysis and Job Design5. Validity and Job Analysis6. The Future for Job Analysis Research and
Practice
1. Why carry out a job Analysis?- Human resource planning- Efficient utilization of human resources- Performance management- Training and development- Knowledge management- Job design and redesign- Safety and health management- Classifying and grouping similar jobs- Job evaluation and compensation- Legal/quasi-legal requirements
2. Major categories of Job Analysis Data
Two main types of job analysis data1. Tasks and duties (Job-oriented)2. Required behaviours and implied knowledge, skills and
abilities (Worker-oriented) A hybrid of task and worker approaches is needed for most
purposesInformation gathered from both types of data Tasks: Frequency performed? Importance of performance? Skills/knowledge needed for performance of task or
behaviour: When are they learned? Importance for tasks and behaviours?
Abilities: Necessary for task performance? For new skill/knowledge acquisitions?
3. Steps in a Job Analysis Project
Determinating the scope of the job analysis project Deciding the methods to be used in collecting information:
Preliminary data from existing records / collecting job analysis data
Examples of specific job analysis techniques:Position analysis questionnaire (PAQ, Mc Cormick, Mecham and
Jeanneret, 1989): structured questionnaire, 195 items.Six divisions:a) Information inputb) Mental processesc) Work outputd) Relationships with other peoplee) Job contextf) Other job characteristics
PAQ + 8 items: Pay, compensation and employment status Rating scalesExample: item 49. Using mathematics. Using the response scale below,
indicate the highest level of mathematics needed to perform the jobLevel of mathematics0 does not apply1 Simple basic (addition and subtraction of 2-digit numbers)2 Basic (addition and subtraction of 3-digit numbers, multiplication
and division)3 Intermediate (e.g., fractions, decimals, and percentages)4 Advanced (e.g., algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and statistics)5 Very advanced (advanced mathematical and statistical theory, e.g.,
calculus, topology, vector analysis, factor analysis or probability theory)
PAQ Factor analysis of ratings for a sample of
2200 jobs -> 13 overall dimension (Mc Cormick et. Al., 1989)
Examples: Decision/communication/general
responsibilities Public/customer/related contact activities Unpleasant/hazardous/demanding
environment
Page 9 of the PAQ
Functional job analysis (FJA) History: developing a job classification scheme for the
Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) in the USA Three worker function scales (things, data, people)
scaled along low, medium and high complexity Example:
Things: High 4 a. Precision workingb. Setting up c. Operating controlling II
Medium3 a. Manipulating b. Operating controlling I c. driving-controllingd. starting up
Low 2 a. Machine tending I b. Machine tending II1 a. Feeding-offbearing
Other techniques … Task inventories: a list of tasks that are relevant
to particular job or type of work Selection and worker characteristics Job element method: Steps: 1 - SMEs (subject matter experts) produce initial set of job
elements and sub-elements in terms of knowledges, skills, abilities and work habits significant for the job
2 – SME rate each element and sub-element on four scales (a. importance for the work to be barely acceptable, b. importance for selecting superior workers, c. trouble likely if element not used in selection, d. how practical it is to expect applicants to the have the element)
Other techniques … Critical incidents technique (CIT) Competency profiling (Boyatzis):Threshold competencies vs.
competencies
Critical incidents technique (CIT) Developed by John Flanagan and others in studies for
the US Army Air Forces towards the end of the Second World War.
Used mainly for Job requirements specification Training needs assessment Performance appraisal Providing useful information for the design of
instruments and controls and their arrangement; for example, in the aircraft cockpit
Strength of CIT: production of very specific behavioural descriptions, sometimes thousands of them, which can then be categorized into types of related behaviours
Five steps of the CIT procedure1. Determination of the general aim of the
activity (job being studied)
2. Development of plans and specification for collecting factual incidents regarding the activity
3. Collection of data (the incidents description)
4. Analysis of the data (categorization of incidents)
5. Interpreting and reportingthe requirements of the activity
2. Development of plans and specification for collecting factual incidents regarding the activitya) Decide who will be the sources of
incidents. The sources should have substantial recent experience of observing incumbents in their work
b) Decide how the data will be collected. Several options include
Individual interviews Workshop groups Distributed questionnaires Form for recording incidents
Example of a form for CIT Adapted from Flanagan (1954): ‘Think of a time when
you witnessed a subordinate (supervisor, fellow-worker, team member etc.) do something that was very helpful (effective) or very unhelpful (ineffective) in meeting the aim of the work.’
Questions: What were the general circumstances leading up to
the event? What did the person actually do? Why was this helpful (unhelpful)? What was the outcome of this action? What was the person’s job title? How long had the person done this job? When did the incident happen?
3 Collection of the data (the incident descriptions)a) Ensure that the respondents share the job analyst’s understanding
of the general aim of the work activity being reported, and what the incident descriptions will be used for, and that the people described in the incidents remain strictly anonymous
b) Ensure that the respondents understand what constitutes a well written incident description:
It should be simple, describing a single incident It should be written in active voice, describing what the incumbent
did The incident should make a significant contribution, either
positively or negatively, to the general aim of the activity (this is what it makes critical)
It should begin with a brief statement of the context of the incident It should end with a brief statement of consequences of the
behaviour It is not judgemental. That is, there is no mention of underlying
motives, attitudes or competencies
Threshold competencies vs. competencies
performance performance
threshold competency competency
4. Job Analysis and Design Job characteristics model (Hackman and
Oldham) Five “core” job characteristics: Skill variety Task identity Task significance Autonomy Feedback
Job characteristics model (Hackman and Oldham, 1976)
Core job Dimensions
Skill variety
Task identity
TaskSignificance
Autonomy
Task feedback
Psychological states
Experienced meaningfulnessof the work
Experienced responsibilityfor outcome of the work
Outcomes
High internalworkMotivation
High qualitywork performance
High satisfactionwith the work
Low absenteeismand turnover
Knowledge of the actualresults of the work Activities
Growth Need Strength
Job characteristics model
MPS= (skill variety + task identity + task significance)
x autonomy x feedback
3
MPS: motivational potential score
5. Validity and Job AnalysisEssential features of the job analysis
process (Landy, 1993): Instrument development should be thorough and complete Pilot test at least once, or with several waves of SMEs Make it user-friendly Motivate SMEs by giving them “ownership” of the job
analysis outcomes Give them clear training and instructions, examples and
some practice Let them be anonymous Gather ratings in small groups on company time, but
mutually convenient for them
6. The Future for Job Analysis Research and Practice Changes to the world of work:
- rapid influx of information technologies - competitive pressures - globalizationRisher, 1997: notion of the “job” encourages and inflexible
and static view of work that is incompatible with the need for flexibility in the utilization of human resources and the rate of task and technological change within contemporary work organizations
Schneider and Konz, 1989: job analysis techniques need to become more strategically focused and adaptable
Discussion Points1. Is job analysis really necessary?2. How can a job analysis project contribute when an organization is
undergoing change and is expected to change even more in the future?
3. Jobs have been broad-banded in many areas and work roles for individuals are now seen as flexible and dynamic. How can job analysis be applied in this situation?
4. What is the difference between job-oriented and worker-oriented methods of job analysis, and why does this matter?
5. If jobs have disappeared and in many organizations the team is now seen as the basic unit that carries out work, is job design important any more?
6. What symptoms would suggest that the structure of tasks, skills and resources available to individuals (or teams) does not allow them to meet their objectives (e.g., resolve customer’s complaints, or meet quality and delivery specifications)? What action would you take if presented with these symptoms?
Literature Harvey, R.J. (1991). Job analysis. In M.D. Dunnette and
L.M. Hough (eds), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, volume 2, 2nd edn. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, pp 71-163.
Risher, H. (1997). The end of jobs: planning and managing rewards in the new work paradigm. Compensation and Benefits Review, 29, 13-17.
Schneider, B. and Konz, A.M. (1989). Strategic job analysis. Human Resource Management, 28, 51-63.
Wall, T.D. and Jackson, P.R. (1995). New manufacturing initiatives and shopfloor job design. In A. Howard (ed.), The Changing Nature of Work. San Francisco: Jossey Bass, pp. 139-74.