Young Vietnamese Children’s Conceptions of Play Suzan Vujanovic Bachelor of Education (Early Childhood)Thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Education (Research) Centre for Innovation in EducationQueensland University of Technology 2005
Key Words
Vietnam, Play, Phenomenography, Children’s views, Children’s stories, Children’s
art
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YOUNG VIETNMAESE CHILDREN’S CONCEPTIONS OF THEIR PLAY LIVES
Suzan Vujanovic
Abstract
Children benefit in many ways from play. Play provides children with an excellent
way to express their feelings and conceptions of the world in which they live. Play
also provides a forum in which researchers can capture, understand and interpret
children’s voices and views.
Like many countries around the world, Vietnam is currently reforming their early
childhood education curriculum to provide a play-based, child centred and outcomes
focused approach to early childhood education. In order to capture children’s interest
and promote child initiated and directed learning, educators and policy makers need to
consider how children interpret their personal play lives. This study presents data
from children’s programs in nine kindergartens and cultural programs in Hanoi and
Ho Chi Minh City. Children’s drawings and stories were collected to document
young children’s conceptions of play in Vietnam at the turn of the millennium.
Through these 353 drawings and stories, key themes in the children’s play lives were
identified.
The purpose of this study is to examine children’s views about play. What do they
like to play? How do they define play? How are young Vietnam’s children’s
conceptions of their play influenced by cultural attitudes and expectations? In
addition, the study proposes some new play-based, child centred and outcomes
focused approaches to curriculum development for Vietnamese early childhood
programs.
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Table of Contents
Chapter One An Introduction 1
Background 1
Locating the research 2
Play and education in Vietnam 3
Locating the researcher 7
Aim of the research 9
Theoretical framework for research 9
Research contributions 10
Research assumptions 11
Organisation of the thesis 11
Chapter Two A Review of the Literature 12 Introduction 12
The place of play in Vietnam 12
Characteristics of play in early years 14
Theories of play 16
Culture and play 21
Children’s perceptions of play 22
Researching children’s views and theories 29
Theories about children’s artistic cognition 31
Early childhood curriculum in Vietnam 33
Conclusion 36
Chapter Three Research design 37
Introduction 37
Participants 40
Data collection techniques 41
Data collection procedure and protocol 43
Group discussion 43
Drawings 43
Personal interviews 44
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Data analysis techniques 45
Professional consultation 50
Ethical issues 51
Limitations 52
Chapter Four Findings of the study 54
Introduction 54
Concept 1: Natural world 58
Flowers 58
Outdoor environments 60
Animals 64
Concept 2: Human relationships 66
Friends 67
Family 70
The extended family 74
Alone 76
Concept 3: Culture and Context 79
Cultural celebrations 80
Cultural places 82
Cultural rituals 86
Concept 4: Material Resources 88
Balloons 90
Sliding boards, swings and other 91
playground equipment
The skipping rope 94
Trains, planes and automobiles 96
Technology 98
Concept 5: Structure 99
Play rituals 100
Cultural games 102
Global games 104
Concept 6: Imagination 105
Role play 106
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Wishful thinking 108
Make believe 109
Conclusion 111
Chapter Five A Discussion of children’s conceptions of play 112
Vietnamese children and their play theories 114
Play is being outdoors. 115
Play is being with friends and family,
and sometimes alone. 119
Play is involves immersion in culture and identity. 122
Play involves materials. 124
Play is structured. 125
Play is dreaming and imagining. 127
Culturally relevant conceptions 128
Conclusion 129
Chapter Six Conclusions and recommendations: 130
Implications of the findings 133
Policy makers 134
Teacher educators 137
Teachers 138
Conclusion 141
References 142
Appendices 152
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List of Tables
Table 1 Number/Gender of children participating in study 41
Table 2 Ages represented in this study 41
Table 3 Phenomenographic cycle of analysis 47
Table 4 Young Vietnamese children and their key ideas 55
about play – Group discussions
Table 5 Young Vietnamese children and their key ideas 57
about play – Drawings and stories
Table 6 Young Vietnamese children’s material 89
resource preference
Table 7 Young Vietnamese children’s procedural 100
games preferences
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List of Plates Cover
C1
C2 C3
C4
C5 C6
C1 Human Resources
Playing with my brothers and sisters in the street near my home Trang, Female, 5 years
HCP 19 C2 Natural
I am riding on the back of a buffalo. It is eating grass. These are my sister and my friends Diem My, Female, 5 years CC18
C3 Culture
I like to draw about Tet in my spare time. My mother is preparing for Tet. Tan Phuoc, Female, 5 years EK47
C4 Material Resources
I draw my friends holding balloons on a boat. I like playing with balloons on the kindergarten grounds. (Where is the boat?) Front Beach Quang Chai, Male, 5 years VT20
C5 Structure
I play badminton. Danh Cau Long, Male, 9 years HCP6
C6 Imagination
I like to play soldier with my friend at school. Man Minh, Male, 5 years LA40
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Plate 1 I am riding on the back of a buffalo. It is eating grass. 45 These are my sister and my friend. Diem My, Female, 5 years CC18
Plate 2 Playing alone outdoors with flowers. 59 Pham Nguyet Nga, Female, 5 years BD 5
Plate 3 Football. 60
Phuc, Male, 6 years HCP3
Plate 4 I drew a flower garden. This is a duck. 61
I like to play in the garden at the park. ThanhTram, Female,
5 years VT21 Plate 5 My home. 63
Khong, Male, 4 years DD11
Plate 6 Two fish. 65
(Do you like to play with fish?) I feed them at kindergarten. Nhat Quynh, Female, 4 years EK11
Plate 7 Outside with friends. 65
Tran Li Quan, Male, 5 years VB23
Plate 8 Playing with my friends 68
Phuong Linh, Female, 5 years VB22
Plate 9 I like to play soldier with my friend at school 69 Man Minh, Male, 5 years LA40
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Plate 10 My family walking along Hoan Kiem bridge. 72 Pham Minh Hoa, Female, 5 years
DD53 Plate 11 We are playing at home. Some people 73
are cooking. I am bringing rice to my father. Tam Tho, Female, 6 years
CCH 29 Plate 12 I play at my house in the countryside. 74
My grandmother lives there. I play with animals. I play with cats. Khai Minh, Male, 4 years EK 21
Plate 13 This is my house and I play outside with flowers. 75
The other house is my grandmothers. Nguyen Hai Co, Female, 5 years EK35 Plate 14 I play alone outdoors. 77 Linh, Female, 5 years HCP12 Plate 15 I play in the garden of my house with my brother. 78 (Where is your brother?) I forgot to draw him. Tuan Thinh, Male, 5 years VT2 Plate 16 New Year picture- long cake, square 81
cake, watermelon and flowers. M. Trang, Female, 5 years VT17
Plate 17 My house, a tree and a flower. 84 Bao Ngoc, Female 4 years DD22
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Plate 18 My father goes to the airport and I went to say goodbye. 85 Nguyen Han Female, 5 years LA33
Plate 19 Lunar Tet. Lion, drummer and friends. 87
Hai Linh, Female, 7 years CCH1
Plate 20 I draw balloons that people sell. 90 I am at home. I like balloons. Minh Quan, Male, 5 years VT1 Plate 21 I would like my friend to come and visit. 91
I haven’t invited him yet. We are playing at my house. I have a fish pond. Hung Vy, Female, 5 years CC12
Plate 22 Plating at school with the merry go round 92 and see-saw.
Minh Hang, Female, 5 years BD17
Plate 23 Playing at my friend’s house. 93
Dam Tu, Male, 5 years DD35
Plate 24 I am skipping. 94
Thanh Hang, Female, 5 years CCH 19
Plate 25 Playing in the park. 95
Phuong Anh, Female, 5 years VB38
Plate 26 I like army tanks. 96
This is in the street during the daytime Anh Tuan, Male, 5 years
VT 1
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Plate 27 Cars and construction play at school. 97 Tran Hung Thinh, Male, 4 years
EK 6 Plate 28 Bedroom and computer. 98 Quang Huy, Male,
5 years DD39 Plate 29 I play on the computer at home. 99
These are super-robots. One has an electronic field and he is winning. They have guns and swords. They wear masks and hats. John (Jhon), Male, 8 years CC25
Plate 30 My friends and I doing exercise with 101
plastic butterfly wings. Giao Quyen, Female, 5 years
LA 32 Plate 31 The church. I like to play chase 103
the goat at home with father. At school cooking in home corner. Tram Anh, Female, 4 years LA3
Plate 32 I play football with my friends at the 105
school playground. Do Xuan Duy, Male, 8 years
HCP9 Plate 33 House, tree, bird and flowers. 107
I like to play with my sister at home. We play shop keeper and I get to sell. My maid is the buyer. Ngoc Thanh, Female, 4 years LA 16
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Plate 34 I am playing with my friends under 109 the Tet tree at my house. (She has not yet visited) Quynh Nhu, Female, 5 years CC 2
Plate 35 Mother butterfly and baby butterfly. 110
My sister and I fly away. Nghi An, Female, 5 years LA 43
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List of Appendices
Appendix A Kindergarten play program – 153 Ministry of Education and Training
Appendix B Kindergarten art program – 155
Ministry of Education and Training Appendix C Associates for research team 159 Appendix D Schedule of meetings and activities – 161
Vietnam 2000-2001 Appendix E Lesson plan 163 Appendix F Data sets 165 Appendix G “Comparison” stage – 214
coding the data Appendix H Statement of consent 216 Appendix I Ethical clearance 228
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The work contained in this thesis has not been submitted in any form for another degree or diploma at any university or other institution of tertiary education. Information derived from the published or unpublished works of others has been acknowledged in the text and a list of references is provided. The referencing system used follows the procedure outlined by the American Psychological Association Standards. I undertake to retain the original collated data on which this thesis is based for a minimum of five years, in accordance with University Ethics Guidelines. ……………………………………… …………………
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Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge the 353 young Vietnamese children who participated in
this study. I would like to express my utmost gratitude to you all for sharing your
play lives with me.
Many thanks to my supervisor and mentor, Dr. Barbara Piscitelli, who introduced me
to the wonderful country of Vietnam and its people. I am thankful for the support, the
guidance and the encouragement that you have given me throughout the course of my
study.
Many thanks to my associate supervisors; Dr. Rosemary Perry (1999-2000) and Dr.
Anne Russell (2001-2004) for guidance, feedback and comments.
I would like to also express thanks to Ms Cao Thi Thanh from the National Teacher
Training College for Early Childhood Education – Number 3, in Ho Chi Minh City
and Dr. Pham Thi Mai Chi, from the Research Centre for Early Childhood Education
in Hanoi for their hospitality, generosity and assistance during my visits to Vietnam.
Thank you to the early childhood educators throughout Vietnam who welcomed me
into their kindergartens and programs and assisted with the collection of data and
interpretations.
Lastly, I would like to express my gratitude to my family and friends. Thank you for
your support, encouragement and understanding.
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CHAPTER ONE
An introduction
Background
At any day in any kindergarten in Vietnam, it is normal to see children
involved in play. During normal play episodes, children may be involved in
unstructured and free play, such as participating in role-play in set up areas, playing
outdoors on the equipment, or manipulating materials made available to them.
Formal play includes structured games directed by teachers, such as Meo Duoi Chuot
(cat and mouse) or “drop the hanky”, and other scripted or procedural activities. Both
normal and formal play episodes are very much a part of kindergarten life in Vietnam.
However, what do children think about their everyday play? What are the main
themes and conceptions of play in young Vietnamese children’s minds?
My curiosity about Vietnamese children’s play lives emerged in 2000, while I
completed a six-week teaching internship in Ho Chi Minh City at the end of my
Bachelor of Education course. In my daily reflections, I often questioned how
children perceived and conceptualised play. My reflective diary (Vujanovic, 2000a)
indicated my desire to understand play and to develop closer relationships to the
children during their play episodes. As a learning teacher, I believed that this
knowledge would assist me in promoting positive learning experiences through the
children’s normal and formal play episodes.
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Locating the Research
Vietnam is currently undergoing major reforms as the country shifts from
centralised economy managed by government to the market economy. There is a shift
towards a more open society and a move from centralised control towards free market
competition. Following years of economic decline, resulting from the effects of the
war and unsuccessful collectivisation programs, the government implemented a
program known as doi moi (renovation) in 1986. These reforms were aimed at a shift
towards market economy with socialist orientation (Australian Department of Foreign
Affairs and Trade, 2001).
Amongst all this change, the education system is undergoing major reforms,
and new approaches to education are being introduced. These reforms have affected
early childhood institutions throughout Vietnam, as they experiment with new ideas
and apply new approaches to preschool education. The Ministry of Education and
Training (MOET) launched an ongoing early childhood reconstruction program to
study the results of more play in the classroom. The aim of early childhood education
in Vietnam is all round development of children and to develop intelligence, scientific
curiosity, and the development of language and thinking (Pham, 1998). Early
childhood institutions throughout Vietnam implement a curriculum that recognises the
importance of play in children’s overall development (Van, 2000). However,
UNICEF argues that play in Vietnam is often not recognised as important in
children’s schooling and family life. It was found that in rural areas, children rarely
play. Urban children have more opportunities and access to play but, even in
kindergartens, the opportunity for free and unstructured play is minimal (Van
Oudenhoven & Nhom Chan Troi Moi, 1999).
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Although play is valued by researchers and educators and considered by many
to be essential to children’s development, very little is known about young children’s
conceptions of their own play lives. Policy makers and educators require a thorough
understanding of children’s play to assure its place in children’s lives, to establish a
curriculum and to supply community provision for the interests of learners (Vietnam
News Service, 2001). Clearly, educators and parents need to understand the meaning
and significance of play in children’s lives.
Play and education in Vietnam
The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, Article 31 states
“every child has the right to rest and leisure, to engage in play and recreational
activities appropriate to the age of the child and to participate freely in cultural life
and the arts” (UNICEF, 1989).
With the exception of various reports from the Ministry of Education and
Training (MOET), UNICEF and various aid organizations and non-government
organizations (NGOs), there have been very few studies on early childhood education
in Vietnam, let alone the play lives of Vietnamese children. In the 1990s, Queensland
University of Technology (QUT) entered a collaboration program with the National
Teachers Training College of Early Childhood Education - Number 3 in Ho Chi Minh
City and developed a reciprocal relationship with the MOET. This agreement has
instigated several visits, seminars and meetings between the two institutions. In 1999,
Piscitelli and Perry travelled to Vietnam to provide a seminar on new approaches to
early childhood education and training, focusing on integrated learning and play.
They found that many practitioners and college staff did not fully appreciate the
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concepts and required further inputs of a theoretical and practical nature (Piscitelli and
Perry, 1999). Although key leaders expressed a strong desire to change the current
early childhood education structure, Piscitelli and Perry (1999) claimed there were
numerous philosophical and practical problems to be resolved in the early childhood
education reform process.
In Vietnam, numerous educational authorities and children’s agencies promote
the value of play in children’s lives. UNICEF (2000) advocates children’s right to
play, and believes the child’s right to play should be protected and supported by
parents and teachers. However, they claim Vietnamese children do not participate in
play at school or at home. It is reported that children’s play is often not considered as
important in schooling or family life. Organised games, toys and playgrounds are a
rare sight in rural communities. Although urban children do have better access to
play, they still lack opportunities to participate in free play or unstructured play
(UNICEF, 2000).
UNICEF (2000) expressed concerns that the dramatic changes to Vietnam’s
economy are likely to have adverse consequences for poor children and women. In
order to achieve their goals for children in Vietnam, UNICEF identified areas in
which they can support the Government and offered specific recommendations.
Recommendations related to the preschool child include:
• Strengthening and coordination and integration of different sectors to
support the holistic development of the child.
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• Integrated strategies that develop all child development issues
(physical, social, emotional and cognitive) offering better overall care,
including education.
• Support more kindergarten classes in remote and disadvantaged areas
by further recruiting and training in ethnic minority areas.
• Promote a more participatory and activity-based approach to teaching-
learning issues, therefore, improving the quality of education in
kindergartens.
• Assist in the set up of diverse and flexible models of early childhood
care and advocate a greater role in guiding and financing early
childhood care (UNICEF, 2000, pg. 103).
Children from Vietnam’s rural areas often experience severe adversity; many
children have difficult lives and are expected to contribute to the family livelihood.
This duty to the family often impacts the children’s play lives. In 1999, the New
Horizons group completed a comprehensive report, Prospects for Vietnam’s rural
children: a study on early childhood care. The group examined the situation for
children in rural areas. This report was compiled by a research team who studied the
views of a variety of groups comprising children, parents, community leaders,
government officers and policy makers. The research team examined the lives of
rural children in ten poor communities in five Vietnamese provinces. They reported
that there are hardly any play facilities in rural communities, and parents feel unhappy
about this. Playgrounds are only evident in 40% of rural communities and play
supervisors are absent. They believe that children should have access to safe
supervised play areas, and that every community should have a place for all children
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to play. The New Horizons group also reported that the girl child often does not know
how to play in rural Vietnam. In fact, girls “hardly play” and, when they do, their
play has a lack of purpose and is “passive” in nature (Van Oudenhoven & Nhom Chan
Troi Moi, 1999, pg. 8).
A shift in the attitude of Vietnamese educators towards valuing play in early
childhood education is evident when comparing current literature with earlier
literature. Fraser (1978) described a visit to a Hanoi kindergarten in 1978. He
described a highly structured daily schedule. Whilst the three years olds had the
opportunity to participate in unstructured play, the four and five year olds were bound
to a formal nine-subject program. One of these subject areas is described as “games
(organised play, social activity)” (Fraser, 1978, pg. 30). This form of play does not
incorporate the freedom of symbolic or dramatic play, thus the unique and specific
developmental benefits of these forms of play were absent.
The present Vietnamese preschool curriculum advocates “creative play”
(MOET, 1997, pg 10). As stated in the curriculum guidelines, the purpose of this play
includes the development of an understanding and reflection of various occupations,
and the responsibilities of those occupations for young children’s learning.
Accordingly, the intended outcomes for young children are to “consolidate and
expand the symbols of the world around” (MOET, 1997, pg 11). Curriculum
documents also indicate that, through play, children will understand relationships in
the family and society and “the relations among man, nature and society” (MOET,
1997, pg.13).
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Tran and Tran (2000) express the importance of play to a child’s development.
They believe that Vietnamese parents are not aware of the “dialectical ties between
the play of their children and the new psychological qualities it may bring about”
(Tran and Tran, 2000, pp 82-83). In their research, they questioned Vietnamese urban
and rural parents of their knowledge of the types of leisure activities in which their six
and seven year-old children participate. Tran and Tran (2000) found that urban
parents are likely to view play as being important to the child’s developmental
process. However, free play is not understood, and parents see structured games as
more appropriate and purposeful. Living and educational standards of parents
determined their attitudes towards children’s leisure and play activities. Rural parents
were likely to perceive play as a wasteful activity, favouring labour as a valuable
educational experience. “Many parents complain that those children indulged in play
cannot grow hardworking or useful” (Tran and Tran, 2000, pg. 84). Many teachers in
Vietnam are experiencing difficulties moving from the highly structured and set
preschool program to a play based program. Although teachers are developing an
understanding of child-centred philosophies, they are experiencing difficulties in
transforming this knowledge into their daily practice (Vujanovic, 2000b). These
studies indicate that although there is a push for play to be valued, a misunderstanding
of the value of play still exists amongst many Vietnamese parents and other members
of the community (Van Oudenhoven & Nhom Chan Troi Moi, 1999).
Locating the researcher
My earliest experience in Vietnam was a four-week internship at the Truong
Mau Ciao Thuc Hanh (an experimental kindergarten attached to the Teacher’s
Training College) in Ho Chi Minh City in January 2000, whilst undertaking my
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Bachelor of Education degree. I was assigned to a classroom with 32 five year old
children. For the duration of my internship, I observed and participated in daily
activities and lessons, as well as children’s specialist lessons (music, art and physical
education). The festival of Tet was approaching and children were preparing for this
important cultural holiday. Many classroom activities were centred on this theme.
This provided me with a rich insight into the cultural lives of young Vietnamese
children and into the integrated curriculum model which was being implemented.
During this practicum, I kept detailed and descriptive notes of my experiences and
documented many observations. On my return to Australia I commenced an
independent study titled, Culture and curriculum in Vietnam: A historical perspective
(Vujanovic, 2000b). I examined teaching approaches and philosophies implemented
at this kindergarten and discussed the historical, political and cultural factors that
continue to influence the present early childhood education system.
Following that first immersion in a Vietnamese kindergarten, I had the
opportunity to work as a research assistant with Dr Barbara Piscitelli in December
2000 – January 2001, who was participating in a fellowship under the auspices of The
Academy of Social Sciences in Australia, The Australian Academy of the Humanities,
and The Vietnam National Centre for Social Sciences and Humanities. The purpose
of the fellowship was to examine children’s play preferences. Documentation and
data collected from this project consisted of a large sample of children’s drawings and
stories which were full of rich and vivid descriptions. My thesis provides one way of
examining young Vietnamese children’s conceptions of play by further exploration
and analysis of the children’s ideas within a structured phenomenographic framework.
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Aims of the Research
The aim of this study is to document children’s conceptions of play in
Vietnam, and to identify key themes through their stories and drawings, thus
providing rich information and a window into children’s play lives.
This study attempts to address the following questions:
1. What do young Vietnamese children think about their play?
2. What culturally relevant conceptions about play do young Vietnamese
children convey in their stories and drawings?
3. What are the implications of this research for early childhood education in
Vietnam?
This study will provide baseline data on young Vietnamese children’s
conceptions of play, which will be particularly useful as a foundation for later
comparative historical and cross national analyses of children’s play.
Theoretical Framework for Research
This research focuses on child-centred conceptions of play; therefore the
researcher faced limitations on the research methods that could be applied in this
study. The researcher considered ethnography as a research methodology; however it
was rejected due to the risks of misunderstanding cultural assumptions and the time
constraints on “building and establishing relationships with participants” which is
essential to ethnographic studies (Siraj-Blatchford and Siraj-Blatchford, 2001, pg.
199). Applying ethnography as a methodology may have been problematic.
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Phenomenography was selected as a methodology since it enabled “children to
disclose as much as possible about their ways of thinking and the contents of what
they know” (Doverborg & Pramling, 1993, pg. 8).
The literature review (Chapter 2) and methodology (Chapter 3) will discuss
technical details and philosophical rationale of phenomenography and its application
in this study.
Research Contributions
Early childhood education in Vietnam is currently undergoing many changes.
The findings generated from this study may contribute to the ongoing application and
promotion of play-based and child-centred curriculum in early childhood programs.
Policy makers in Vietnam are in the process of implementing curriculum changes in
early childhood settings. The child-generated conceptions that emerged from this
study may be useful in curriculum planning and policy making in Vietnam. Rather
than viewing children as passive dependents, their ideas, views and perspectives may
be used to generate and create a child-centred outlook within an early childhood
curriculum framework. UNICEF (2000) recognises the importance and significance of
the child’s voice in decision making, and recommends that children’s voices should
be allowed to be heard in all parts of society, including the public arena of the media.
Findings of this study may assist the Ministry of Education and Training
(MOET) and training colleges to understand and analyse children’s ideas of their own
play, and to use these insights in the preparation of the 21st century early childhood
educator. These child-centred understandings can, in turn, provide a framework for
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curriculum development that will meet the needs and interests of young Vietnamese
children.
Research Assumptions This research demonstrates that very young children are capable of expressing their
conceptions, and are clear and explicit about their thoughts and ideas about play.
Children are theorisers and active learners with ideas that may be used to develop and
enhance play/learning environments (Vygotsky, 1978, Malaguzzi.1993).
Organisation of the Thesis
This thesis is comprised of six chapters. This first chapter introduces the aims
and objectives of the study. In Chapter Two, literature related to topics and ideas in
this study are reviewed. These included theories and characteristics of play,
children’s perceptions of play, play and education in Vietnam and visual literacy. The
methodology utilised in this study is described and outlined in Chapter Three.
Chapter Four outlines the findings of this study and a discussion of these findings are
examined in Chapter Five. In Chapter Six, implications of the study are considered,
and recommendations and suggestions made for further action in the area of play in
early childhood settings in Vietnam.
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CHAPTER TWO
Review of Literature
Introduction
The literature review examines traditional and contemporary theories of play.
Important studies about play and culture are discussed, as are studies that focus on
children’s perceptions of play. This chapter reviews relevant literature and focuses on
six main areas of research and professional opinion which inform the research
questions: characteristics of play, theories of play, culture and play, children’s
perceptions of play, theories about children’s artistic cognition, and issues in
researching children’s views and theories. To date, very few studies have focused on
what young Vietnamese children know and think about play, so this literature review
will, by necessity, focus on play studies from other nations and cultures.
The place of play in Vietnam
The centrality of play in village life is featured at the Vietnam Museum of
Ethnology in Hanoi. This museum contains approximately 15,000 artefacts and
illustrates the depth of Vietnam’s cultural diversity with displays of ethnic minority
artefacts and activity – representing the 54 different cultural groups in the country. In
2000, in a prominent position by the main entrance of the museum, an exhibition was
designed to connect visitors to the everyday lives of the Vietnamese people. The
village was used as a frame of reference in the exhibition, and in the first display
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cabinet were photographs and objects about children’s play. A large interpretive
panel explained:
Children’s Toy’s and Games Children’s toys and games demonstrate great ingenuity and creativity and
have long held educational value. In summer and autumn, children fly kites. In spring, they organise
grasshopper and cricket competitions and play on the swings. Games for girls require great skill and delicacy such as a pebble game called O au quan, jack sticks and jump rope. Other games prepare girls for the roles they will play as adults, as they pretend they are at the market, cooking and raising a family. Boys play more active games like the stick game, khang, coin tossing, spinning top, wrestling, rope pulling, hide and seek and flag snatching.
The mid-autumn festival on the 15th day of the 8th lunar month is a festival
devoted to children. During the festival, children play with toys like tambourines and paper lamps in the shape of stars, rabbits, spinning cylinders. Since ancient times, the Vietnamese people had great respect for education. For that reason, during mid-autumn festival a paper doctor is always placed among other gifts to express families’ wishes for children’s success at school. At night, a popular lion dance is performed.
Museum of Ethnology, Hanoi, (2000)
Although the museum placed central importance on children’s play in their
exhibit, play is not necessarily a dominant part of contemporary childhood since the
Vietnamese are undergoing rapid change to many aspects of their social, cultural and
educational values and lives. Tran and Tran (2000) found that contemporary urban
Vietnamese parents are not aware of the beneficial aspects of play for young children,
while Van Oudenhoven and Nhom Choi Troi Moi (1999) indicate that rural
Vietnamese children do not play. These studies appear to be in contradiction to the
key messages conveyed by government officials in educational and curriculum
documents (MOET, 1997) and in national policy (Van, 2000) – where the emphasis is
13
clearly placed on more play for children in schools and in communities. Why is this
emphasis on play so important in early childhood?
Characteristics of play in early years
Play is a phenomenon that is central to early childhood philosophy, and its
numerous benefits have been well documented. Vygotsky (1976) saw play as “the
leading source of development in pre-school years” (pg. 53). His views on play were
holistic: he regarded play as being critical to children’s social, emotional and
cognitive development, and claimed that each of these domains interrelated. Piaget
(1962) suggested that play does not simply reflect a child’s cognitive level, it also
contributes to that development. Play promotes the “development of knowledge, of a
spirit of inquiry, of creativity, of conceptual understanding, all contributing to the true
empowerment of children” (Wassermann, 1992, pg. 133).
Play is typically characterised as follows: Play is pleasurable and enjoyable.
Play has no extrinsic goals. It is intrinsically motivated and serves no objectives.
“The essence of play is the dominance of means over ends” (Sylva, Bruner and
Genova, 1976, pg. 24). The process of play is more important than the product. Play
is voluntary and spontaneous. Play involves the player to be actively engaged. Play
has specific systematic relations to what is not play and has been linked to a number
of cognitive and social phenomena (Garvey, 1990).
Social interactions emerge and develop during early childhood. As play is a
social experience, it is central to the development and implementation of social skills
in which children learn indirectly through experiencing the effect and consequences of
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their actions. Behaviours such as empathising, sensitivity and turn-taking are learnt
and practiced through early play experiences (Kostelnik, 1993).
Young children’s social competence enables them to develop friendships as
they grow into the early years at school. Relationships with others provides
stimulation, guidance and assistance, companionship, physical and ego support, social
comparison, intimacy and affection (Parker and Gottman, 1989). Selman (1981)
describes stages of social perspective taking (role taking). Selman suggests that
preschoolers (five year-olds) are at an egocentric stage (level 0) and believe that any
agreeable interaction between themselves and other playmates, qualifies those
playmates as friends. Six to eight year-olds (level 1) become increasingly aware that
other children have differing motives and intentions than themselves. They view
friends as those that fulfil their self-interests, for example a child who may choose to
be kind to them or who may play with them nicely. Children from eight to ten years
old (level 2) show increasing concern for the needs of their friends. Friendships are
regarded as reciprocal, where each party is expected to display affection and kindness
to one another. However, these friendships will only continue as long as each child
continues to satisfy one another. Selman continues with levels 3 and 4 (10 year – 15
year olds). During these later stages, children develop mature levels of understanding
and support in their relationships. Relationships developed in middle childhood
include an element of intimacy and interpersonal understanding, and are longer lasting
than those of younger children.
15
Theories of play
Theories of play are typically described as classical or contemporary; both
have relevance for a comprehensive study of play. Classical theories include the
“surplus energy theory”, which proposes that individuals constantly produce energy
that they consume through work (Millar, 1968). According to this theory, excess
energy that remains after the individual has worked may be eliminated through play.
Schiller (cited in Dockett and Fleer, 1999) described play as “the aimless expenditure
of exuberant energy” (pg. 240).
Rather than suggesting that play is a means of using up excess energy,
“recreation theory” defines play as a means of restoring energy (Dockett and Fleer,
1999, pg. 27). After working for a period of time, individuals need to relax, and to
generate and reserve sufficient energy to continue working again. Lazarus (1883)
regarded play as the opposite of work, and an ideal way to restore lost energy
(Johnson, Christie and Yawkey, 1999).
The “recapitulation theory” of play was proposed by Hall in 1906. He viewed
play as the enactment of stages of human evolution, e.g; animal, savage, nomad,
agricultural, tribal member and so on (as cited in Hughes, 1999, pg.16). Hall proposed
that as children developed, they passed through stages recapitulating development of
the human race. According to Hall, the reason children engaged in play was
instinctive and for the satisfaction of the need for expression of these interests.
Karl Groos (1898) believed that play strengthened instincts that were needed
for the future. In his view, children were born with imperfect and underdeveloped
16
survival instincts. Groos claimed that play enabled children to practice and perfect
these essential skills. His “practice theory” implied that early involvement leads to
learning routines for productive work and survival in the future (Scwartzman, 1978,
pg. 100).
Classical theories have attracted much criticism and tend to be limited in
scope. They are regarded as irrelevant in modern understandings of play. Millar
(1968) describes these theories as “instinct theories” (pg. 30-31). They assist humans
to satisfy goals and needs required to keep the species alive. Today, the classical
theories are considered incomplete; however in their time, they directed attention to
play and to early childhood. Features of these theories have also been incorporated
into later theories or have created impetus for the development of later theories.
Classical theories also shaped a long tradition of observing and researching play
(Dockett and Fleer, 1999).
Contemporary theories differ from classical theories in intent and purpose.
Contemporary theories attempt to determine play’s role in early childhood
development, rather than just explaining why play exists. Five main theoretical
perspectives are used to comprehend play: psychoanalytic, cognitive, social learning,
cultural learning and imagination and symbolic learning.
The oldest stream of contemporary thought about play derives from
psychoanalytic theories, based on the work of Freud (1856-1939). He viewed play as
a cathartic experience and as an avenue for children to act out and repeat problematic
life experiences in order to master them (Freud, 1920). In achieving mastery in play,
17
the child translates anxiety and fear onto other individuals or objects. Erickson (1963)
further extended psychoanalytic theory by examining its contribution to personality
development. He suggested that through play, children create situations that assist
them to master the demands of reality.
Cognitive theorists of play include Piaget (1962), Vygotsky (1976), Bruner
(1972) and Smilansky (1968). According to Piaget (1962), children progress through
a series of cognitive stages: sensorimotor, preoperational and concrete operational.
Children’s play corresponds to their level of cognitive development. Smilansky
(1968) added to Piaget stages of play describing sociodramatic play as a separate form
of play, which is positioned between sensorimotor play and symbolic play. Bruner
(1972) viewed play as an avenue for children to experiment and explore activities and
routines, which they could later use to solve real life problems. Subroutines children
have practiced and over-learned may become useful and integrated in real life
contexts.
Additional theories have emerged to explain children’s play and its
consequences. Singer (1973) saw play as an opportunity for children to use their
physical and mental abilities in imaginative play to arrange their experiences. Singer
also viewed play as the chance for children to investigate the world, to develop the
ability to cope with the world, and to develop and nurture their creativity.
Ellis (1973) suggests that play is a way to process information. Play enables
children to formulate information internally through fantasy. It enables children to
balance and make sense of large amounts of information in which they continuously
18
accumulate. Imagination is a highly valued vehicle in a child’s learning and
development in the western world. Piaget (in Singer and Singer, 1990) viewed
symbolic or imaginative play as a critical phase in the development of mature thought.
Children engaged in symbolic games are practising life skills that will lead to
competence in everyday skills. “Through symbolic play the child seeks to imitate and
accommodate to complex adult actions and speech, gradually reshaping the externally
generated material and assimilating novelty into its limited range of memory schemas,
thus increasing the differentiation within schemas and gradually forming new ones”
(Singer and Singer, 1990, pg. 40-41).
Socio-cultural perspectives on play have been influenced by Vygotsky (1976)
who saw play as a tool to aid children in developing holistically and to their full
potential. He claimed that children often engaged in play ahead of their
developmental level. Through social contact and assistance from a more
knowledgeable adult or peer, Vygotsky theorised children could attain higher level of
functioning and discover new abilities. Vygotsky considered play as a social
symbolic experience. Importantly, the play children participate in relates to the
society and the culture in which they are situated. Vygotsky acknowledged individual
and self variables, other person variables and cultural/context variables that influence
human development and learning.
Roopnarine, Lasker, Sacks and Stores (1998) believe that we need to move
beyond western theories of analysing play. They describe these theories and play
literature as “culturally myopic” (pg. 194) and challenged researchers to examine the
cultural context of play, “teasing out intercultural and intra-cultural variations of
19
children’s play to recognise the unique cultural properties that are reflected in
children’s activities” (pg. 95). The social and cultural context of children’s play is
seen as central to understanding: “the eco-cultural niche provides us with important
information on agents, institutions, and cultural scripts employed in the process of
early socialisation and education” (Roopnarine, Shin, Donovan, Suppal 2000, pg.
205). Accordingly, culturally specific theories and curricular practices about play
may be developed and result in retaining cultural values rather than fitting dominant
western views on play and early childhood learning to non-western contexts.
Roopnarine and Johnson (1994) claim that four key factors have contributed to
the need for further studies of children’s play in diverse cultures: (a) the universal
changing demographics in western countries, the urbanisation of developing countries
and the ever changing “social-structural familial organisational patterns” throughout
the world (pg. 2), (b) the recognition of play as an important component of early
childhood education and the establishment of early childhood programs worldwide,
(c) the need to extend theoretical understanding and developmental growth during
early childhood, and (d) the need to inform and educate early childhood professionals
about cultural issues and sensitivity in and out of the classroom.
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Culture and play
Play serves as an enculturative mechanism (Schwartzman, 1978). Through
play, children learn societal roles, norms, and values. Hyun (1998) argues in order to
conduct developmentally and culturally appropriate practice in early childhood
education, researchers and educators need to understand the dynamics of cultural
influences on children’s play.
Initial studies of children and play were primarily social-anthropological
investigations. Matilda Stevenson was possibly the first female anthropologist to
develop an interest in children’s play lives. She investigated the Zuni children in the
American Southwest in 1879. Influenced by Stevenson’s findings, a number of other
scholars began to collect texts of children’s play activities, including Babock. Babock
(1888) described children’s play lives in a city during the course of the year. He
classified children’s games and analysed variations of these games (Schwartzman,
1978).
Margaret Mead (1901-1978) was a notable twentieth century cross-cultural
researcher. Mead was interested in how culture influenced individuals. Her
anthropological research influenced the direction of personality and cultural studies.
Mead’s research of children’s play and games provided her with an insight into other
phenomena such as personality and child rearing practices. In her initial studies,
Mead described children’s play lives briefly and in very little detail (Piscitelli, 1996).
She did, however, contrast Samoan and American attitudes to work and believed a
false division existed between work, play and schools. Mead’s studies investigated
the child rearing practices in Manus, New Guinea. More detailed discussions of
21
children’s play were presented, but few of these studies were published
(Schwartzman, 1978). Mead’s field notes and papers provide unpublished, yet
valuable clues about children’s enculturation and development through play.
Children’s conceptions of play
Children’s conceptions of play are still a relatively unexplored dimension.
The small collection of articles written on this subject indicates that such information
could provide rich and valuable insights into children and their lives. At present, the
literature provides some glimpses into children’s views on their play. Several recent
studies have been based on children differentiating between work and play in early
childhood settings (King, 1979; Reifel, 1988; Wing, 1995; Ceglowski, 1997 and
Sherman 1997). These studies all aim to develop understandings of children’s
perceptions about play and learning in order to create a child centred learning
environment, and are all undertaken in western developed countries. Very little has
been documented about children from non-western countries, on their thoughts and
ideas about play.
King (1979) examined kindergartener’s distinctions between work and play in
the classroom. Her study defined play in kindergarten from a child’s perspective,
with the aim of adding “a new dimension to our understanding of the role of play in
the life of the child and in the classroom setting” (King, 1979, pg. 82). King (1979)
observed and interviewed children in four kindergarten classrooms. The children
were asked a series of questions structured to indicate the importance of play and
work activities. King (1979) found the children were “perceptive and sophisticated
analysts” of their play behaviour (pg. 83). Their perceptions differed from adult
22
perceptions, however children were knowledgeable and informative. The children’s
responses clearly indicated that they had no difficulty in differentiating between work
and play. Activities that children chose themselves were categorised as play, whilst
most of their other classroom experiences were described as work. The more control
the child had of the activity, the more likely the child would label the activity as play.
Pleasure did not appear to be a significant variable in children’s differentiation of
work and play activities. The significant characteristics of children’s play in this
study were that play was identified by the children as voluntary and self initiated.
King (1979) concluded that children placed education in the category of work
and believe that play is not educationally valued in the classroom. King found that
when teachers use play activities to encourage children to participate in schoolwork,
children redefine these activities as work. King endeavoured to investigate children’s
points of view and to add a new dimension to understanding the role of play. King’s
study is limited in that it simply asks children to differentiate their play lives from
their work lives. The questioning used in this study was limited and closed and
children were not given opportunities to expand on ideas, views or feelings, e.g.
“Were you working or playing when you listened to this story?” (King, 1979, pg. 83).
This study also examined children’s play lives within the school context, which is a
relatively small part of children’s play lives.
Garza, Briley and Reifel’s (1985) study of children’s conceptions of play is
important as they investigated the possibility that adults and children may have
different conceptions about play. Garza, Briley and Reifel (1985) recognised several
problems when relying on children’s interviews. They conducted a project to see how
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children described regular experiences in childcare in order to gain some insights into
children’s understanding of play in an educational setting. They investigated
children’s narrative descriptions of their own play experiences by using a script
approach. This approach relies on the idea that children develop knowledge structures
that describe the way events usually occur. These personal structures guide behaviour
by providing information on what typically is associated with experiences. The
children’s scripts are, therefore, organising devices for children’s daily experiences.
They also shape expectations and consequently direct behaviour appropriately.
Garza, Briley and Reifel (1985) examined statements children made, rather
than observed what they did, and found that by 5 years old, children could provide
reliable knowledge of what occurs at preschool. Their spoken language indicated that
they partook in play activities regularly, particularly with materials and friends.
Garza, Briley and Reifel also revealed that children saw play as a large part of their
pre-school experience, however their perceptions of play often come from their
parents and teachers, as they often hear things, such as, “Would you like to play with
that puzzle?” or “Go and play in your room”. These are possibly the “developmental
source for a functional definition of play” and explain how children come to talk
about their play lives (pg. 35).
Reifel, Briley and Garza (1986) acknowledge that there is a growing
awareness among those who study children that we have overlooked the child’s own
point of view in research, and that very little acknowledgment or validity is given to
the young child’s opinion. Reifel (1988) stressed the importance of understanding
children as they become socialised into school. Accordingly, these researchers
24
suggest that educators should look at the differences between the child’s and the
adult’s views and incorporate this new knowledge into the curriculum.
Rothlein and Brett (1987) surveyed teachers’, parents’ and children’s ideas
about play in order to investigate whether their practices and perceptions reflect what
literature says about play. Parent and teacher definitions and ideas were very similar;
many did not regard play as important. Parents undervalued play and were not
particularly interested in their children’s play during preschool time. Parents and
teachers tended to separate play and learning into separate dichotomous categories,
children were either playing or learning. All teachers surveyed believe that they
included play in their curriculum, yet their descriptions of play varied widely. Many
teachers (60%) included learning in their definition of play, whilst the other teachers
(40%) defined play as unstructured activity. Over half the teachers (51%) believe
play was integrated into their curriculum, whilst the others (49%) treated play as
separate to the school program. In Rothlein and Brett’s (1987) study, children
described outdoor play and dramatic play as their favourite experiences, and appeared
to enjoy activities that did not require expensive toys and materials.
This research was useful in demonstrating to educators and parents the types
of materials that can be used creatively by children are not necessarily those that are
expensive. It also demonstrated the need for teachers to communicate to parents the
importance of play as an integral part of early childhood curriculum, and the benefits
of play to a child’s overall development. Rothlien and Brett’s (1987) research
provides a glimpse into children’s play lives, and it is an example of how children’s
ideas and opinions can be used to create a child centred curriculum. However, their
25
research is dominated by adult definitions and viewpoints with little participation and
involvement of children. They recommend that teachers should communicate the
benefits of play to parents. With only 20% of teachers indicating that play was an
integral part of their day and only 60% including learning in their definition of play,
this recommendation would be problematic to implement (pg. 47-48).
Cullen (1993) examined preschool children’s use and perceptions of outdoor
play areas. She found that children could identify the activities they liked and the
activities they thought they were “best” at (pg. 52). Girls in this study “liked” sandpit
most, but were the “best” at fixed equipment. “Best” activities were not always like
the most “liked” activities (Cullen, 1993, pg. 52). Cullen suggested that 5 year olds
are not able to distinguish between “competence” and “enjoyment” (pg. 52). In her
analysis, Cullen emphasises the vast array of learning that can be experienced from
outdoor play. She believes this can be achieved because outdoor play is regarded as
children’s favourite play activity. Following social learning theory, she advocates the
need for adult intervention in order to extend the complexity of children’s play. This
can be achieved by: providing children with a balance between physical and creative
play, scaffolding young children’s learning in the form of language, encouraging
collaborative play, and offering children opportunities to develop their skills and
participate in a range of activities.
Wing (1995) endorses the need to research children’s perceptions of their
classroom experience as it “informs the effects of educational efforts made on their
behalf” (pg. 224). Wing’s participant-observation study involved observing and
interviewing children in both a kindergarten and a primary classroom for the duration
26
of a year. Her research explored children’s views of work and play in classroom
environments. She found young children could clearly determine the difference
between work and play. Children believed activities that “they could choose to do
and could take in any direction they pleased were play” (pg. 229). In Wing’s study,
children viewed play as an activity which involved free exploration, was always fun,
enabled children to interact freely with peers, was process orientated, involved little
mental stimulation, with limited teacher expectations and was rarely evaluated.
Work, by contrast, involved teacher directed activities, was product orientated,
sometimes fun, teachers’ expectations were central and outcomes were evaluated.
Although teachers regularly used categorical language such as “work”, “play”, “have
to” and “can”, children appeared to construct their personal understandings of
classroom activities and read certain meanings into activities such as play. Wing’s
(1995) study found that although teachers believed they integrated work and play,
children are not fooled by classroom work activities that are offered to them under the
guise of play.
Ceglowski (1997) also examined different perceptions of play between adults
and the children in a classroom. She used Bergen’s (1988) schema of play research
and applied it to King’s (1979) research. Like King (1979) and Wing (1995),
Ceglowski found that children have very little difficulty labelling their classroom
activities as either work or play. Children distinguished two of five activities as play
(e.g. free play and guided play activities) and the remaining three activities as work
(e.g. directed play, work disguised as play and work activities). Ceglowski (1997)
believed that play should be taken seriously as a part of the classroom program and
she recommended use of Bergen’s (1988) continuum of play to work to determine a
27
balance of activities within the classroom. She concluded that incorporating self-
selected and self-directed play experiences in the classroom indicates to children that
these activities are of vital importance to the program.
In the literature reviewed for this study, only two studies were located which
took a purely child centred point of view on play. Kelly-Byrne (1988) undertook an
ethnographic study of the play life of a seven-year-old girl. She used the child’s home
as the location for fieldwork on play, and became the child’s play partner. Through
this study, Kelly-Byrne illustrated how researchers can enter into long-term reciprocal
relationships with child informants. This relationship enabled her to explore an
individual child’s play behaviour and explore the internal play life of a normal child.
Hjort (in Lind, 1998) investigated children’s thoughts about play in preschool.
Observations and group interviews were used to collect the data. Hjort used
photographs to document play and to later stimulate the child’s memory in the
interview process. Hjort acknowledged that even though children’s play was a widely
studied subject, researchers have not extended their studies to include children’s
perspectives. Instead, the majority of studies were conducted in the field of cognitive
psychology, from an adult’s perspective. Piscitelli (1992) highlighted children’s own
definitions and conception of play and the variations of these descriptions according
to age and experiences, and found a diverse picture of play from a range of vantage
points. Children’s descriptions of play varied according to their age and life
experiences. Children described their play activities as enjoyable and were definite in
what they enjoyed about play.
28
Though child centred philosophy has dominated early childhood education
since its foundation, Moss (2001) identified the challenges faced by early childhood
researchers and educators of viewing the child as competent, autonomous person with
valid ideas and worthy contributions to human awareness and understanding. Katz
(1992) explored the importance of the children’s views and voices. She believed that
the quality of early childhood programs can be critiqued by multiple perspectives: top
down, bottom up, outside in, inside out (Katz, 1992, pp. 67-71). According to Katz,
the bottom up perspective should be the fundamental test of early childhood education
since this enables the children’s voices to be heard and acted on by adult facilitators as
they implement an authentic child-centred and child-initiated program. Hart (1997)
describes a continuum of child centred practice, using a ladder as a metaphor to
demonstrate the varying degrees of child initiation and collaboration when interacting
with adults. Hart (1997) does not propose that children should always operate at the
highest level of their competence, however, adult facilitators create conditions and
encourage children to work at levels they choose and non-participatory levels should
be avoided.
Researching children’s views and theories
Pramling (1983, 1986, 1988, 1991, 1995) undertook a series of studies that
traced the development of children as they became conscious of their own learning.
Her primary aim was to identify the children’s different conceptions of learning.
Pramling has used phenomenography as a research methodology in the early
childhood context for more than two decades and describes phenomenography as a
“view of knowledge, research method and qualitative descriptions of people’s ways of
thinking about something” (pg. 135).
29
In 1983, Pramling set out to investigate Swedish children’s conceptions of the
phenomenon of learning, and used these results to establish which categories are
evident at different levels of their development. Pramling (1988) continued her
research into children’s conceptions of their own learning and questioned whether
different teaching-learning environments could influence and bring about different
conceptions of learning. She found that children’s awareness of their own learning
increased considerably when content was taught metacognitively. Pramling (1991)
continued her research into children’s conceptions and investigated the development
of children’s understanding whilst implementing a theme in the classroom. As a
result of these collective studies, Pramling found that children become better learners
when they are aware of their role in learning. It is suggested that the learners’
perspectives should be considered in classrooms, and that reflection and questioning
encouraged throughout all levels of education.
Evans and Fuller (1998) investigated children’s conceptions of their nursery
education, also using a phenomenographic framework for their study. Using this
framework, they attempted to identify the qualitatively different ways in which
children perceive particular aspects of their nursery experience in three schools.
Evans and Fuller (1998) recognised the need to acknowledge children’s views and
incorporate them into educational planning and programmes. Their study involved
interviewing children to understand their ideas and notions of why they attend nursery
school, and what they liked and disliked at nursery school. Seven categories of
description emerged from the data describing children’s ideas and notions of why they
attend nursery school. Children who attended the nursery class with a large room in
which to play in, and where there was comparatively little adult intervention and
30
support, were more likely to say that the reason they went to nursery school was to
play. The categories of description that emerged from what they liked to do were:
symbolic activities, fluid construction (e.g. dough, paint, water, sand, crayons),
structural construction, gross motor activities and literacy/numeracy. The children in
Evans and Fuller’s (1998) study were clear in what they disliked and five categories
of negative descriptions about nursery school surfaced. This study concluded with
recommendations that emphasised the need for educators to give young children a
voice in their nursery education and to consider their opinions in daily activities and
routines.
Theories about children’s artistic cognition
Haas-Dyson (1990) describes young children as confident and inventive users
of symbols, by means of gestures, pictures, spoken words and written words.
Children use these imaginative representations to give shape to their experiences, to
support social connections and personal voice, and to understand their relationship to
the world and with others.
Studies in visual communication have shown a growing prominence in the
field of communication theory (Griffin, 2002). Moriarty (2002) emphasises the
importance of visual communication and argues it is of equal importance to verbal
communication. Similarly, The New London Group (1996) attempts to broaden the
understanding of literacy to include a “multiplicity of discourses” (pg. 61), and
advocates a pedagogy of multiliteracies that values modes of representations
encompassing more than language. Meaning is viewed as utilising “dynamic
31
representational resources” which can be reinvented by users to accomplish a variety
of cultural purposes (New London Group, 1996, pg. 64).
Katz (1993) promotes young children’s use of graphic languages to represent
ideas and to document experiences in graphic representations, such as drawing.
Graphic languages allow children to further explore their understanding of concepts,
as the process of representing an idea through drawing and other artistic practices,
provokes questions and invites clarification. “The arts, in particular are seen as a very
rich form of symbol making because in them it is possible to bridge thought and
feeling and thus portray the rich amalgam of ideas and emotions with which we
experience life” (Smith, 1982, pg. 310).
Art is a form of thinking, rather than purely a sensory experience. As children
participate in art experiences, they represent, think and feel their experiences.
Observing children’s artistry, both the process and the product, allows educators and
researchers an insight to children’s personal constructions of the world (Engel, 1995).
Contemporary theorists have emphasised the cognitive and aesthetic value of art
(Arnheim, 1969; Gardner, 1980). Smith (1982) describes children’s art as a vehicle
for them to create order in “a limited and disorganised state of knowledge”, and that
children can “organise and image their thoughts and feelings about their world of
experience” (pg. 297). Various researchers have studied early mark making by young
children in the past fifty years (e.g Gardner, 1973; Goodnow, 1977; Kellogg, 1969;
Matthews, 1999; Smith, 1982; Wright, 2003). It is understood that children develop
in drawing in a process from scribbling to representation, but that meaning is evident
as a driver from the very beginning of children’s graphic representations.
32
Contemporary theorists, particularly Matthews (1999) and Golomb (1992), indicate
that even the earliest mark making episodes are clear attempts at representing
children’s ideas through symbolic activity.
Rather than copying the world, young children examine it. Through their
creations, they manipulate it to express their ideas and feelings about their worlds.
Dyson (1990) claims learning through play, print and art provides children with
opportunities to employ multiple discourses for expression. Drawing enables children
to articulate ideas that they are sometimes too young to express verbally. Young
children initially rely on drawing and talking to carry their story’s meaning. Children
often add commentary to their art works and their remarks expand the viewers’
understandings of the drawing.
Smith (1982) believes that drawing and painting gives children the opportunity
to bring their inner and outer worlds “into relation” (pg. 299). Art encapsulates and
symbolises meanings that encompass thoughts and feelings. Drawing is a natural
practice that enables children to symbolise objects and events. It provides children
with a vehicle for organising, thinking and reflecting on experience.
Early childhood curriculum in Vietnam
Vietnam is making a concerted effort to reconstruct their early childhood
education system and the endeavour to reform and develop is evident in the national
and international context (Van, 2000). “Policy orientation for the future: 2001-2010”
states the need to increase enrolment in early childhood education programs, to
improve qualifications of early childhood professionals, to increase state budget
33
allocation and to improve facilities for early childhood education (UNESCO, 2000).
Pham (personal communication, January 17, 1999) writes that the first steps of
curriculum renovation are underway with the focus on four key areas of content,
teaching methodology, classroom arrangement and child centred approaches, and the
aim to provide a quality program which focuses on all areas of childhood
development. Early reforms focused on a comprehensive list of themes based on
suitability and children’s interests. Although the move to child-centred, play based
and outcomes focused approaches are part of the philosophical rhetoric, curriculum
documents are highly prescriptive and there appears to be little evidence or
endorsement of an emergent, child-centred curriculum (see appendix A, pg. 153).
Art is an important component of early childhood education in Vietnam. As
part of the prescribed curriculum set out by MOET, children in Vietnamese
kindergartens receive approximately 100 hours of formal sessions over a three-year
period (see Appendix B, pg. 155). Many kindergartens in Vietnam have a full-time
art specialist teacher. Small groups of children are withdrawn from the classroom to
participate in these instructional lessons. Children’s art is displayed throughout
kindergartens in Vietnam. The corridors and walls are full of colourful images and
representations created by the children. Classroom shelves display finely sculptured
plasticine figurines and completed craft projects. Kindergartens are generally well-
resourced with a variety of materials displayed on shelves, such as pencils, crayons
and scissors, glue and paper available on hand for children to use during free play or
free choice activities.
34
MOET has established three key objectives in Vietnamese kindergartens that
centre on and guide art education in Vietnamese kindergarten:
• To establish and nurture kindergarten children with the primary foundations of
“aesthetic emotion” and an awareness and understanding of the arts (MOET,
1997, pg. 15).
• To cultivate children’s love of and ability to create beauty.
• To contribute to children’s holistic development and “preparation for primary
education through activities, which encourage concentration, listening, creation,
imagination, observation, and analysis” (Piscitelli, Pham & Chen, 1999, pg. 25).
Art teachers direct young children in a systematic and methodical manner in
the three-year time frame of a child’s years at kindergarten. Curriculum guidelines
outline clear outcomes and expectations for each age level in kindergarten. The
kindergarten art curriculum focuses on three art techniques, these include: a)
modelling, b) painting and c) tearing and cutting and pasting. Lessons are conducted
in a sequence of four steps: observation and discussion, teachers instructing and
modelling the artistic process, children independently carrying out the activity and
finally, a group discussion and sharing time. The content of the art program is set out
in the kindergarten curriculum guidelines (Piscitelli, Pham & Chen, 1999). An
emphasis is placed on applying the three art techniques in the following subject areas:
fruit, flowers, animals, people, shapes, houses, transport, story illustration, outdoor
scenes, and some free choice (Ministry of Education and Training, 1997, pp. 37-40).
Piscitelli, Pham & Chen (1999) report that MOET’s official art curriculum and
their goals have been difficult to achieve, due to severe funding problems and a
35
shortage of qualified teachers. The art curriculum and its goals are being taught and
implemented to only a small number of young Vietnamese children. These children
are likely to be urban children, rather than rural children who are more likely to be
disadvantaged.
Conclusion
MOET has established goals for a play-based, child-centred, outcomes-based
approach to early childhood education. MOET’s early childhood reform practice is
still under development, “and is not with problems, as traditional and emerging values
inevitably clash” (Walker, Vu and Dang, 1996, pg. 145). Poor qualifications and a
lack of understanding of child-centred perspectives are obstacles to overcome as
Vietnam’s attempts to reform its curriculum. In order to assist this transition, the
importance of child generated conceptions may be useful in assist in curriculum
planning and policy making, as children have “a body of knowledge and experience
that is unique to their situation” (Lansdown, 2001).
36
CHAPTER THREE
Research Design
Introduction
The aim of this study was to document and interpret young Vietnamese
children’s conceptions of play in 2000-2001. Phenomenography was selected as a
framework for this research as it is grounded in the notion that for any given
phenomenon, there are a limited number of different ways in which people perceive,
experience or understand it (Marton, 1981).
The phenomenographic methodology has primarily been used to examine the
“content of learning” (Lind, 1998, pg.139). The Nordic countries have adopted this
research methodology, particularly in studies examining learner’s conceptions of their
own learning. Marton (1975, 1976) published some of the earliest papers in the
development of the phenomenographic approach. Marton (in Evans and Fuller, 1998)
describes the qualitatively different ways in which the world is perceived as
“categories of description” (p. 60). These categories are not developed in advance or
pre-established prior to research. Rather, categories are developed through the data
collected. This is a key component of phenomenographic research process, as
phenomenography is “research that aims at description, analysis and understanding of
experiences; that is, research which is directed towards experiential description”
(Marton, 1978, pg. 6).
In phenomenography, the object of research is the identification of ways of
experiencing a phenomenon, and this involves the study of variation of qualitatively
37
different ways of seeing, experiencing and understanding the same phenomenon.
Marton & Fai (1999) describe these variations as embodying two faces. The first face
of variation is the study of the multiple and different ways people experience the same
phenomenon. The second face of variation involves particular questions that
investigate the ways each individual experiences specific phenomena and how these
evolve. The focus of the second face of variation is how a person’s awareness of a
concept is constructed. To understand this aspect of conceptualisation, individual’s
ideas are scrutinised with sensitivity.
Marton (1981) distinguished these two perspectives as first-order perspective
and second-order perspective. First-order perspectives represent how something is,
while second order perspectives convey an understanding of how something is
experienced by an individual (Pramling & Johansson, 1995). The research questions
for this study (see chapter one, pp. 8-9) seek to utilise these two perspectives.
Research question one “What do young Vietnamese children think about their play?”
will distinguish first-order perspectives. Through a list of the conceptions which
emerged from the data. Research question two “What culturally relevant conceptions
about play do young Vietnamese children convey in their stories and drawings?” will
explore and discuss second-order perspectives. The second-order perspective
explores strong cultural threads that interweave through the data and the impact of
these cultural rituals, ideologies and identities on young Vietnamese children’s
conceptions of play.
During the cycle of data analysis, the phenomenographic researcher
endeavours to extract the categories of description from the qualitative data.
38
Phenomenography, both as research program and phenomenography as a research
tool, focuses on and describes conceptions (Svensson, 1997). The outcome of
phenomenographic research is a set of categories that include a range of conceptions
describing the variations in the ways a particular phenomenon is understood.
Comparisons of these categories clarify the nature of the variations (Walsh, 2000).
Categories are formed as a result of “abstraction, reduction and condensation” of the
data (Svensson, 1994, pg.16). Data is reduced to a “limited or pregnant form”
(Svensson, 1994, pg. 17). The aim of categorisation is to reach a summary of
expression of the content and/or meaning of data.
Australian researchers have adopted the phenomenography approach and
methodology in various fields of research, particularly educational research. Various
researchers have investigated areas of literacy, art, social studies and mathematical
knowledge (Hawke, 1993; Ballantyne and Bruce, 1994; Bruce, 1994; Russell and
Massey, 1994; Gerber, Boulton-Lewis and Bruce, 1995). The range of methods used
in phenomenographic research largely incorporates interview and visual
representation as evidence of the concept under investigation. Bruce (1994) and
Russell and Massey (1994) provide comprehensive information about the validity of
the interview as a research tool. Russell and Massey (1994) believe that interviewing
can provide rich data, however using mixed methods including visual representations,
(for example, drawings and visual thinking), as well as group discussions, allows for
diversity in expression of qualitatively different conceptions of certain phenomena.
39
Participants
For the purposes of this study, young children between the ages of three and
ten were sought by the nature of their inclusion in classes in early childhood
institutions and cultural programs. Sites were selected for data collection on the basis
of: accessibility to outside researchers, willingness to participate in international
research, typicality of children’s programs, and diversity of social/economic
backgrounds. The sites were selected by collaborative research team, composed of
QUT researchers and selected staff from the Vietnam National Centre for the Social
Sciences and Humanities, the Vietnam Institute of Psychology, the Ministry of
Education and Training Research Centre for Early Childhood Education (MOET) and
the National Teachers Training College Number 3 (see Appendix C, pg.159). Local
Vietnamese partners offered assistance with selection of sites, data gathering, data
analysis, translation and interpretation.
Nine sites in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City were visited for data collection
from 11 December 2000 to 9 January 2001. These included seven kindergartens (five
public and two private) and two out of school hours cultural programs. In total, 353
urban children participated in this study. The participants in this study ranged from 3
years old to 10 years old (see Table 1 & 2).
40
Table. 1.
Number/Gender of children participating in study
Program
Male
Female
Number
No of
Groups
Viet Bun Kindergarten – VB
17
23
40
2
Dong Da Kindergarten – DD 29 36 65 2
Ba Dinh Kindergarten - BD 9 8 17 1
Hanoi Cultural Palace – HCP 14 13 27 1
Lan Anh Kindergarten – LA 20 32 52 2
Truong Mau Ciao Thuc Hanh
(Experimental kindergarten) - EK
19 35 53 2
Children’s Cultural House of
Ho Chi Minh City - CCH
9 22 31 1
Bong Sen 2 Kindergarten - CC 20 24 44 2
Minh Dang Kindergarten - VT 13 10 23 1
Total
150
203
353
14
Table. 2.
Ages represented in this study
Age Frequency Percent
4 years and under
121
34.3
5 years 185 52.4
6 years and over 47 13.3
Total
353
100.0
Data collection techniques
The study focussed on gathering data on children’s play through their
drawings and stories. Russell & Massey (1994) recommend data collection strategies
that incorporate multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1985), particularly when utilising a
41
phenomenographic methodology. They claim that a combination of verbal and visual
research strategies gives a rich selection of data. For young children, a combination
of storytelling and drawing provides an ideal opportunity to illustrate their numerous
and varied conceptions of the one phenomenon, using a variety of data collection
methods overcomes the difficulty in interpreting children’s discourse and the danger
of imposing adult meanings upon children’s words, symbols and gestures (Silvers,
2001). The combination of the drawing and storytelling enables young children to
articulate their ideas and conceptions. Drawings are recommended in cross-cultural
research as this minimises language difficulties and problems (Wenestam and Wass,
1987).
Bruce (1994) believes that successful interviewing depends on abiding by
phenomenographic rules to avoid pre-emptive judgement about outcomes. These
rules provide guidelines to achieving validity during data gathering. In
phenomenography, interviewer needs to put aside their personal experiences and
focus on the experience of the interviewee. This is known as “bracketing” (Marton,
1986, 1988 in Richardson, 1999, pg. 70). Relations between the interviewee and the
experience cannot be presupposed. The interviewee is asked to describe their own
experience and understanding of the phenomenon, through examples, diagrams and
drawings.
Marton (1986) believes that possible data sources for the phenomenographic
investigation, includes conversation and work samples/products. In
phenomenographic research, the interview appears to the most prevalent strategy
(Bruce, 1994). In this study, three data sets were selected for analysis (discussion,
42
drawing and stories), to ensure a rich investigation into the interviewee’s life world
and to endeavour to understand the young Vietnamese children’s conceptions of play.
Data Collection Procedure and Protocol
The data gathering was conducted over a six-week period (see Appendix D,
pg. 161). Fourteen sessions were conducted in nine venues. A standard one hour
lesson was used in each case with group discussion, drawing and storytelling
episodes.
Group discussion
Data collection began with the introduction of the researchers to the children
and with the presentation of a scripted lesson (see Appendix D, pg 161). In the
lesson, children were asked to contribute to a discussion on play initiated by the
researchers. These discussions were documented and form an integral part of the data
collection. Interviews, such as this group interview, encourage reflection on
experience, as well as asking participants how the phenomenon appears to them. It
gives the researcher the opportunity to ask for answers to be elaborated and clarified
(Bruce, 1994). This kind of group work allows each individual to bring personal
references from both “interior and exterior sources” (Engel, 1995, pg. 21). In this
study, participants took turns describing their conceptions in group contexts and
children generated a diverse range of conceptions about play in this open forum. Data
on the group discussion was recorded by way of field notes and is discussed in the
findings (Chapter Four).
43
Drawings
At the end of the group discussion, children were invited to create an image of
their own play lives. Children were provided with a creative visualisation exercise to
focus their ideas prior to drawing. The researcher asked all groups a series of
questions prior to drawing to encourage children to focus on their own play (see
Appendix E). This technique assisted children in focussing in on a personal
representation of their own play lives. Smith (1993) endorses the use of initial
dialogue and discussions between teachers and children when drawing and painting.
These discussions began with the teacher offering a theme or a topic (in this instance,
play). Children were asked to share “important experiences and the associations with
and ideas about the experience each child finds meaningful” (Smith, 1993, pg. 66).
The purpose of this dialogue was to focus children’s ideas on play and to encourage
them to translate their thoughts onto paper. Drawings have been used as a method of
obtaining children’s conceptions across a variety of phenomena such as physical
attractiveness and death. (Wenestam and Wass, 1987; Moran, McCullers and
Banilivy, 1976). Discussions during drawing may encourage a child to pay focus on
the story and idea, and to add important elements and details as they are uncovered or
come into focus (Brooks, 2003).
Personal Interviews
Children were interviewed on completion of their own drawing. Children
described numerous features of their drawings. These included the setting, characters,
objects, symbols and meanings. Stories were recorded on the reverse side of the
picture by the research team along with demographic data such as the child’s name,
44
age and school. Each drawing and story was allocated an item number (see Appendix
F, pg. 165).
Data analysis techniques
In phenomenography, data is examined for “internal consistency and the
relations between them” (Marton & Booth, 1997, pg. 111). The texts are read and re-
read many times by the researcher. “The boundaries separating individuals are
abandoned and interest is focused on a ‘pool of meanings’ discovered in the data”
(Marton, 1986, pp. 42-3). Following saturation in the data, the researcher forms
categories. Categories are tools which “encapsulate understanding” that emerged
from the data (Walsh, 2000, pg. 24). From these categories, variations in conceptions
are identified.
The following example of the decoding of Diem My’s (CC18) drawing
illustrates how “pools of meaning” (Marton, 1986, pp. 42-3) were extracted from
children’s drawings and stories.
Plate 1: I am riding on the back of a buffalo. It is eating grass. These are my sister and my friends. Diem My, Female, CC18 5 years
Diem My (Plate 1) is five years old and attends Bong Sen 2 kindergarten in the
town of Cu Chi. She draws herself sitting astride a black buffalo. The buffalo is a
central figure situated on her page, and stands in a gully amongst a colourful
45
assortment of flowers and plants. On either side of the buffalo, Diem My has drawn
two figures. These figures appear to be drawn hastily and without the detail and care
Diem My demonstrated in other features of her drawing. Distinctly coloured
butterflies flutter by. Diem My has shaded the background in a rich green. Two blue
clouds sit on top of her picture. A flock of black birds soar amongst the clouds. Diem
My describes her drawing, “I am riding on the back of a buffalo. It is eating grass.
These are my sister and my friend”.
Diem My’s drawing and description reveals a multitude of play resources and
highlights distinct cultural and contextual influences which shape and inspire young
Vietnamese children’s play lives. She has revealed the human resources that are
important in her play life through the inclusion of a sibling and a friend. Her drawing
reflects culturally valued images. The buffalo featured in this drawing holds strong
cultural significance, as this animal is an integral part of Vietnam's traditional village
farming structure and, as such, features as part of the structured drawing repertoire
taught in Vietnamese kindergartens. The inclusion of natural resources such as
butterflies, flowers and birds highlight the love of nature that the Vietnamese people
highly regard. Diem My’s depiction of her play life exposes “pools of meanings”,
such her rich cultural heritage, her values and, most importantly, a lens into her
individual play world (Marton, 1986, pp. 42-43).
In this study, phenomenographic analysis of the data sets (i.e. drawing, story,
field notes) was undertaken in a sequence of eight steps as outlined by Dean (1994,
pg. 116-118).
46
Table. 3.
Phenomenographic cycle of analysis
1. Familarisation
1. Familarisation
8. Articulation 2. Reflection (level 1)
7. Categorisation
3. Comparison 6. Explication
5. Condensation 4. Reflection (level 2)
(adapted from Dean, 1994, pg. 117)
The first step in phenomenographic analysis is familiarisation. This is the
practice of the researcher becoming acquainted with the content of the data and forms
the preliminarily analysis. The researcher becomes immersed in the material through
frequent reviews of the data during the data collection and management process. In
this study, the data sets were organised in a manner where labelling and filing was
completed immediately after each data-gathering event. This gave the researcher the
opportunity to become familiar with the data on a surface level. Ideas and patterns
were noted and discussed with fellow researchers, educators and collaborators.
Following the completion of the data collection, images were digitally scanned,
arranged and labelled on a spreadsheet (see Appendix G, pg. 214). During this
process, the researcher became familiar with each individual drawing as it passed
through the editing, filing and storing process.
47
Reflection (level 1) involved a surface analysis of the data. This stage
involved the researcher “coding, flagging, labelling, indexing and highlighting”
relevant and emerging data (Dean, 1994, pg. 117). The aim at this stage was to
capture as many meanings as possible, whilst undertaking surface analyses. The
researcher examined each data set independently and as a group. Comments and
notes were made beside each drawing and story to document each meaning of play
that emerged from the data, e.g. alone, friends, family, pets and animals, outdoors,
indoors, organised games, school, park, cultural places, flowers and nature, cultural
festivals, learnt drawings, toys, equipment, imagination and home.
The comparison stage involved comparing data for similarities and
differences. By using an emergent coding system (refer to Appendix G, pg. 214),
similarities and differences were identified. Coding allowed the researcher to identify
the ideas and themes that continually re-emerged. Recurring ideas and themes were
compared for similarities and differences.
Reflection (level 2) entailed a deeper reading of the coded data so that
similarities and differences were revisited and noted. The researcher invited three
experts in the field of children’s play, (QUT staff: Piscitelli, Perry and postgraduate
student: Wong) to check on consistency of variant (points of difference) and invariant
features (points of agreement). This enabled the researcher to extend the data to a
richer capacity by generating variations of perspectives. Consistent with the
phenomenographic research process, the researcher returned to the data and extracted
themes, ideas and language that surfaced from each separate drawing and story.
These were collected and listed. As ideas and themes emerged, they were tallied to
48
record frequencies. This additional reading and coding of data enabled the researcher
to progress to the next level of analysis - condensation.
During the condensation process, the researcher condensed the data to a
manageable quantity. Identifiable elements, which repeatedly appeared in the data,
were extracted from the data. Individual stories and images were examined and
coded, as each of these identifiable elements emerged from the examined data.
Stories and images were both selected as they provided consistency in the search for
variation of meaning. Representative samples of data illustrating similarities and
differences were selected. The researcher condensed the data into emerging clusters,
focussing on similarities and differences of the ideas of play.
The explication stage involved the development and clarification of the
“essence of similarities and differences in regard to various conceptions within each
domain of inquiry” (Dean, 1994, pg. 118). The explication process involved the
researcher in clarifying children’s concepts of play, in order to give explanations.
Clusters of data that conveyed similar meanings were grouped together. This enabled
the researcher to organise categories of data that were similar and different into broad
categories of conceptions. This process involves the researcher manually sorting the
data. Following this coding process, the data were again tallied for frequencies and
main themes were grouped together.
The next stage, categorisation, involved denoting various categories of
meaning and the creation of categories of conceptions. Categories were validated and
scrutinised by applying standard definitions from The Oxford (Thompson, 1993) and
49
The Macquarie dictionaries (Delbridge, 2002). This permitted categories to be clearly
defined and labelled.
The final step of data analysis was articulation, where data were compared
and contrasted to identify similarities and differences of children’s conceptions of
play. Common elements within the categories were analysed by measuring the
frequencies with which common ideas and themes emerged. Data were entered into a
statistical analysis package (SPSS) to establish a statistical representation of each
category and subcategory (see Chapter 4, tables 4 and 5). Emerging patterns were
identified, leading to new insights and discoveries such as consistent emphasis on
using social and human resources for play, frequent representation of culturally
specific events and contexts, the presence of imagination as a catalyst for play, and a
preference for games with rules particularly amongst older children.
Professional consultation
In addition to data collection and fieldwork activities, the researchers
conducted three seminars with social scientists and educators. More than 100 local
participants attended these seminars. The seminars served as a forum to discuss
children’s play lives and to share emerging ideas, research methods and findings with
teachers, academics, researchers and policymakers. Additionally, research team
meetings were conducted to discuss the emerging findings of the study.
Collaborators can be “indispensable partners in the conduct of qualitative
inquiry. There will be much you could not know without the interpretive knowledge,
sensitivity, and insights, from the development and wording of interview questions to
50
understanding hierarchies of power and authority” (Glesne, 1999, p.56). This process
establishes the reliability of results. Obtaining assistance from collaborators was
particularly valuable in assisting with language interpretation and the understanding
of cultural differences.
Professional consultation is considered vital in the analysis process of
phenomenography (Glesne, 1999 & Bruce, 1994). During the data analyses process,
the researcher collaborated with two QUT experts in the field of play for the purpose
checking on consistency of variant and invariant features emergent from the data. A
variety of perspectives resulted from this collaboration. The frequent analysis and
revisiting of the data set enabled the researcher to gain a deeper saturation of meaning
from the data and to draw rich interpretations from this evidence of children’s
meaning making. This process established a second validation of the reliability of
results (Walsh, 2000). Bowden (1990) advocates the using a group process for
analysis and questions the ability of an individual researcher to extend the data to its
richest capacity.
Ethical Issues
The QUT Human Research Ethics Committee granted approval to conduct this
research (see Appendix H, pg. 216). In Vietnam, preschool directors act in loco
parentis, making all decisions relating to children’s school lives. As this is the case,
we sought a variation on the standard QUT ethical clearance on the grounds that the
permission of the director was sufficient to conduct research (see Appendix I, pg. 228)
and argued these circumstances successfully with QUT’s Ethics Committee. A
statement of consent was presented to each of the directors of the kindergartens,
51
outlining what the study was about, our aims, our plans and our objectives. An
additional clause was added to the statement of consent, to ensure that the directors
agreed to participate in the project, discuss the project with parents and acknowledge
consent of families for children’s participation.
Children’s verbal consent was also sought in the immediate setting. The
children were invited to participate in the activity. All children were asked if they
would like to give us their drawings. Verbal permission from the director of each
institution was sought prior to photographing the children and the locations.
Limitations
This study involves 353 children. A large sample size can limit the depth of
comprehension and understanding of the children’s unique concepts. Although this
sample size is considerable, the data collection was manageable and executed
systematically in nine site-specific sets (see Appendix F, pg. 165). Each set
represents ideas from that cohort and has been isolated for analysis across variables
such as age, gender and location.
In this study with 353 participants, it may be easy to lose sight of the personal
dimensions of an individuals’ meaning making. For the most part, large categories of
play conceptions mask the child’s personal voice and vision. To overcome this
problem, the researcher used two techniques:
1. Frequent handling/review of data.
2. Detailed descriptions of a selected sample of emblematic works from each of
the categories.
52
The Australian researchers were unable to speak the language of the children.
To overcome this problem a group of six native Vietnamese speakers and
collaborators assisted as researchers in the study, which allowed all the children’s
stories to be heard, recorded and translated to English. Researchers recruited teachers
to record data on children’s drawings. Collaborators also provided the researcher with
field notes and background information on the participants and the locations visited.
Some researchers (Hatch, 1990) claim that there are difficulties in conducting
interviews with young children. To overcome such limitations, this research process
provided opportunities for children to convey their ideas. The drawings, the stories
and group discussions validated children’s voices.
For the most part, aggregated results are discussed across all nine data sets.
Where appropriate, site specific, age specific and gender specific variations are
identified and discussed in the findings (Chapter Four).
53
CHAPTER FOUR
Findings
Introduction
This chapter provides a discussion of the faces of variation in young Vietnamese
children’s conceptions of play emergent from stories and drawings collected in 2000-
2001. Following Dean’s (1994) eight-step process of phenomenographic analysis, six
categories of description emerged from the Vietnamese drawings and pictures. The
findings are presented in this chapter as six key ideas about play as seen by young
Vietnamese children at the turn of the 21st century. The chapter includes 34 snapshots
from the collection to illustrate variations in conceptions about play. As such, this is a
limited picture of about ten percent of the complete set, however, it represents the vital
and varied points of view about play in Vietnam.
Children used storytelling to summarise or explain their drawings. The verbal
dialogue that the children provided was often brief, yet it provided the researcher with
greater perspective and focus on the meanings of drawings. The stories clarified the
relationships between items and ideas which children included in their drawings and
often provided the researchers with an understanding of context and background. The
drawings provided visual representation of the idea, while the storytelling provided
verbal clarification of the images.
54
Group discussions involved an informal discussion on play. Children were given
the opportunity to contribute to the discussion in a relaxed classroom environment. Ideas
and views were shared amongst the class, and children’s ideas were often expanded on by
others. Children generated new ideas and were clear and concise on their play
preferences.
Table. 4.
Young Vietnamese children and their key ideas about play
Data source: group discussion
Program
Human
relationships
Natural
Culture
and
Context
Materials
Structure
Imagination
VB
6
3
2
4
DD 1 2 1 18 1 1
BD 4 5 1
HCP 1 2 1
LA 1 1 5 9 1
EK 1 5 6 9
CCH 5 1
CC 3 2 5 3 6
VT 1 2 5 2
55
During group discussions, young Vietnamese children shared their ideas about
play. Their preferred play activities were structured activities and playing with materials.
They enjoyed imaginary games and role playing. Group discussions provided surface
level data due to limited participants, time constraints and the initial shyness of the
children.
The following table presents the categories of description emergent from
children’s stories and drawings. Young Vietnamese children’s conceptions about play
emerged during the phenomenographic analyses of the data sets using Dean’s (1994)
eight-step process, as discussed Chapter Three. This process involved frequent handling
and revisiting of data in order to determine key ideas and themes.
This process resulted in six succinct categories, giving the researcher an insight
into play in the lives of young Vietnamese children. Similarities and differences within
the categories are evident and will be discussed in this chapter. Strong cultural threads
interweave through the data, providing an insight into cultural perspectives and
influences on the lives of children in this study.
56
Table. 5.
Young Vietnamese children and their key ideas about play
Data sources: drawings and stories
Categories/sub-categories
Count
Percentage of cases
Natural world 290 82.1 Outdoor 247 69.9 Flowers 128 36.2 Animals 60 16.9 Relationships 232 65.7 Friends 96 27.1 Family 69 19.5 Alone 55 15.5 Extended family 12 3.3 Culture and context 226 64.0 Home 141 39.9 School 64 18.1 Cultural celebrations and rituals 21 5.9 Material resources 94 26.6 Transport 27 7.6 Balloons 22 6.2 Playground equipment 21 5.9 Skipping rope 17 4.8 Technology 4 1.1 Structure 54 15.2 Global games 28 7.9 Ritualised games 22 6.2 Cultural games 4 1.1 Imagination 26 7.3 Role play 14 3.9 Make believe 8 2.2 Wishful thinking 4 1.1
57
Concept 1: The natural world
The natural world features in the children’s drawings in a variety of ways.
Flowers and trees are consistently depicted throughout the data sets. The natural world,
particularly flowers and parks, are valued in Vietnamese culture and show up as preferred
play spaces in children’s drawings and stories. During the first years of early childhood
education, Vietnamese children are taught to draw flowers and other significant symbols
considered important to the Vietnamese (see Appendix A, pg. 153). Children encounter
themes, songs and narrative based on the natural world within the kindergarten
curriculum (see Appendix A, pg. 153). Key themes expressed by the children through
their drawings and stories include flowers, plants and trees, animals and the sea.
Sometimes one of these learned drawings was used as one element to stand as a referent
for a broader notion, as seen in some of the examples to follow (Vujanovic, 2000a).
Flowers
Flowers were evident across all the data sets and were featured in a large
percentage of young Vietnamese children’s drawings. A large number of children (138
children, 40%) in this study included flowers in their drawings. Flowers were captured in
two variant ways. Children represented flowers as the focal feature and activity in their
artwork and story. Flowers were deemed an important resource in the pleasure of play.
Young Vietnamese children often simply stated that they were playing with flowers.
They included flower arranging, picking flowers, selling flowers at the market, looking at
flowers, drawing flowers and holding flowers.
58
Flowers were often included to enhance the aesthetic quality of their illustrations
and to create a colourful and vibrant representation of the child’s world and play
environment. Some children used flowers to decorate their drawing by including the
beauty and colour of flowers. Flowers appeared surrounding homes, schools and
churches, in the playground, in the streets and next to the roads, in the fields and by the
sea. Children drew vases that contained brightly coloured flowers or apricot blossoms
that serve as a reminder of the new year and the coming of spring during Tet celebrations.
Some children were particularly specific in their stories and named the flowers they drew
which included marigolds, sunflowers and lotus.
Plate 2: Play alone outdoors with flowers Pham Nguyet Nga, Female 5 years BD 5
• Five year-old Pham Nguyet Nga (Plate 2) describes her drawing, “Play alone
outdoors with flowers.” In her drawing, a house stands in the centre of the picture
consisting of a yellow rectangle and a red roof. A red square represents the door
to the house; sitting under the roof are two small square pink windows. On both
sides of the house is a row of multi-coloured flowers. On the right side of the
drawing, Pham Nguyet Nga has drawn herself with a flower placed in each hand.
A large sun and colourful clouds are placed in the red sky.
59
Plate 3: Football Phuc, Male, 6 years HCP3
• Six year old Phuc (Plate 3) has no difficulty in expressing his favourite play
activity. His story is simply titled, “Football”. Phuc draws two boys playing
outdoors, kicking a football to one and other, amongst red background. However,
Phuc has added some additional elements to his drawing to capture the
environment he plays in. To the side of the drawing Phuc, has positioned a tree.
Sprigs of grass are randomly drawn across the bottom. Placed above the football
players, there are clouds and a sun. Centrally positioned on the paper is a circular
garden bed with three red and yellow flowers. Although this picture is primarily
about football, flowers have been added to create an aesthetically attractive
drawing, and to indicate the outdoor, parkland setting for such play.
Outdoor environments
The Vietnamese people value nature. Vietnamese children repeatedly
communicated and expressed these values through their art. The appreciation of nature
was evident through the high percentage of outdoor environments children illustrated
(290 children, 82.1%). Children depicted the outdoors in varying ways. They focused on
the environment as a place they like to visit, such as parks and gardens in their
60
community. The children drew breathtakingly colourful skies, with the sun radiating
through brightly coloured clouds. Balloons, kites, helicopters and planes flew in crisp
clear skies. Children decorated the bottom of their drawings with bright green grass or
with brown sloping mounds of dirt. Large shady trees laden with juicy ripe fruit were
strategically placed beside play spaces. Children played underneath blossom trees during
the festival of Tet. Flowers peeped out through fences, beside buildings and in an orderly
fashion in garden beds and in parks. Fish, crabs and crayfish swam though sparkling blue
seas and mountains surrounded the coastal waters. Children swam in swimming pools
and watched the ripple effects and the patterns created by currents in the water. They
depicted themselves watching cars and trucks meandering along the streets and through
the countryside. They portrayed colourful markets and festival and captured themselves
as they played in the tropical rainstorms.
Plate 4: I drew a flower garden. This is a duck. I like to play in the garden at the park. Thanh Tram, Female, 5 years VT 21
• Thanh Tram (Plate 4) draws three bunches of flowers. Each bunch has three
flowers attached to it. The flowers are coloured in an assortment of bright
colours. Each flower has two leaves evenly spaced and evenly placed along the
stem. There is distinct order and uniformity in this drawing. The flowers are set
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upon a pink background. In the upper right hand corner, four small oval clouds
are evenly spaced and float close to the small red sun. In the lower right hand
corner, a tiny duck has been drawn. The flowers tower over the duck. The duck
appears comical with its green legs, orange body, a large yellow head and its
larger than life bill. Thanh Tram describes her drawing, “I drew a flower garden.
This is a duck.” She continues her story by explaining what she likes to do when
she plays. “I like to play in the garden at the park.”
Young urban Vietnamese children depicted their homes nestled amongst lush
gardens, yet in reality many children live in urban areas where houses are attached and
gardens, flowers, grass and trees are scarce. The substantial presence of natural
environments in the children’s drawing is not an accurate depiction of the real living
situation of children in Vietnam. Imagery of natural landscapes can be considered as
symbols, or referent images, for where children prefer to play. Children’s drawings
reflect the values and the repertoire of drawings that are taught to them at kindergartens
throughout Vietnam. Consequently, children most likely included parkland surroundings
in their drawings to give them an aesthetic quality, not to reflect contemporaneous reality.
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Plate 5: My home Phong, Male, 4 years DD11
• Phong (Plate 5) is a four-year-old boy living in Hanoi. He attends Dong Da
Kindergarten, in a working class area. The kindergarten is situated along a busy
urban road of the city. Phong draws his home. His story simply states “My
home”. His blue house is centrally placed in his drawing. It has a pink double
door with a bright yellow doorknob. The red roof is tiled, with a television
antenna protruding from the top. The house sits on a black, slightly curved base
that has been drawn along the bottom of the page. A fence stretches across the
page and is attached to both sides of the house. Growing in front of the fence are
flowers and trees. They are drawn on each side of the house, creating a sense of
spaciousness. One of trees bears bright orange fruit, one of which has fallen to
the ground. The dark earth is scattered randomly with sprigs of grass. Clouds in
varying sizes float by and a small red sun peeps behind a small cloud in the left
hand corner of the page. Phong’s drawing of play centres on his home. Home is
where play takes place in his life, and home is an ideal world where safety and
comfort is paramount.
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Animals
Animals were popular in children’s drawings with 60 (16.9%) children in this
study either representing an animal in their drawing or their stories. Many children
simply inserted butterflies and birds to enhance the aesthetic quality of their drawing.
Fish regularly featured in the children’s drawings. Many of their kindergartens we
visited had fish tanks and ponds, and children were involved in the care of fish. This was
especially evident in the data gathered from Viet Bun kindergarten and Lan Anh
Kindergarten. Both kindergartens also had their own rabbits and rabbit hutch. As a
consequence, drawings regularly featured rabbits. Chickens and roosters often dominated
drawings and were included in children’s stories as play resources. Chickens are
commonly kept in urban environments in Vietnam as an additional food source and
children may have a flock at home. Roosters are valued in Vietnam, where cockfighting
is a national pastime and features at many festivals. Roosters appeared in children’s
drawings and one child (Appendix F, Ming Dang Kindergarten, pg. 212) depicted a
cockfight and verbalised that he enjoys going to watch cockfighting. Cats also featured
in children’s drawings and emerged as being a common family pet. Young Vietnamese
children were able to include a large array of animals into their storytelling and drawings.
They gave rich descriptions of their relationships and the impact pets and animals have
on their lives.
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Plate 6: Two fish. (Do you like to play with fish?) I feed them at kindergarten. Nhat Quynh, Female, 4 years EK 11
• Four year-old Nhat Quynh (Plate 6) drew a big yellow circle, which almost takes
up all of her page. In the circle, she drew two large fish. The fish were drawn
using a sequence of ovals, circles, and semi-circles. The oval shape, which is the
fish body, was divided into two, one part being the fish’s head, the other part for
the body. On the body, Nhat Quynh drew circles representing the fish scales
which she filled with a contrasting colour to the body. She drew two semi-circles
attached to the body, as fins, and an additional, larger semi-circle for the tail. The
face has an eye and a mouth drawn on it. Nhat Quynh explained there were “Two
fish,” before adding: “I feed them at kindergarten.”
Plate 7: Outside with friends Tran Le Quan, Male, 5 years VB23
• Tran Le Quan (Plate 7) describes his drawing as “Outside with friends.” Two
large human figures dominate the drawing. Their bodies are composed by using a
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series of rectangles representing the torso and limbs and a circle to represent the
head. The figures have large mouths, which Tran Le Quan has drawn a
succession of lines through to characterise a toothy grin. One of the figures is
male indicated by a few small lines of hair drawn across his forehead and the
other figure is female, as she has a pigtail protruding from the top of her head.
The male figure is probably Le Quan, as his signature frames his body. A tree
stands to the side of the drawing. It is heavily laden with large orange fruit. To
the other side of the paper is a multicoloured rooster. Tran Le Quan fails to
mention the rooster in his story, however, this brightly coloured rooster is a
distinct component in this picture. Roosters are a common symbol in Vietnam
and they are a taught drawing symbol (see Appendix B, pg. 155). Tran Le Quan
links the rooster to the pleasure of playing outdoors with animals and friends.
Concept 2: Human relationships
Human relationships refer to people that children revealed as being present or
playing an influential role in their play lives. Human resources consisted largely of
family and friends. One in four children participating in this study, (94 children, 27%)
referred to friends in their drawings and stories, whilst one in five (69 children, 19.5%)
included their families. Other human resources described by children included teachers,
classmates and a vast array of people in their communities that take part in their daily
lives. The children in this study demonstrated the social aspects of play, (see Chapter 2,
pg. 14 - 15) through the inclusion of these human resources in their drawings and stories.
The development of children’s social perspective taking is evident throughout this study,
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as children’s views and interactions with their friends and co-players mature and become
more developed (see Chapter 2, pg. 15).
Friends
In their drawings and stories, young Vietnamese children demonstrated that they
enjoy playing with friends in many ways. They enjoyed the intimacy and affection
friendship brings as they held hands, exchanged gifts and shared play experiences. They
played outdoors activities such as football, badminton, basketball, hacky sac, chasey,
skipping, elastic and blow huge bubbles. Friends picked flowers together. They
participated in indoor games such as puzzles, chess and other classroom games. They
sang together in concerts. Children enjoyed playing with one special friend or lots of
friends. Neighbours visited each other. Children played with their friends in diverse
environments, such as: schools, homes, at sea, parks, the streets, the beach, the waterpark,
the zoo, the botanical gardens and at their grandparent’s house. They celebrated festivals
together and played dragons together. Routines such as walking to school, morning
exercise and dancing were often shared with friends. They shared resources with each
other, such as dolls, playground equipment, balloons, Lego and other toys. Young
Vietnamese children often imagined that their friends were visiting their homes and
depicted themselves engaged in this fictional moment. Wishfully, one child described his
friend meeting Popeye and Pluto. Children were also involved in imaginative play with
their friends as they role-played teachers and shopkeepers. Many children simply stated,
“I like playing with my friends,” or “playing with friends.”
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Plate8: Playing with my friends Phuong Linh, Female, 5 years VB22
• Phuong Linh (Plate 8) is five years old and she draws herself accompanied by
two other girls. The children stand in close proximity and share the same large
red smiles, hairstyles and facial features. Their clothing is of similar style,
brightly coloured triangular dresses with rectangular sleeves. The girls look
remarkably similar and not only share the same appearance but they are also
portrayed similarly in their stance and expression, although one of the girls is
slightly smaller. Pink clouds float by and a climbing frame is positioned in the
top left corner. Phuong Linh’s image captures an ambience of cheerfulness and
carefree exuberance. The uncomplicated friendship of a five year old is clearly
represented. Phuong Linh’s story clearly states, “Playing with my friends.”
There is certainly no doubt that the image and the story remains consistent and is
represented equally by both the image and the story. The friendship is portrayed
by Phuong Linh’s graphic messages within her drawing. These include the
closeness she feels to her friends through portraying similar characteristics, their
close proximity and the happiness portrayed by each individual depicted in this
image. None of the individuals are named and one is not sure which child is
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Phuong Linh. They are represented as a collective, and as a group of friends, so
children have not been named or identified.
While Phuong Linh showed consistency in her work, contradictions between images
and stories were frequent. Contradictions took place in drawings in a number of ways.
Children often mentioned the presence of other friends in their play lives, however these
friends were often absent from their drawings. In contrast, children often depicted their
friends playing, whilst they themselves were absent from their own drawings. The
following example demonstrates the contradiction between the image and the story.
Plate 9: I like to play soldier with my friend at school. Man Minh, Male, 5 years LA40
• Man Minh (Plate 9) is a five year-old boy who attends Lan Anh private kindergarten
in centre of Ho Chi Minh City. Man Minh draws himself standing proudly in a
military uniform. His drawing is meticulous and precise. The slightest details have
not been forgotten. He wears a green helmet with the Vietnamese red star placed in
the centre. His uniform is deep green with red lapels and bright orange pockets
drawn onto both sides of the jacket. A yellow tie is drawn underneath his neck. His
face is coloured pink, his facial features are simply drawn and is dominated by a large
smiling mouth. To one side of him, a military plane is flying by. The plane is
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detailed and has been drawn with care. A spear like structure protrudes from the front
of the cockpit, giving the plane a menacing and sinister appearance. The wings are
dark blue with red engines evenly placed along them. An orange and blue butterfly
flies past in the other direction. Man Minh’s drawing could be divided into two
sections. To the left of the paper, he has depicted himself. The right side of the
drawing appears to be object centred, featuring the butterfly and the plane. Man
Minh said “I like to play soldier with my friend at school.” He has provided the
researchers with the context of his play (at school) and as articulated that he is playing
with his friends. However his friends are absent from his drawing. This drawing is
emblematic of Man Minh’s values and interests. The kindergarten is situated in close
proximity to a military facility. Man Minh is an active observer of his surrounding
environment and uses his careful observation skills to reveal his fondness for role
play and his fondness for play together with his friends.
Family
Ellis (1995) writes that for the Vietnamese, life revolves around the family. This
statement was confirmed by the frequency in which families where portrayed in
children’s drawings and stories. Almost a fifth (19.5%) of the children interviewed
included family members in their pictorial images and verbal dialogues. In Vietnam,
children often live in extended families that include three generations.
After friends, siblings emerged as prominent playmates for young Vietnamese
children. In their drawings, children played with their siblings in the house, in the streets,
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in parks and on family excursions. They shared play materials such as toys, skipping
ropes, bicycles and flowers. Children played hide and seek, tug of war, bit mat bat de
(chase the goat), dragon chasey and role-played shopkeepers with their brothers and
sisters. They danced and travelled to faraway imaginary places on the backs of butterflies
and to real already known places.
Parent-child play was evident in this study. Children played games with their
parents at home, visited special places together, went fishing or played outside in the
garden. Young Vietnamese children enjoyed the every day moments they spent with
their parents. These valued and special times were captured through children’s drawings
and stories.
Some children drew their siblings and didn’t include themselves in the drawing or
stories, other children drew themselves playing with one or more siblings, whilst other
children represented the whole family group, participating in an activity together
collectively. These strong family relationships were repeatedly represented in the
children’s drawings. The family clearly emerged as an important element in children’s
play lives.
Children depicted family life in two ways. Children frequently depicted
themselves and their families involved in a special family outing. This often involved
staying with extended family, visiting a city landmark or a museum, going to the local
markets or simply for a walk in the local park. These family events represented a
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memorable experience for the children and were obviously considered enjoyable and
special. In contrast, the everyday family events that took place within the children’s
family homes were equally significant. Children captured family routines within their
own homes. Children depicted families eating and playing together as a time of
celebration and joy. The home appeared to be a happy and safe place for children. Given
the frequency of family images, children clearly valued the companionship and closeness
the family unit brought to their lives.
Plate 10: My family walking along Hoan Kiem bridge Pham Minh Hoa, Female, 5 years DD53
• Five year-old Pham Minh Hoa (Plate 10) depicts her family on an outing to one of
Hanoi’s most famous attractions, the Hoan Kiem bridge which stands in the centre of
city and spans the Hoan Kiem lake. She draws the blue water of the lake, three black
lines meander through the blue water, giving it a rippling effect. The crescent of the
bridge sits on top of the water. The bridge is coloured in an alternate pattern of blue
and red stripes. On the bridge stands her family. They stand closely together with
their arms outstretched. The figures appear remarkably similar in stature, height and
appearance, except for one human figure that has been drawn with long black hair. It
is not know if the figure is Pham Minh Hoa’s mother or herself. The figures are
drawn by using a series of geometric shapes, such as rectangles for the bodies and
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legs and semi-circles for the heads. Pham Minh Hoa has used the same two colours to
colour her family in and alternated them, creating yet another pattern. The figures
with yellow faces have pink bodies; the alternating figure has a pink face and a
yellow body. The faces are similar and have the same smiling and content
expression. Pham Minh Hoa explains, “My family walking along Hoan Kiem
Bridge.”
Plate 11: We are playing at home. Some people are cooking. I am bringing rice to my father. Tam Tho, Female, 6 years CCH29
• Tam Tho (Plate 11) draws her family enjoying the ritual of preparing a family meal.
She draws herself serving the meal to the numerous members of her family. She
considers the family routine of preparing, serving and eating together as a pleasurable
and memorable activity; “We are playing at home. Some people are cooking. I am
bringing rice to my father.” Tam Tho has divided her paper into four separate
sections, using each section to depict a different part of the room, to set the scene. In
the centre of the drawing is a clock. In the upper right hand corner, Tam Tho has
depicted a female preparing a family meal. In a lower section of the paper, she draws
two figures preparing a meal, and in the other corner two family members sit at the
table to eat a meal. In the upper left hand corner, Tam Tho draws herself serving rice
to her father.
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The extended family
The importance of family, particularly the extended family in Vietnam is
emphasised by the regular reference to grandparents in the children’s drawings and
stories. The most frequent way in which children represented their extended family was
through depicting the varying play environments they provided for them, particularly for
urban children visiting their grandparents in rural areas. Children also referred to their
extended family that live nearby or in the same household. Children played with animals
at their grandparent’s house, they played football under the trees, they had fun with
balloons and celebrated Tet. Ngoc Tin enjoyed helping his uncle, the gardener at the
kindergarten (see CC10, Appendix F, Bong Sen 2 Kindergarten pg. 207). Thanh Phuong
pretended she is a grandparent buying cakes at the country village at the Bong Sen 2
Kindergarten (see CC30, Appendix F, Bong Sen 2 Kindergarten, pg. 209).
Plate 12: Play at my house in the countryside. My grandmother lives there. I play with animals. I play with cats. Khai Minh, Male, 4 years EK21
• Khai Minh (Plate 6) reflects on his visits to his grandmother’s house in the
countryside. It is special to him, as it provides him with a play area that is vastly
different from the urban area in which he lives in Ho Chi Minh City. There, he has
the opportunity to play with animals including cats. “I play at my house in the
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countryside. My grandmother lives there. I play with animals. I play with cats.” He
illustrates the countryside with symbols that represent life in the country, the clear sky
and the bright sun, the open wide spaces, the birds flying by, a large flower in full
bloom, a tall shady tree and lush tall green grass that comes up to his ankles.
Although Khai Minh described his setting to be the countryside it looks no different
from the drawings urban children provided, since similar symbols are used, but the
meaning is explained with his detailed story. Kai Minh mentioned cats in his drawing
but they are absent, perhaps during the interview he was reminded of this episode and
included it into his story.
Plate 13: This is my house and I play outside with flowers. The other house is my grandmother’s. Nguyen Hai Co, Female, 5 years EK35
• Nguyen Hai Co (Plate 7) is five years old and lives in Ho Chi Minh City. She draws
herself beside a small red house. Nguyen Hai Co has drawn herself larger than the
house. Towards the centre of the picture is a large and brightly coloured bunch of
flowers. On the other side of the flowers, stands a very thin house, with an equally
thin tree beside it. In the sky, a bird and a butterfly fly by and a small red sun shines
from a corner of the page. Nguyen Hai Co offers an explanation of her drawing to the
researcher, “This is my house and I play outside with flowers. The other house is my
grandmother’s.” The closeness of their homes and the strong relationship and
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involvement of the extended family is evident through both Nguyen Hai Co’s
drawing and story.
Alone
Nearly one of every five children (19%) depicted themselves engaged in solitary
play. Children were asked to draw themselves playing during the discussion phase of the
data collection (see Lesson plan, Appendix E, pg. 163), hence many of the children chose
to focus on themselves as individuals, rather than including others in their drawings. The
opportunity to tell a story enabled children to elaborate and provide further details about
their social partners for play. Despite this opportunity, numerous children stated that they
were, in fact, playing alone in their stories. The most common scenario was children
involved in solitary play at home. Children also enjoyed being alone to play in the
garden, observe the world, play with toys and pets, dream and imagine, and explore their
environment.
Through their stories and drawings children created images and told about their
solitary play and sometimes about isolation and loneliness within their own homes. A
few children (seven children) described themselves participating in games and activities
that only require a sole participant, for example, studying, drawing and computer play.
Children enjoyed playing alone with cats, rabbits, chickens and other family pets in the
family garden. They played in their bedrooms and at their grandparent’s house. Children
described playing with their favourite toys, playground equipment, constructing, creating
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and imagining alone. Young Vietnamese children depicted themselves involved in the
intimacy and pleasure of solitary play and appear to enjoy this diverse aspect of play.
Plate 14: I play alone outdoors Linh, Female 5 years HCP12
• Linh (Plate 14) creates a poignant image of herself playing alone. She draws
herself in the centre of the page, standing above a square garden bed. She has
drawn four plants in the garden bed and one has a bright yellow and orange flower
sitting on top of it. In the background is a brown house with an orange roof. The
sky is shaded in grey; the lines are angular and collide with one another. A
brightly coloured red and orange sun shines at the corner of her page. Linh
colours her face in grey, her dark hair sits untidily on her head, her eyes slope
downward and mouth is shaped in an impassive expression. Linh comments, “I
play alone outdoors.” Linh has chosen contrasting colours compared to other
children, most children shade their backgrounds in bright, yellow, blue and
orange. She has used dark colours to colour her skin and her facial features are
dark, giving the image a gloomy and sorrowful aura.
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Some children drew themselves alone, but included other playmates in their story.
Thus, the story provided further insight into the child’s play life that the image itself did
not provide. When children were questioned about the absence of play mates in their
drawings, they answered that they had forgotten to include them and confirmed that they
do in fact enjoy playing alongside play mates.
Plate 15: I play football in the garden of my house with my brother. (Where is your brother?) I forgot to draw him.
Tuan Thinh, Male, 5 years VT2
• Tuan Thinh (Plate15) draws himself amongst a vast endless blue sky with a
yellow sun shining brightly. To the side of him in mid air is a ball. This is Tuan
Thinh’s story:
Tuan Thinh: I play football in the garden of my house with my brother.
Interviewer: Where is your brother?
Tuan Thinh: I forgot to draw him.
Tuan Thinh’s drawing clearly indicated that he likes to play football, however
through his added commentary he has created an extension to this image and
given more specific details. He has included his brother as a playmate in his story
and has provided a setting for this play scenario, which is in his garden at his
home. Symbols that are prevalent throughout the data set were absent from his
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drawing. Tuan Thinh has omitted several emblematic features common in the
data set (e.g. house, garden and flowers); rather his drawing centres on himself
and the football.
Concept 3: Culture and context
Vietnamese culture was prominent in many of the drawings in the data sets. The
values, ethics and expectations of the Vietnamese people are represented and replicated in
children’s drawings and stories. Children’s play reflects the culture and society in which
they are situated (Vygotsky, 1976). Children regularly expressed values which are taught
through the kindergarten curriculum (see Appendix A, pg. 153 and B, pg. 155). This was
particularly evident through the prevalence of learned drawings that were reproduced by
the children. These drawings included themes, such as cultural celebrations, cultural
rituals, cultural places and the everyday way of life in Vietnam. Many children felt
confident in reproducing these taught images and relied on their stories to articulate their
individual account of their play lives.
Young Vietnamese children represented their distinctive culture and way of life in
many ways. Children drew themselves celebrating birthdays, driving in a car during a
festival, participating in morning exercise, watching a traffic jam, observing planes, tanks
and soldiers at a war museum, spending time with their family, studying, playing in the
street, exchanging gifts, celebrating the Tet festivities, participating in activities at the
Children’s Cultural Palace and Children’s Cultural House, visiting the countryside,
cooking and serving food, playing and watching games, and pretending to be dragons,
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soldiers, shopkeepers and teachers. They cuddled rabbits and fed chickens, held brightly
coloured balloons, went fishing and enjoyed the beach. Young Vietnamese children
received gifts from Santa, picked and displayed flowers, and played in the flower garden.
They went to the markets and parks, rode on the backs of buffalos and played in the
animal village at their kindergarten.
Cultural celebrations
Interviews for this study were conducted during the months of December and
January. The Lunar New Year, Tet, fell at the end of January and is the most important
date in the Vietnamese festival calendar. Children all over Vietnam participate in school
and family activities in preparation for this festival. This festival is a particularly exciting
time in a Vietnamese child’s life. Children are given red envelopes containing generous
amounts of li xi “lucky money”. Sweets, fresh fruit, blossom branches and kumquat
trees are an integral part of this celebration.
Children throughout Vietnam’s kindergartens participate in Tet celebrations
through integrating it as a monthly theme in their curriculum (refer to Appendices A, pg.
153 and B, pg. 155). Children draw pictures and knead figurines from plasticine of Tet
plates laden with fruit and food. They construct their own blossom trees from paper and
discuss the significance of these celebrations. As a consequence of the immersion of this
topic, children drew these learned and recently rehearsed drawings during the interview
process.
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Plate 16: New Year picture – long cake, square cake, watermelon and flowers. (Wanted to draw chess but drew this instead because he knew how – it was a learned drawing.)
M. Trang, Female, 5 years E EK 29
• Trang (Plate 26) draws a large red space that fills up the bottom of the page. She
outlines it with a fine black line. On top of the altar, she has placed four green
shapes. In the centre is an oval shaped watermelon. It has the lines running through
it that characterises the natural patterning of the watermelon skin. To each side of the
watermelon is a square and a rectangular banh chung, square parcels made from fatty
pork, bean paste and rice wrapped in banana leaves and tied with bamboo twine.
These foodstuffs are a fundamental part of the Tet celebrations. The simple
ingredients remind the Vietnamese people of the hard times in the past. To the side of
the page is a blue vase containing three brightly coloured flowers. Trang’s drawing is
titled “New Year picture – long cake, square cake, watermelon and flowers”. During
her interview, Trang expressed her desire to draw himself playing chess but did not
know how to draw this image. She felt more comfortable drawing the familiar and
recentlylearned Tet drawing.
Cultural places
Children depicted a variety of significant cultural sites as play spaces in their
drawings and stories. In Vietnamese society, there is strong emphasis on family life and
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home life. The house was the most frequent play place amongst young Vietnamese
children. Almost 40% of children in this study included a house in their drawing or story.
The inclusion of parks in many of the children’s drawings was significant (10%). Other
play places included museums, churches, the street, school, the airport and the market.
The house dominated many of the drawings in this study. For example, in the Lan
Anh Kindergarten data setm, 50% of the drawings featured houses. Rich descriptions
were given to expand and enrich these visual representations, and to provide the
researchers with a greater awareness and understanding of the representations the child
was communicating in their drawing. Thirty-six percent of children from Dong Da
kindergarten included houses in their drawings however, they failed to elaborate on the
significance and the meaning of their houses. Often their stories simply described their
drawing as, “The house” or simply listed the items in their drawings, “Fish, house and
cloud”. The children’s stories sometimes failed to give any further information. It is not
clear whether children drew houses because they were confident in producing this
drawing as the technique may have recently been taught, or if they just wanted to
articulate their preference for playing at home.
Throughout all of the data sets, the standard house was represented in a similar
method to Golomb’s (1992) description, “all houses contain an angular shapes consisting
of a squarish or rectangular base and a triangular roof. Houses are drawn in a
predominately frontal view, with a strictly right-angular directional framework” (pg. 91).
Children also include windows, a standard door, a chimney, and sometimes an attic,
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antenna and steps. This simple structure not only represented the children’s homes, it
also represented other structures that were prominent in the children’s lives: the school,
grandmother’s house, the church, a friend’s house, or an unnamed structure that has
simply been included to provide context.
Houses usually stood alone and were often drawn with gardens, flowers, birds and
animals surrounding it. Most of the children participating in this study live in homes very
different from the houses they depicted in their drawings. Their homes are often attached
to many others and are tall thin structures with many levels. Many urban houses are grey
and rectangular and are situated above small businesses, or along narrow alleys amongst
the urban streets of Vietnam. Children’s homes have very small gardens if any; often
gardens are on balconies or in the entrance of the homes. This apparent contradiction can
be understood by viewing the drawings as emblematic drawings. Children use symbols
they are familiar with and that represent meaningful subjects in their lives. The classic
building structure is part of the learned repertoire (see Appendix B, pg. 155).
Schools were another significant play space represented in children’s drawings
and stories. In this study, 64 children (18.1%) depicted play as taking place at school.
Children described their favourite school activities and the accessibility of friends in the
school environment. They swam in school pool, played on the playground equipment
and played with a multiple of resources, such as Lego, building blocks, cars, skipping
ropes, sandbags, dolls, rabbits and fish. Children role-played at school and imagined they
were shopkeepers, teachers and soldiers. Children enjoyed the games and sports they
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play at school: football, basketball and morning exercise. Children enjoyed walking to
school and holding hands with their friends.
Plate 17: My house, a tree and a flower Bao Ngoc, Female, 4 years DD22
• Bao Ngoc (Plate 30) is four years old. She draws a large, pink ground on and across
the bottom third of the page. Two large flowers grow from the ground supported by
thin red stalks. One of the flowers is yellow with a red middle and the other is orange
with a red middle. To the right side of the page is a house. The flowers tower over
the house. The house has a red triangular roof and a yellow rectangular base. Square
windows are placed on both sides of the rectangle and a small square door is drawn
underneath them. Beside the house is a tree with a bright pink trunk and a green
circular top. Four small red circles representing pieces of fruit are placed amongst the
tree’s green foliage. Above the tree, sits a large red sun. Bao Ngoc has drawn a
mouth straight across the sun and two eyes. Red clouds in varying sizes float across
the page in line with the sun. The description Bao Ngoc has given to accompany this
picture is; “My home, a tree and a flower”. Bao Ngoc’s house that she has drawn has
many of the features Golomb (1992) describes in her descriptions of houses drawn
five-year-old children. She uses a selection of shapes to create her drawing; the
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squares, rectangles, triangles and oval shapes in this drawing appear frequently in
house drawings across the data set.
Plate 18: My father goes to the airport and I went to say goodbye. Nguyen Han, Female, 5 years LA33
• Nguyen Han (Plate 31) draws two brightly coloured airplanes. A blue airplane is
on the ground with its pink stairs extended onto the tarmac and a yellow airplane
with bright red wings flies through the green sky. Behind the yellow airplane is
a large, blue butterfly with curly antennae and yellow wings. A pink and yellow
sun with a smiling face looks on from the top left hand corner. In front of the
blue plane, a man stands, dressed in green trousers and a red top carrying a bag.
He has a happy smiling face. To the side of the picture, a large tree stands on the
tarmac. Nguyen Han remembers the excitement of going to the airport. She
clearly articulates her story, “My father goes to the airport and I went to say
goodbye.” This visit to the airport was an exciting and memorable occasion for
Nguyen Han, and she enthusiastically captured this event in her drawing.
Cultural rituals
A range of cultural practices was evident in the data sets and reflects diverse
interpretations of culture in Vietnam today. The cultural diversity is seen through social
and religious practices and daily routines. The making of offerings at the shrine in the
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home or temple is a way of expressing one’s appreciation and veneration in the Buddhist
religion. Hai Yen (See Appendix F, Bong Sen 2 Kindergarten, pg. 207) draws her mother
buying watermelons to present to the altar at home. In contrast, Tram Anh (LA 3) from
Lan Anh Kindergarten draws two churches and a Christmas tree. Both children have
been able to express religious rituals which are valued in their family structures. At a
more secular level, diverse practices were evident in rituals of going to the market to sell
and buy goods as depicted by several children particularly from semi-rural Cu Chi.
Children celebrated and revealed a variety of cultural rituals that impacted and left
an impression on these young children’s lives. Tet is celebrated by colourful ceremonies
that include “dragons” weaving through the parks and streets as drums and percussion
instruments belt out as much noise as possible to scare away evil. People are in high
spirits, gifts are exchanged, particularly to children, and there is an atmosphere of
excitement and celebration.
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Plate 19: Lunar Tet. Lion, Drummer and Friends Hai Linh, Female, 7 years CCH7
• Hai Linh (Plate 32) is seven years old. Her story describes her drawing, “Lunar
Tet. Lion, drummer and friends”. Lunar Tet dominates Hai Linh’s drawing. The
tail starts from the top left hand corner of her paper and runs down the page to its
head, which is positioned at bottom centre of the paper. Under the tail, a human
figure stands with his arms held up high. In the bottom corner of Hai Linh’s
drawing, another man dressed in green with his arms held up high, in each hand
he holds a thick green drumstick. In front of him is a large drum. In foreground,
four human figures stand with their arms outstretched and they have large happy
smiles on their faces. In the right hand corner of the drawing is a bright red sun
shining. The celebration of Tet is a ritual that Hai Linh commemorates and
remembers fondly as a celebration and playful event.
In conclusion, culture appears to have a strong influence on children’s play activities.
Young Vietnamese children portrayed strong cultural ideals and values through their
drawings, including family values, the national love of nature and participation in social,
religious and cultural events.
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Concept 4: Material Resources
Material resources refer to the tangible items required to carry out a play activity.
Over a quarter of the participants (94 children, 26.6%) included a material resource in
their drawing or story. There were many common threads amongst the children
regarding their preferences for play equipment. Children appeared to prefer simple,
inexpensive, easily accessible materials such as balloons, playground equipment,
skipping ropes, footballs, trucks and cars and home corner props.
In the data set, children described and depicted themselves receiving, sharing and
holding balloons. They slid down sliding boards, played on swings and they whirled
around on the merry go round. Children skipped in parks, at home and at school, with
friends or alone. Children played with trucks, cars and tanks. They watched vehicles as
they passed in the street and described their special journeys by car and motorbike.
Children dressed up as shopkeepers and teachers, and played with the variety of resources
in home corner. They donned helmets and army fatigues as they imagined what it would
be like to be a soldier. They wore butterfly wings and pretended to fly in the sky.
Children played football at school and at home with their friends and their brothers and
sisters. They played with Lego and built houses from blocks; some children went for
rides on boats and others imagined a day at the ocean, fishing off a boat or just enjoying a
ride. Children played games on their computers at home; they played with their toys
including dolls, teddies, and guns. Children watched planes fly past and played on them
at the museum. Children solved puzzles and competed in chess. They played
competitive games such as hacky sac, basketball and badminton. Children flew kites on
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the beach and in parks; they thought the dragons dancing during Tet were intriguing and
exciting. They rode bicycles and on the backs of motorbikes with their families, and
simply enjoyed blowing bubbles and watching the large glistening transparent bubbles
floating above them.
Table. 6.
Young Vietnamese Children’s material resource preference
Material resource
Frequency
Balloons
22
Playground equipment 21 Skipping rope 17 Trucks/cars/tanks 16 Home corner props 16 Football 12 Construction (non descriptive) 8 Lego 5 Boats 5 Computers 4 Toys (non descriptive) 4 Airplanes 4 Doll 4 Puzzles/chess 4 Basketball 3 Elastic 3 Badminton 3 Teddy 2 Plastic butterfly wings 2 Hackysac 1 Bubble making materials 1 Kite 1 Guns 1 Lion dance 1 Bicycle 1 Motorbike 1
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Balloons
The favoured resource amongst young Vietnamese children in this study was
balloons. Twenty-two children (6.2%) included balloons in their drawings and stories.
Young Vietnamese children choose to depict balloons in three ways. Several children
featured balloons as their only subject matter in their drawings. Other children drew
themselves with balloons and focused on them in their stories. They gave an explanation
to how they had received their balloons, what they do with the balloons and how they feel
about playing with balloons. The third group were the children who included balloons in
their drawing, simply to create a buoyant and happy atmosphere. Balloons featured as a
representation of play, fun and good times.
Plate 20: I draw balloons that people sell. I am at home. I like balloons. Minh Quan, Male, 5 years VT17
• Minh Quan (Plate 20) drew five sets of colourful balloons set against an orange
background. His balloons vary in shape. He has drawn two sets in the shape of
hearts and the other three sets are multicoloured and circular. Minh Quan has not
included himself in the drawing. However, his story articulates what he enjoys.
He explains, “I draw balloons that people sell. I am at home. I like balloons”.
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Plate 21: I would like my friend to come and visit. I haven’t invited him yet. We are playing at my house. I have a fish pond. Huong Vy, Female, 5 years CC12
• Huong Vy (Plate 21) creates a drawing bursting with detail and colour. She draws
a purple house with an orange tiled roof. Flowers stand in the garden and
vibrantly coloured birds and butterflies fill the purple and blue sky. Her sun is
large with a smiling face. She has drawn two children holding hands. The girl is
holding two balloons, one balloon is shaped like an animal and the second balloon
is round and yellow. The boy is holding a brightly coloured bunch of flowers.
Huong Vy explains, “I would like my friend to come and visit. I haven’t invited
him yet. We are playing at my house. I have a fish pond”. Huong Vy fails to
mention the balloons in her story, however they are undoubtedly part of the image
she has created in her imagination to communicate her fantasies and desires.
Perhaps she included the balloons to create a cheerful and energetic atmosphere
that she could share with her friend.
Sliding boards, swings and other playground equipment
Playground equipment found at most kindergartens throughout Vietnam were
repeatedly featured in many of the children’s drawings. A total of twenty-one (6%)
children depicted playground equipment in their stories and drawings. Children included
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playground equipment in two ways. They choose to draw playground equipment that
they played on. A second group of children chose to include playground equipment as a
component of their play environmental context.
Plate 22: Playing in school with the merry go round and see-saw Minh Hang, Female, 5 years BD17
• Minh Hang (Plate 22) enjoys playing at the school with the merry go round and
see-saw. She draws the school as a building by simply adding a blue triangle over
the top of a red square. She draws a long tall tree full of yellow fruit next to her
building. Beside the tree stands a tall woman. In the sky, a bright red sun and a
yellow and red cloud float across the stark white surface. Minh Hang illustrates
the merry go round situated within the school building and the see-saw situated in
the school garden. In front of the building, she has drawn a circle with brightly
coloured animals attached to the circular merry go round apparatus. Alongside
the building, a see-saw is drawn using two brightly coloured animals as seats.
Minh Hang describes her in the following manner; “Playing in school with the
merry go round and see-saw”.
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Plate: 23 Playing at my friend’s house Dam Tu, Male, 5 years DD35
• Dam Tu (Plate 11) draws a detailed drawing, depicting himself playing at his
friend’s house. The main element is a brown house with a bright orange
triangular roof and a green chimney. A fine line of purple smoke billows from
out of the top of it. An airplane flies through the sky. A tall tree grows alongside
the house, directly above the tree is a small red sun with a yellow circular ring
coloured over the sun’s rays. Two children are positioned inside the house, whilst
four children are playing on a blue sliding board outside. The people in this
drawing have been created in a similar method, using a formula. The people in
the foreground are drawn with a purple outline and coloured in orange. The heads
are circular with a four lines sprouting out of the circular shape representing hair.
The body is a drawn by two lines joining the head and the ground. The arms
protrude from the body and are single purple lines. The children playing on the
sides are drawn as black stick figures with orange heads. Dam Tu clearly enjoys
visiting his friend and playing on the sliding board at his friends house. He
represents many people in this drawing, which may indicate an active and lively
household with lots of playmates.
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The skipping rope
Children drew themselves skipping alone, skipping with friends, skipping in the
park. They also showed skipping at school and at home. A semi circle, representing a
skipping rope over the heads and attached to children’s hands, was commonplace
amongst children’s drawings. Skipping was portrayed as the principal activity in many
children’s drawings, particularly girls, (16 girls and only one boy drew themselves
skipping , 5.9%). Children drew attention to this activity by giving an explanation in
their story or simply featuring skipping as the central element in their drawing. Other
children featured skipping as a background activity, in which their friends or other
children might be participating, within their play environment.
Plate 24: I am skipping. Thanh Hang, Female, 5 years CCH19
• Thang Hang (Plate 12) told us, “I am skipping.” She holds a skipping rope and it
swings over her head. Her pigtails arch from her head giving a sense of
movement. Thang Hang’s dress is coloured in two different shades of red. The
top half is made of a large square with two small rectangles attached to the arms
to represent sleeves. Her shirt is trapezoid shaped and billows out, again giving
the sense of movement. Her arms are outstretched and attached to a bright orange
skipping rope. Thang Hang’s legs are a drawn very faintly and are not attached to
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a baseline. This gives a sensation of her body not being grounded and possibly
captured mid-jump. This image fills most of the page, the background is plain
and stark, three small clouds drift by and a tiny sun is drawn into a top corner. It
is an uncomplicated scenario, but it unquestionably demonstrates what Thanh
Hang likes to do when she plays. She loves to skip. Her story simply states, “I
am skipping.”
Plate 25: Playing in the park Phuong Anh, Female, 5 years VB38
• Five year old Phuong Anh (Plate 13) from Hanoi creates an image that
communicates her joy in playing in the park. She has drawn a park scene with
flowers, grass, a fish pond, a cat and a tree. In the corner of her drawing is a large
yellow sun, its rays radiating over the lush green grass, which dominates much of
the drawing. Phuong Anh has drawn a girl holding up a colourful bunch of
balloons and placed her in the background. In the foreground appears a girl with
a skipping rope swinging over her head. Although Phuong Anh does not
highlight the play activity of skipping through her story, she does advocate its
importance through the central placement of skipping in her drawing. Its
centrality and foreground position gives it status, significance and importance in
the drawing she describes as “Playing in the park.”
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Trains, planes and automobiles
Transport in many forms emerged as a favourable subject matter amongst young
Vietnamese children, with 27 children (7.6%) depicting transport in their drawings and
stories. Transport was a very popular theme at Dong Da Kindergarten with over a quarter
(27.7%) of the children from this kindergarten including images of transport in their
drawings. Children depicted transport in two distinct ways. Sometimes children drew
themselves manipulating toy cars and trucks or described their fondness for playing with
cars through their stories. At other times, children portrayed transport simply by drawing
it as context in their drawing. Transport was sometimes included in a scene, in a similar
manner to the inclusion of birds and butterflies in their drawings. Vietnamese children
appeared fascinated by military vehicles and drew tanks or planes they had seen at
museums and other cultural exhibits. At times, the transport component of children’s
pictures was not mentioned in children’s stories. Boys were more likely to include
transport in their stories and drawings with 22 boys including transport in their drawings
compared to five girls.
Plate 26: I like army tanks. This is in the street during the daytime. Anh Tuan, Male, 5 years VT19
• Five year old Anh Tuan (Plate 14) from Vung Tau draws an army tank he saw in
the street. He draws the tracks in blue and red and a purple cabin from which a
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yellow Vietnamese star shines from the flag pole. A blue cannon is placed in
front of the cabin. The tank dominates the drawing. It is large and placed
centrally on the paper. Only a blue road, a flock of birds flying past in the
distance and tiny blue sun have been added to the picture. Anh Tuan’s story
affirms his fondness and interest in army tanks: “I like army tanks. This is in the
street during the daytime.”
Plate 27: Cars and construction play at school. Tran Hung Thinh, Male, 4 years EK6
• Tran Hung Thinh (Plate 15) articulates his penchant for cars and construction
play. Rather than draw himself playing with cars, he draws the kindergarten
where this play takes place and expresses his preference for cars through his story.
He draws a large square and adds a triangular roof on to the top of it. In the
square, he inserts multiple storeys, as his kindergarten has three floors. Tran
Hung Thinh adds two sliding boards and a sandpit into the playground. Birds are
scattered across the sky. There are no cars present in this drawing, however, he
clearly and specially expresses what he likes to do: “Cars and construction play at
school.”
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Technology
Technology was notably absent from young Vietnamese children’s play lives.
Only four participants (1.1 %) acknowledged the presence of technology in their play
lives. Technology was represented through the computer games children played. All of
these participants were boys and three of the four participants were from Dong Da
kindergarten in Hanoi. Children represented their fondness for computer games in two
ways. Two children drew themselves sitting in front of a computer actively engrossed in
a computer game. In contrast, the other two children choose to focus on the computer
screen and drew the details of their favourite computer game as seen from the computer
screen.
Plate 28: Bedroom and computer Quang Huy, Male, 5 years DD39
• Quang Huy (Plate 16) drew himself in his bedroom, sitting at his desk with a
computer in front of him. The desk and computer is represented by a series of
multi-coloured rectangles in varying size. The computer is coloured green.
Quang Huy has drawn two lines down the side of the computer differentiating the
terminal and the screen. On the screen, he has randomly drawn number and letter
symbols, to represent images on the computer screen. He draws himself sitting in
a pink chair with wheels. Quang Huy has chosen a back view perspective of
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himself. His representation is made clear by his story, he simply explains,
“Bedroom and computer.”
Plate 29: I play on the computer at home. These are super-robots. One has an electronic field and he is winning. They have guns and swords. They wear masks and hats. John (Jhon), Male, 8 years CCH25
• John (Plate 17) represents his interest for computer games by illustrating a front
view of his computer game. He draws a detailed image of the action on the
screen. He represents the movement of guns and the swords with a series of
detailed lines across the screen in black crayon, representing the battle and combat
of the two central figures. He illustrates the electric field with jagged lines around
the robot. The only colour used is that surrounding the computer screen. John
gives a detailed account of the action on the screen, “I play on the computer a
home. These are super-robots. One has an electric field and he is winning. They
have guns and swords. They wear masks and hats.”
Concept 5: Structure
As children develop and become increasingly logical, they become conscious that
the world is a place governed by a system of rules and regulations. This orderliness finds
its way into children’s play as what Piaget (1962) described as games-with-rules.
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Structured play refers to games-with-rules as a form of play in which children must
follow predetermined rules and regulations. Games-with-rules include the element of
competition between two or more players (Piaget, 1962). Rules found in games may be
handed down from older peers or may be established cooperatively at the outset of a
particular game. Children attending kindergarten in Vietnam are taught a repertoire of
games (see Appendix A, pg. 153). These games are categorised as games for movement,
games for learning and folk games. In this study, Vietnamese children portrayed games-
with-rules and other structured play through drawings about play rituals, cultural games
and global games.
Table. 7.
Young Vietnamese children’s procedural games preferences
Skipping
17
Football 12 Aerobics (morning exercise) 5 Basketball 3 Badminton 3 Chess 3 Hacky sac 3 Chase the goat 2 Tug of war 1 Hide & seek 1 Chasey 1 Cat & mouse 1 Paper, scissors, rock 1
Play rituals
In this study, children’s play rituals included chants, rhymes and counting games,
which reflect the orderliness of the child’s thought and the extent of their socialisation
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process (Hughes, 1999). Play rituals were evident in children’s drawings particularly
through skipping. Skipping was particularly prevalent in the 6-9 year old females (see
page 92-94).
Morning exercise is a play ritual that was expressed by children in their drawings
and stories. Kindergartens in Vietnam begin their day with morning exercises before
breakfast. “The children arrive at school between 7am and 7.30am. They put away their
belongings and play quietly until morning exercise, which is held on the roof. The
children line up in four lines without any guidance from adults. The music is piped
through the school speaker system. Although this is called morning exercise, it is more
like a set dance to music and lasts approximately five minutes. The children follow the
same sequence of steps and stretches every day and all seem familiar with the
choreography. Children often enjoy leading the class and will take turns in ‘teaching’ the
class” (Vujanovic, 2000a).
Plate 30: My friends and I doing exercise with plastic butterfly wings. Giao Quyen, Female, 5 years LA32
• Giao Quyen (Plate 30) describes morning exercise “My friends and I doing
exercises with plastic butterfly wings.” She draws three girls dressed identically
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in blue outfits with green arms. Giao Quyen has used an identical formula to
represent each of these girls. She has given them green hair all in identical styles.
The girls have orange faces, with similar expressions. Giao Quyen has drawn the
girls’ arms outstretched at a similar angle. Their stance is identical with their
arms extended and raised above their heads. Attached to their arms are circular
butterfly wings. The butterfly wings attached to their right hand is pink and the
one on the other hand is red or orange. The butterfly wings are decorated with
small coloured circles. The girl’s bodies are made up of blue triangles that
represent dresses and two blue rectangular legs with blue boot like attachments
for feet. The feet are not attached to the blue base line running across the bottom
of the page. This gives a notion of the girls jumping or involved in active
movements. The girls are outside with a large multi-coloured flower rising from
the blue baseline. Drawn into the baseline directly below the large flower is a
small bunch of three flowers each a different colour. To the right of these flowers
is a red ball-like object. Two blue irregular shaped clouds are floating above the
girls and there is a red sun in the left corner with black rays and a circle of yellow
surrounding the rays. A red and yellow bird flies across the sky.
Cultural games
Cultural games refer to traditional games played by the Vietnamese people.
These games are usually passed on to children from teachers, parents and grandparents,
older siblings or peers. The kindergarten curriculum in Vietnam outlines 15 folk games
taught to children (see Appendix A). These games are built around cultural symbols and
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values. Dragons, goats and roosters feature as characters and roles in these games as
these iconic figures have a strong cultural relevance to the Vietnamese and their cultural
identity. Children mentioned specific traditional games that they played at home and at
school. Children from Lan Anh kindergarten were particularly fond of games; 11.5% of
children reveal a specific game they like to play. They listed “chase the goat”, “cat and
mouse” and a “chasey” game named “ron ran len may” as their favourites.
Plate 31: The church. I like to play chase the goat at home with father. At school cooking in home corner Tram Anh, Female, 4 years LA3
• Tram Anh (Plate 31) is 4 years old and draws the church. She draws two buildings.
The one on the left is made up of a purple rectangle and a red triangular roof. Above
the roof is a simple black cross. In the middle of the purple rectangle is a green
trapezoid shape. The other building consists of a blue square with a crimson
triangular roof. The lines of roof are rounded. Once again, there is a black cross
attached to the roof. To the right of the picture is a lime green Christmas tree. The
base is a rectangular shape with black zigzag lines on either side of tree gives it a fir
tree appearance. On top of the tree is a brown triangular shape. The churches and the
tree are placed on a solid yellow base. The sky is pink and has six orange and blue
circular shapes floating through it. Outlines of stars in black crayon are scattered
through the sky. Tram Anh has drawn a church; Christmas has just passed and this is
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an image that interests her. She then goes on to explain what her favourite things to
play at home and at school. “I like to play chase the goat at home with father. At
school cooking in home corner.” Tram Anh has drawn a church and has articulated
features of the church buildings. He story tells a contradictory point of view as she
describes the things she likes to play at home and at school. The church appears to
have a strong significance in her life as does the activities she loves to participate in at
home and at school.
Global games
Global games refer to those games that are commonplace throughout the world.
Early evidence of global games was seen in a number of drawings where children showed
preference for “tug of war”, “chasey”, “hide and seek” and sporting games, such as
football, basketball and badminton. These sports were particularly evident in the Hanoi
Cultural Palace and the Ho Chi Minh City Cultural House data sets, as older children
attend these programs. Many children revealed the enjoyment they experience playing
these games in parks, at school with friends or at home with siblings. Children’s
drawings conveyed the action and skill required for competitive sports. Their stories
communicated the pleasure they receive in participating in these activities and the social
component of these sports through the inclusion of their friends and families.
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Plate 32: I play football with my friends at the school playground Do Xuan Duy, Male, 8 years HCP9
• Eight year-old Do Xuan Duy (Plate 32) drew two boys playing football. His drawing
represents the conventions and structures within the game of football. Numbers have
been drawn on the player’s uniforms, the positions of the players within the team.
The uniforms of the opposing teams are a different colour. This represents the
competition element in the game. The players face each other, each with determined
looks on their faces. Do Xuan Duy has captured two players at a crucial moment of
the game: one of the boys is defending, his stance is open and he is ready to prevent
the ball going any further down the field. The boy with the green ball at his feet has a
determined look on his face as he approaches the defence. His legs are bent and
ready for any imminent attack. He is poised and ready to pass the ball through. Do
Xuan Duy has not added any further context to this drawing. He has simply shaded
the background red. Do Xuan Duy explains, “I play football with my friends at the
school playground.”
Concept 6: Imagination
Young Vietnamese children presented their imagination in three variations:
images and stories revealed imagination through role-play, wishful thinking and make
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believe. “Imagination involves re-combining aspects of events in novel ways” (Millar,
1968, pg. 158). Imaginative play has a sense of “interpersonal transactions, events, and
adventures summon many characters and locations in space and time” (Saracho and
Spodek, 1998, pg. 2). Through imaginative play, children explore and understand roles
and interactions in their social world and construct a realistic sense of self. By contrast,
role-play involves imitation, whereby children often reproduce or mirror events in the
same sequence or the same way in which they occur in daily life.
Twenty-six children (7.3%) in this study described imaginative play scenarios in
their drawings and stories. They imagined themselves role-playing soldiers, shopkeepers,
teachers, parents and grandparents. They envisaged themselves as grown ups, created
their future home and depicted themselves in their future place of work. Children
visualised what it would be like if their friends came over to their house and play. They
captured fantasies, dreams and desires in their stories and drawings.
Role play
Role play is the most prominent incidence of imagination in the children’s
conceptions (3.9% of total children in this study). Roles are identities children assume in
play. Family roles such as mother, father and baby are popular, and are integrated into
elaborate play with themes related to familiar home activities. Children also take on
stereotyped character roles drawn from the larger culture, such as doctors and soldiers.
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Role-play featured in kindergartens where play is valued, and where role-play is
facilitated through resources made available to the children. The utilisation of home
corners as play spaces was also encouraged at these kindergartens. Children who had
been exposed to such play areas were more likely to feature role-play in their images and
stories of their play. Children from Lan Anh Kindergarten (11.53%), the Experimental
Kindergarten (9.4%) and Bong Sen 2 Kindergarten (6.1 %), were more likely to express
their fondness for role-play activities as their preferred play activity. Girls were more
inclined to include role-play in their conceptions of play (71.5%), with their depictions of
role-play often including resources made available for them at their kindergarten. Four
year olds were also more inclined to depict role-play.
Children imagined themselves as teachers, shopkeepers, soldiers, parents and
grandparents. A number of children didn’t specify what particular roles they preferred,
instead stating that they simply enjoyed home corner. Children also expressed a desire of
what they would like to do when they grew up and captured this image in their drawing.
Plate 33: House, tree, bird and flowers. I like to play with my sister at home. We play shop keeper and I get to sell. My maid is the buyer. Ngoc Thanh, Female, 4 years LA16
• Ngoc Thanh (Plate 33) is four years old and attends Lan Anh Kindergarten. She
draws an orange house with a red roof and places it centrally on the page. To the
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right of her house stands a huge tree. On the other side of the house, Ngoc Thanh
has drawn two flowers. They have purple leaves and blue petals, and tower over
the house. Above the house, two multi-coloured birds fly by in opposite
directions. In the top left hand corner of her drawing, Ngoc Thanh has drawn a
blossom branch, laden with pink and yellow flowers protruding horizontally from
the side of the page. She lists the items in her drawings and adds what she likes to
do when she plays. “House, tree, bird and flowers. I like to play with my sister at
home. We play shopkeeper and I get to sell. My maid is the buyer.”
Wishful thinking
Four children (1.1%) in this study depicted a play episode that they would like to
happen. Wishful thinking was most evident from children who created an image of a
play episode that included their friends. These episodes had not occurred, however the
children had a clear image of the play episode. For example, several children indicated
the desire for children to come to their home and play with them. They depicted this
image clearly, however revealed to the interviewer that this has not happened, though
they would like it to.
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Plate 34: I am playing with my friends under the Tet tree at my house. (She has not yet visited). Quynh Nhu, Female, 5 years CC2
• Quynh Nhu (Plate 34) imagines what it would be like to have her friend visit her
home during the festival of Tet. She captures this image in her mind and produces a
happy and bright representation of her imaginary world. The result is two children
standing amongst the backdrop of a blossom tree, laden with yellow and red flowers.
The branches of the tree spread across the page, underneath the tree, Quynh Nhu and
her friend stand with happy and cheerful expressions. They are dressed in a similar
style, one in yellow and the other in purple. Their hairstyles are similar, as are their
facial expressions. Quynh Nhu’s story describes her drawing, “I am playing with my
friend under the Tet tree at my house. She has not yet visited”.
Make believe
Make believe in this study is defined as play which involves children introducing
imaginary scenarios to their play lives. Children are involved in creating images,
fantasies and thoughts that are not in the immediate environment (Singer and Singer,
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1990). These images were scarce amongst the data collected, only eight children (2.2%)
in this study depicted a make believe scenario. Boys were more likely to include make-
believe in their stories and drawings (6 children of the subset, or 87.5%). These boys
imaged what they would be in the future, they imagined themselves on boats and ships
and fishing at sea and driving cars. Girls tended to be more whimsical and included
fantasy and unreal scenarios.
Plate 35: Mother butterfly and baby butterfly. My sister and I fly away. Nghi An, Female, 5 years LA43
• Nghi An (Plate 35) draws two smiling children perched on the back of a green and
yellow butterfly soaring through the yellow sky. Below them is a field of flowers. A
small red butterfly with its blue wings outstretched is flying past a lone red flower in
a field of yellow flowers. The flowers have been evenly spaced out along the bottom
of the page and vary in size. A similar formula has been used to draw these flowers.
A big round circle has four to six petals around it, a long slim stem runs to the
ground. Two small leaves are attached to the stem directly opposite one another. On
the top left of the page is a red sun with blue rays and to the left of the sun is a single
cloud floating through a yellow sky. Nghi An explains, “Mother butterfly and baby
butterfly. My sister and I fly away.”
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Conclusion
In this chapter young Vietnamese children’s concepts of play have been the basis
of the investigation and analysis. The six categories of play which emerged from this
study show children producing clear, concise ideas of play that encompass the
characteristics of play (Garvey, 1990, see literature review, pg. 14). Young Vietnamese
children demonstrated that they could clearly articulate their conceptions about their play
lives and express their favourite play scenarios. Children expressed the social nature of
play and illustrated their social capabilities and desires. They produced sophisticated and
comprehensive drawings and stories, encapsulating their surroundings and their
environment. Young Vietnamese children demonstrated the impact of culture on play
and illustrated the enculturative nature of play. They revealed an insight into the
practices and values taught and upheld in Vietnamese schools and society. Their daily
lives were reflected in the thoughts, feelings and acts of the children. The children in this
study revealed their preferred play materials and captured moments in their lives utilising
and taking pleasure from these play materials. Favourite activities and games were
captured in drawings and stories. Children displayed their rich and fruitful imaginary
lives, as they dreamed, wished and acted out play scenarios. They exposed their worlds
of make-believe and pretence, their dreams and their ideas.
The following chapter discusses and critiques the six conceptions of play which
emerged from this study, therefore progressing from a descriptive analysis to a critical
analysis of conceptions of play from young Vietnamese children.
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CHAPTER FIVE
Discussion of children’s conceptions of play
This discussion interweaves two threads of conceptions about play held by
young Vietnamese children. The first thread relates to research question one: “What
do young Vietnamese children think about their play?” It focuses on fundamental
definitions of play as disclosed by participants. The second thread addresses
research question two: “What culturally relevant conceptions about play do young
Vietnamese children convey in their stories and drawings?” This thread specifically
focuses on culturally relevant conceptions of play.
In all phenomenographic research, the goal is to describe conceptions of a
topic, as experienced by key informants. In this study, children’s ideas,
observations, memories and feelings about play were recorded by using spoken and
“graphic languages” (Rinaldi, 1993, pg. 20). This technique enabled children of all
ages to explore and express their understandings of the concept of play in images, as
well as inviting children to share their stories on the phenomenon of play.
Immersed in the children’s theoretical understandings were rich and dynamic
cultural themes that repeatedly surfaced throughout the data.
Malaguzzi (1994) believes that children are capable of meaning making and
theorising from their daily life experiences, through the use of mental acts such as
planning, coordination of ideas and abstraction, through drawing, story, drama and
play. In Malaguzzi’s view, meanings are never static; rather they are generative of
other meanings. Therefore, activation of the meaning making capacity of young
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children can generate both processes of their learning and the products of their
understanding.
Children’s ideas are an important potential source for curriculum. Their ideas
reflect the complex ecology of their world and reveal children as active learners who
“are protagonists in their own spontaneous dramas” (Jones and Nimmo, 1994, pg. 5)
and theorists with ideas that may be utilised to foster play/learning environments and
experiences that are authentic and personally meaningful.
Viewing the world from a child’s perspective is both valuable and necessary if
authentic curricula is to be developed. This “inside/out” approach enables researchers
to discover how children experience their lives, create their own meanings and
knowledge, and engage in their roles, relationships and activities (Katz, 1993; Smith,
1998). Children need to be an integral part in curriculum development, since children
learn best when the content is connected to their real life experiences (Bruner, 1972;
Katz, 1993; Short, 1991). Such notions are foundational in early childhood education
and apply equally to children in Vietnam.
By collecting and analysing children’s visual images and verbal stories, the
researcher broadened understanding of young children’s play in Vietnam. Through
the use of multiliteracies, young Vietnamese children demonstrated that they could,
indeed transmit and communicate their own conceptions of a complex, but well
understood phenomenon. Children are clear and specific about what they like to do
when they play. The children in this study valued play outdoors. They cherished
their family and friends. They also valued their time alone. They enjoy playing with
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simple non-expensive materials. Young Vietnamese children enjoy dreaming and
imagining. They like to participate in structured activities.
Vietnamese children and their play theories
Six prominent conceptions about play emerged in the course of this study and
form the emergent theories about play from these children at the time of the study.
This chapter provides a discussion of these Vietnamese child-held theories of play.
1. Play is being outdoors.
2. Play is being with family and friends, but sometimes alone.
3. Play involves immersion in culture and identity.
4. Play involves materials.
5. Play is dreaming and imagining.
6. Play is structured.
Some variations on these conceptions occurred and will be discussed
throughout the chapter (i.e. age, gender, curriculum, experience and context).
Young Vietnamese children conveyed and reflected culturally rich images and
stories. Their documentation of their play lives enabled the researcher to gain a
clearer view of their collective values and experiences. Gaining insight into values is
significant as they are “ideals that a person aspires to in his or her life” and a “point of
reference” (local, social, cultural) which defines culture and provides “the foundations
on which society is based” (Project Zero & Reggio Children, 2001, pg. 39).
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Children can be seen as reliable informants who participate in and document
their values, personal experiences, desires and dreams to adults. Children’s voices
can provide researchers, teachers and parents with powerful information and
knowledge on how they see and understand the world around them, and therefore
reposition the child from a traditional passive receiver of knowledge to a powerful and
dynamic generator of their own knowledge and learning.
Acknowledgement of children’s conceptions by peers and adults (e.g. parents
and teachers) creates a “dynamic conjunction of forces and elements interacting
towards a common purpose”, such “social exchanges” can reinforce each child’s
sense of identity through recognition from peers and adults (Malaguzzi, 1993, pg. 63).
Listening to children’s voices gives stakeholders an authentic and real insight into
their personal thoughts, dreams, opinions, values and interests. This valuable
information can be utilised establish programs and resources which are child
generated and serve the best interests of the child, and will be discussed further in
Chapter Six.
Play is being outdoors
In this study, young Vietnamese children revealed play places that are
meaningful to them. It is not surprising that young Vietnamese children highly value
outdoor settings as a play place. Urban living in Vietnam is busy, cramped and
hectic. Young Vietnamese children are often limited to play spaces which include
city streets, indoor areas and school facilities.
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Visits to parks and other green areas are memorable and valued. The lack of
space in many children’s home environments and the shortage of public play
environments places importance on the school to provide a wide range of diverse and
enriching outdoor experiences. Young children are active investigators and the
outdoor environment can provide children with active learning opportunities which
encourage exploration and creative play. Teachers may further support and encourage
children’s learning by asking open-ended questions to prompt, coach, and support a
child’s exploration while outside (Vygotsky, 1976).
To young Vietnamese children in this study, play is an outdoor experience. In
this study, children repeatedly drew images that depicted play in outdoor settings,
including public gardens, parks, fields, the countryside, the beach and their own home
environments. In Vietnam, where urban areas are crowded and cramped, young
Vietnamese children clearly expressed the special place of nature, green spaces and
outdoor environments as places of recreation and relaxation. Visits to the park were a
prevalent idea expressed by the children in this study. This appears to be an
affordable and accessible outing for many urban Vietnamese families and therefore an
experience many children participate in and enjoy.
In Vietnam, children are taught to value and love nature within the
kindergarten curriculum (see Chapter Two). Flowers are appreciated for their beauty
and regularly depicted in a variety of art and crafts lessons. Using techniques
prescribed by Vietnam’s national reform curriculum, children are directed to represent
a repertoire of foundational images in a structured program that involves;
drawing/painting, kneading/moulding, tearing/cutting/pasting (Piscitelli, Pham &
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Chen, 1997). Flowers have spiritual significance, such as the blossom branch or tree
during the Tet festival and the lotus flower as a symbolic flower to Buddhists (Huu
Ngoc, 1999). Children learn both past and current value of nature to society when
their educational program emphasises features of the natural world as part of the
foundation images taught in the visual arts repertoire.
Nature and the outdoors featured strongly in Vietnamese children’s drawings.
Children are taught to value and appreciate their natural surroundings from an early
age. One of the four main objectives of preschool education is to foster “love for the
beautiful, preservation of the beautiful, and the wish to create beautiful things in their
surroundings” (Pham, 1998, pg. 59). Children are taught to depict natural elements
(clouds, sun, tree and flowers) as the beginning of their drawing and modelling
repertoire in kindergartens. The natural elements drawn by the children in this study
encompassed similar techniques and features across all data sets.
Children were likely to want to make their drawing as aesthetically pleasing as
possible. Therefore, to make their picture attractive and appealing to others, both
boys and girls added the aesthetically pleasing elements such as flowers, the sun,
clouds and gardens. The depiction of nature varied, with girls (82.7%) more likely
than boys (77%) to include plants and flowers in their drawings. In this study, five-
year-old children were most likely (88%) to include images of the outdoors in their
stories and drawings.
Children from rural and seaside communities were more likely to include the
outdoors in their conceptions of play. Ming Dang and Bong Sen 2 kindergartens are
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situated in semi-rural locations. Ming Dang is situated in Vung Tau, which is a sea
side town situated 128km south-east of Ho Chi Minh City, whilst Bong Sen 2 is in Cu
Chi is located 30kms north-west of Ho Chi Minh City. Life in these two centres
appears to be very different from life in central Hanoi or Ho Chi Minh City. The
over-crowding, traffic and pollution does not exist; instead a slower pace of life of a
semi-rural existence is evident. These diverse environments were represented in the
children’s images. The sea was a central feature in the Ming Dang data set (95%) and
the countryside was a common element throughout the Bong Sen II (95%) data set.
Children in these green natural environments were more likely to depict natural
elements which co-exist with their day-to-day lives.
Flowers were present in 138 (40%) of the children’s drawings. Children
familiar with the way in which to draw flower and several children named specific
flowers. Children are taught to draw flowers from an early age. Flowers are
commonly used in the home at school as an aesthetic element, so children are very
familiar with their features.
It is ironic that the most dominant conception of play relates to the natural
world because, in fact, there appears to be a critical shortage of playgrounds in the
country. Tran and Tran (2000) report that parents prefer children to play indoors
rather than playing outdoors on the streets, where they face the danger of accidents or
other mishaps. In urban Vietnam, the streets are very narrow and traffic can be
chaotic. Tran and Tran (2000, pg 84) claim that “virtually children have no space to
play in, except some play-grounds and play-houses which are not always easily
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accessible due to their inconvenient location”. In this study, children have revealed
their ideal play context – a green, safe place.
Play is being with friends and family, and sometimes alone.
Young Vietnamese children indicate the social nature of play through their
drawings and stories. To children in this study, play is being with family and friends.
Friends were included in 94 (27%) of the children’s drawings and stories in
this study. Friends are particularly common in older children’s depictions of their
play lives. Older children develop reciprocal relationships with their peers and
require these relationships for cooperative and competitive games and activities and
therefore, peer relationships gain importance (Grusec and Lytton, 1988). Older
children tended to mention their friends more frequently: 55% of all children over six
years old represented friends in their drawings and stories, whilst 25% of all five year
olds and 19% of all four-year and under made mention of friends. The inclination to
include friends in play increases with age. Data sets that included older children, for
example, (Hanoi Cultural Palace and the Ho Chi Minh City Children’s Cultural
House) had a higher incidence of friends included within the children’s drawings and
stories. Within the Ho Chi Minh City Children’s Cultural House site, 58% of
respondents represented friends in their stories and images; similarly at Hanoi
Cultural Palace, 44% of the total participants demonstrated that they enjoyed playing
with their friends. This correlates to Selman’s (1981) findings highlighting the
importance of friendships as children grow older. Girls were slightly more likely to
include friends in their conceptions of play, 63 girls (31%), compared to 31 boys
(27%) described play with friends.
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The family is considered indispensable for the existence of Vietnamese
society and of the nation. The significance of the family is emphasised in the
“Program for building the country towards socialism” adopted by the Party Seventh
Congress - 1991. The policy states that “the family is the cell of society, the cradle
which is very dear to all individuals for the whole of their life” (Le Thi, 1999, pg. 3).
The importance of the family is also emphasised in the MOET’s objectives and plans
for preschool education (MOET, 1990). An emphasis on familial respect is embedded
as essential components of early childhood curriculum with an emphasis on
“affection, care and assistance for their close people (parents, friends, teachers...);
sincerity, politeness, boldness, natural manners” (Pham, 1998, pg. 59).
This strong emphasis for love and respect of the family is presented in many
of the children’s drawings. Sixty-nine children (19.5%) mentioned their family in
their drawings and stories. Girls were more likely to include family in their stories
and images with 44 girls (63.7%) out of the 69 total who had mentioned family. Five
year olds were more likely to include family in their drawings and images: 25% of all
the five year olds in this study included their family. This may well a reflection of the
preschool curriculum taught at this age level. In kindergartens throughout Vietnam,
“Population Education” is taught. Components of this topic highlight the family as a
theme with the expressed goal: “to help the children have some knowledge of family
life and get acquaintance with social community life: feelings, responsibility of each
member in the family” (MOET, 1997, pg. 34). Almost 39% of the children at Lan
Anh kindergarten made mention of their family, whilst three others (Viet Bun, The
Experimental and Cu Chi kindergartens) recorded strong results, with approximately a
quarter of all their responses inclusive of family images and stories. Children from
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Dong Da were less likely to include their family in their conceptions of their play
lives; only 6.1% of children from this kindergarten made mention of their families.
Children expressed immense enjoyment in spending time with their parents.
Due to economic necessity, many parents in Vietnam work long hours and have more
than one job. Family events are considered special and valuable. Simple activities
such as family excursions and fishing are treasured experiences, which children
shared and expressed in their drawings and stories. The extended family was present
in many of the children’s drawings and stories. Vietnamese culture values the family
and often three generations co-exist in the same household. Grandparents, therefore,
featured in many of the children’s drawings.
In contrast to play with family and friends, almost one fifth of children (19%)
in this study depicted themselves playing alone. Several children stated in their
stories that they are indeed playing alone. In other instances, children often focused
on themselves, as the central character in their drawing as they were directed to by the
researcher. The question put to the children during the data collection process was
“What do you like to do when you play”? Many children in this study are from sole
child families, therefore their play activities are solitary and their stories and drawings
reflected this situation. Children described themselves engaged in solitary play
activities that involved private play spaces such as their rooms, their homes and their
gardens.
Children often drew themselves playing alone with animals. Tran and Tran
(2000) found that urban children enjoyed playing with domestic animals. They
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believe that smaller families are prevalent in urban areas, as a result of the family
planning policy. This often leaves children without playmates. Therefore, the
domestic animal becomes an integral part of urban children’s play lives.
Children captured themselves studying and playing computer games. These
are activities that children clearly enjoy and can undertake alone. Although computer
games appear to isolate children, Bonnafont (in Goldstein, 1994) found quite the
contrary - computer games create conviviality among children. They often play
together, exchange information and swap games. In this study, the four children
(1.1%) who depicted in computer games were all boys. Three of the boys were five
years of age and one was eight. Computers were situated in their own homes, and not
in computer facilities or game arcades in public settings.
Social interactions are important to young Vietnamese children’s lives. In this
study, Vietnamese children valued friends, their families, teachers and significant
others (e.g., grandparents and extended family). Play assists young children’s social
development as children negotiate, take turns, cooperate, share ideas and resources
and resolve conflicts. “When playing, children learn the meaning of social life”
(Lindquist, 1995, pg. 33). Play combines emotion, will and thought. Predictably,
children’s close and familiar relationships are forged and extended in play episodes.
Play involves immersion in culture and identity.
The Vietnamese way of life and strong cultural identity is a powerful
component throughout the children’s drawings and stories. Children are aware of the
cultural values and ideals held by the Vietnamese people from a very young age. The
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appreciation of nature and the central significance of family and home are evident
throughout the data set. Children spoke about and drew pictures of festivals, such as
the Moon Festival, Tet and Christmas. The market, buffalos, morning exercise
regime, museums and city landmarks, arranging flowers, traditional games, [such as
da cau (hacky sac) bit mat bat de (chase the goat), rong ran len may (dragon snake go
to the sky/clouds) and meo duoi chuot (cat and mouse)] are all elements of the
uniqueness of Vietnamese life. These Vietnamese traditions and rituals were captured
through the children’s stories and drawings.
There is evidence of the new way of life and the increasingly changing face of
childhood in Vietnam, as new technologies and globalised ideologies seep into young
Vietnamese children’s lives. This was evident in drawings through the emergence of
computers, cartoon characters, Lego, trips to the seaside, overseas trips and a visit to
the airport. Vietnamese children’s lives are transforming and ever changing as they
grow up in the new millennium.
The young Vietnamese children in this study had no difficulties in providing a
snapshot of Vietnamese life and symbolising objects and events, portraying the “rich
amalgam of ideas and emotions with which we experience life” (Smith, 1982, pg.
310). Rich cultural symbols were particularly evident in the semi rural kindergarten
of Bong Sen 2. The rural way of life emerged through many of the children’s stories
and drawings. Similarly children from Minh Dang kindergarten depicted the life by
the sea in Vung Tau, with many of the drawings and stories including the seaside and
boats. They also included many common elements that emerged from all of the data
sets such as gardens, balloons and flowers.
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Play involves materials.
Balloons were the most frequently mentioned play resource amongst the
young Vietnamese children in this study. Over six percent of children participating in
this study included balloons in their drawings or stories. Balloons also featured in all
data sets in this study. Balloons are inexpensive and accessible to all of the children,
and therefore a very popular play material. Balloons were particularly prominent in
both rural kindergarten data sets with Minh Dang (28%) and Bong Sen 2 (22%)
children incorporating balloons in their depictions of their play lives.
Playground equipment was also featured strongly as a favoured play material.
Playground equipment is accessible to all children in this study through their
kindergarten and playgrounds provide children with the opportunity to climb, slide,
swing, hang and jump. Children who lived in urban areas were more likely to depict
these materials as cramped urban living does not give children a lot of play spaces in
their home environments, and there are very few public playgrounds in the city areas.
Parents lead busy lives and often do not have the time to supervise their children in
public play areas.
Transport, which included cars, trucks, planes, aeroplanes and tanks were a
common theme across the Dong Da data set. Boys were more likely to include
transport in their drawings and stories (75%). Perhaps these material objects were
included as the children were immersed in a theme, which centred on transport.
Children stories were often brief, many of them simply stating what the name of the
object in the drawing was. Hence, it is difficult to determine the true preference of
transport toys as a dominant play resource.
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Technology was represented by 1.1% of the participants, with four boys
articulated their preference for computers. These boys depicted themselves playing
computers at their homes. In urban areas there are numerous video arcades and pay to
use computer outlets. Although easily accessible, they still prove to be costly for the
working class. Computers in early childhood settings are a rarity and were not a part
of any program at the time of data collection. As the data was collected in 2001, there
may be changes to conceptions of this type of material as a preferred play resource in
2004 and beyond.
In this study, young Vietnamese children described a variety of materials they
enjoyed and used to play. Simple materials were universally available and
inexpensive. The sites visited in this study provide many of these materials to the
children in both structured and unstructured situations. However, this is not the case
throughout Vietnam. Many rural communities have no safe play facilities,
consequently leaving children to amuse themselves “without much sense of direction
or purpose” (Van Oudenhoven and Nhom Chan Troi Moi, 1999, pg. 8). Many
kindergartens in Vietnam have plentiful supply of adult-produced materials. Home
corner area is often highly organised with plastic props and a large choice of material
for the children to use. There appears to be little opportunity for children to construct
their own props or participate in activities which promote and encourage symbolism
and creativity during dramatic play (Vujanovic, 2000a).
Play is structured.
In this study, distinct age differentiation was evident in children’s preferences
for structured activities. Older children enjoyed the challenges and formalities of
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structured games, whilst younger children preferred more open-ended play activities
that allow greater freedom and autonomy. This reflects developmental theories
(Sylva, Bruner & Genova, 1974; Garvey, 1990; Wasserman, 1992; Selman, 1994).
Many of the older participants drew themselves playing football, badminton
and other structured forms of play alongside their friends. These games are referred
to as global games and are played by children worldwide. Children from Hanoi
Cultural Palace (51.8%) and children from Ho Chi Minh City Cultural House (51.6%)
depicted structured play regularly. Both these data set contained the older children in
this study. Of the 47 children aged six years and over, 26 made mention of their
preference of structured play (55.3%). There is clear evidence that preference for this
type of play increases in as children get older. Girls depicted themselves involved in
structured play more often than boys, due to the popularity of skipping activities. In
this study, 4.8% of all participants included the chants and ritual of skipping games.
Children also depicted themselves at aerobic exercise classes and viewed this as play.
Morning exercise routine is included in the Vietnamese kindergarten curriculum
(MOET, 1997).
Children also depicted themselves playing traditional and cultural games.
These games include bit mat bat de (chase the goat), rong ran len may (dragon snake
go to the sky/clouds) and meo duoi chuot (cat and mouse). These games were often
played at home and images included parents and siblings. Children are taught a large
repertoire of games at kindergarten. In the “Programme of education of children aged
5-6 at kindergarten” (MOET, 1997), games are separated into two overriding
categories: creative games and games with regulations. Creative games include:
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“games with assigned roles” and “building games”, whilst games with regulations
sub-categorised into “games for movements, games to learn and folk games”.
Traditional games are considered an important ritual in Vietnam and are played at
festivals and ceremonies which mark the production cycles of the formerly agrarian
society (Hung, 1991).
Play is dreaming and imagining.
Young children in Vietnam have dreams and fantasies they engage in play that
enable them to use their imagination and make sense of the world. Children’s desires,
wishes and hopes are mirrored in the roles, actions and conversations of play. In this
study, imaginative and make believe play was the least mentioned play concept, and it
is also the least understood by early childhood professionals in Vietnam. Singer and
Singer (1990) found that although imaginary play is regarded as an important
component of early childhood development and experience, only 7.3% of children in
this study expressed their preference for imaginary play.
The imagination of the child is a tremendous resource and is perilously
neglected by teachers. Consequently, overlooking this resource, results in the loss of
a powerful generator for creativity.
Urban Vietnamese children have dreams and wishes. They participate in play
that encompasses make-believe and fantasy. These children experience play as
freedom, and beyond reality. To them, play is unlimited and has few boundaries.
Children dreamt of flying on the backs of butterflies, they participated in role-play as
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they pretended to be soldiers and shop keepers, and they imagined their school friends
visiting their homes with a detailed account of this wished-for event.
Children from kindergartens that emphasised a play based curriculum, (Lan
Anh Kindergarten, Experimental Kindergarten and Bong Sen 2 Kindergarten) were
more likely to include dreaming and imagining in their drawings and stories.
Children represented their play environments by illustrating the resources made
available to them. This was particularly prevalent in the Bong Sen 2 Kindergarten.
Children frequently drew a miniature village and the multitude of resources that
represented the play area within the kindergarten. Providing rich play environments
for children made a significant impact on children’s conceptions of their own play
lives. These resources were incorporated into children’s interpretations and images.
Children’s drawings and stories document the enjoyment and significance resource-
rich environments can provide children.
In this study, young Vietnamese children had no difficulties in expressing their
dreams and fantasies. Children in this study show themselves adopting the roles of
soldiers, teachers, shopkeepers and grandparents. They demonstrate their creativity,
their artistry and their imaginative capabilities as they take on these roles in symbolic
and dramatic play.
Culturally relevant conceptions
Many of the children’s drawings and stories exposed layers of information that
transcended across single categories, thus revealing rich and powerful information
about their play lives. This study has particularly revealed that young Vietnamese
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children prefer to participate in play activities which are wholesome and readily
available. The reoccurring notion of outdoors, the use of simple and inexpensive
materials, and the inclusion of family and friends consistently emerged from the data.
As well, young Vietnamese children in this study indicated that they
internalise and appreciate cultural values through active participation in stories and
activities which build their cultural knowledge. Smith (1998) believes that schools
have a role in transmitting and immersing children in culturally rich environments and
passing on culturally valued skills. MOET’s kindergarten curriculum outlines (1997)
a program which is strong in cultural teaching and learning. From a very young age,
Vietnamese children are capable of relating this identity to themselves and able to
articulate their cultural beliefs to others.
Conclusion The six categories which emerged from data collected in this study reveal that young
Vietnamese children are clear and concise in describing and representing their play
lives. In this study, the variations within the conceptions are also evident. Gender,
age, experience and curriculum affect the conceptions exposed by young Vietnamese
children. The conceptions expressed by the children in this study are by no means
static, rather they are ever changing. Cultural, societal and personal influences
continuously touch these children’s lives continuously mould and shape children’s
experiences and conceptions.
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CHAPTER SIX
Conclusions and Recommendations
On the 11th of January, 2001, a national workshop with 75 early childhood
professionals including policy makers, teacher educators and practicing teachers was
held at the National Teacher Training College for Early Childhood Education –
Number 3 in Ho Chi Minh City. A recurring question raised during this discussion
was: “Why should children’s ideas form the basis of the early childhood curriculum?”
Vietnamese early childhood educators were interested in providing children with a
rich and stimulating learning environment. They aspired to explore and to expand
their knowledge about child-centred approaches and to learn about new philosophies
and possibilities. However, they all indicated a need for support as many were
uncertain about how to proceed and implement a play-based program after years of
state mandated centralised approach.
This study focused on young children’s conceptions of play. As outlined in
Chapter One, the value of play in Vietnam is misunderstood by policy makers, teacher
educators, teachers and parents. This chapter focuses on the final research question
and proposes some new play-based, child centred and outcomes-focused approaches
for curriculum development for Vietnamese early childhood programs. In this study,
the researcher was an outsider, observing children in an education system that was
different from her own in Australia. There would be little justice or validity in the
researcher, as an outsider, proposing Eurocentric ideals and recommendations on a
system that is distinctly steeped in its own rich cultural ideologies and traditions.
Accordingly, this chapter will address the research question by focusing on
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implications relevant to UNICEF’s international goals for early childhood education.
This chapter concludes with some culturally relevant approaches for implementing a
set of play-based philosophies and approaches for kindergartens in Vietnam.
Early childhood institutions in Vietnam are currently undergoing reform and
embracing a play-based, child-centred and outcomes-based approach to curriculum.
The Vietnamese preschool curriculum outcomes state that through play children will
understand relationships between man, nature and society (MOET, 1997). The study
of children’s conceptions of play may provide Vietnamese early childhood educators
and policy makers with a child-centred perspective and an important educational
resource. Policy makers and educators worldwide require a comprehensive
understanding and appreciation of children’s play to value its place in children’s lives,
to establish a system which supports a child-centred “emergent curriculum” and to
create learning communities which support and endorse optimal learning
environments and partnerships (Rinaldi, 1993, pg. 102).
Child-centred “emergent curriculum” builds upon the interests of children and
enables learning experiences to be child initiated, collaborative and authentic. These
bottom-up and inside-out perspectives encourage a high degree of child participation
and should be the fundamental practice of early childhood (Katz, 1992). Adult
facilitators need to create these conditions to encourage children to operate at their
highest level of the competence (Katz, 1992; Hart, 1997). Creating opportunities for
children to be active participants and listening to children’s voices and views enables
teachers to learn what matters to them and make changes that reflect and respond to
their understandings (Dockett and Perry, 2003). Teachers can assist in children’s
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social interactions by supporting and guiding them as they negotiate, co-operate and
share. Malaguzzi (1993) describes such relationships as the “primary connecting
dimension” of early childhood education (pg.62), whereby relationships within an
early childhood setting strengthen children’s identity through giving them a sense of
efficacy, self confidence and belonging. During play episodes, children collaborate to
pursue shared goals that are intrinsically motivating, allowing results from their
actions to be immediately visible.
In this study, young Vietnamese children indicated that they internalise and
appreciate cultural values through active participation in stories and activities which
build their cultural knowledge. Smith (1998) believes that schools have a role in
transmitting and immersing children in culturally rich environments and passing on
culturally valued skills. MOET’s kindergarten curriculum outlines (1997) a program
which is strong in cultural teaching and learning. From a very young age Vietnamese
children are capable of relating this identity to themselves and able to articulate their
cultural beliefs to others. Teachers can further promote cultural learning and identity
by providing culturally relevant materials, valuing cultural events and holidays,
sharing cultural stories and beliefs, and teaching culturally valued skills, such as art,
craft and cooking. In Vietnam, current teaching practice entails transmitting cultural
values and belief to the child, and they are in transition to a play-based approach,
which moves beyond transmission into transformation. Play is culturally grounded
and influences development and cultural learning. Hyun (1998) believes that if
teachers were able to clearly identify “emerging cultures” found in children’s play, “it
would allow early childhood practitioners to interact with children in culturally
relevant and congruent modes” (pg. 21).
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Implications of the findings
The result of this study is six succinct outcomes that define Vietnamese
children’s conceptions of play. To young Vietnamese children play involves
interaction with the natural world, relationships with others, immersion of culture and
identity, utilising materials, dreaming and imagining, and structure. This rich data can
be utilised to inform the development of a child-centred, play-based curriculum in
early childhood institutions throughout Vietnam, and to affect a shift in focus from an
adult-centred, state-mandated approach to a child-centred and participatory
approaches to teaching and learning.
Play is an experience which is free from the “restrictions of adult logic and
control” (Biber, 1984, pg. 197). Play provides young children with an “invaluable
continuum for learning and development” (Brewer and Kieff, 1996, pg 92). It
generates curiosity and new inquiry (Biber, 1984). Play gives children the
opportunity become agents in their own learning, and when further supported and
extended by teachers, they may achieve optimal learning. In play, children are given
the opportunity to “perceive themselves as authors and inventors; once they are
helped to discover the pleasure of inquiry, their motivation and interest explode”
(Malaguzzi, 1993, pg. 60).
A shift in early childhood education philosophies, from classical theories of
play (Millar, 1968; Lazarus, 1883; Hall, 1906; Groos, 1898) to contemporary theories
(Piaget, 1962; Vygotsky, 1976; Bruner, 1972; Smilansky, 1962) is required to fully
understand and implement a child-centred approach to early childhood education.
Acknowledging the role of play in early childhood development is the fundamental
133
perspective of contemporary theories. To build a transition from older, centrally
designed ideas and approaches in Vietnam, early childhood education will need to
make adjustments in both practical and philosophical ways. The following discussion
provides a starting point for the reconceptualisation of play in early childhood
education in Vietnam.
In Vietnam, there has been an increased emphasis and awareness amongst
“parents, communities, government and non-government agencies of the importance
of early childhood education for young children themselves, as well as for the
development of the education system” (Pham, 1999, pg.4). A new reform curriculum
has been introduced, as well as new classrooms built and equipped to increase access
to early childhood education, and to improve the quality of care and education (Pham,
1999). The process of curriculum policy change and the decentralisation of
educational systems are driven by political, economic, social, cultural and
technological influences, yet, there are significant disparities in income and access
between urban and rural communities, ethnicity and regional populations (UNICEF,
2000).
Policy makers
Policy makers in Vietnam instigating a new curriculum for early childhood
must consider the lack of understanding of the value of play in society, family and
schools. The misunderstanding and lack of knowledge of the developmental and
learning benefits of play can possibly hinder the reform process in early childhood
education. Policy makers have to consider the mechanics of introducing new
approaches to all stakeholders. Policy makers need to ensure that the program goals
134
are clear and comprehensive since they need to be shared and understood by all
stakeholders. A clear differentiation in roles of central, local and school
administrators is required. Once these goals are developed and implemented, ongoing
support and communication to all sectors of the educational system is essential,
through curriculum councils and curriculum networks. These support systems ensure
that the philosophies and goals of the program are shared by all, and that the program
continues to be developmentally, culturally and linguistically relevant for all children
that will experience the curriculum. Ongoing evaluation and reflection is necessary
and the outcomes should be shared with the public.
Curriculum developers and policy makers are sometimes confronted by
conflicting views on education and the direction it should be taking. “Resistance to
change is part of this process of increasingly continuous curricular renewal”
(UNESCO, 2003a, pg 22). Greater involvement of all stakeholders can help in
reducing resistance; therefore, a participatory approach throughout the curriculum
development process may be as effective process of curricula reform. Curriculum
policy change may be assisted by open and transparent communication channels,
combining top-down and bottom-up approaches (Katz, 1992; UNESCO, 2003b).
Detailed and broken down guidelines and standards can assist stakeholders to inform
about transition phases. UNESCO (2003a) suggests that the following processes are
key to reform:
• Consultations between local level and central levels.
• Shared commitments (resources and tasks).
• Produce more pragmatic information on curriculum change.
• Use simple language and terminology.
135
• Provide support in local contexts.
• Provide a network of local consultation, encourage the consolidation of
ideas.
• Establish communication networks.
• Articulate roles of stakeholders.
• Train and motivate in management of curriculum change.
• Organise more in-service training and teacher orientation on
curriculum change.
• Distribution of training packages for diverse audiences, for example
management, curricula design, multimedia, public relations and
leadership.
• Provide locally produced resources for teacher educators and teachers
(e.g., reference libraries, books, videos, toys, journals).
Most importantly, early childhood educators in Vietnam will require
significant leadership from policy makers to overcome reliance of old practices and to
break the resistance to change and curriculum reform, if they are to successfully
implement new teaching practices consistent to the education reform agenda.
UNESCO (2003) mentions of the value of input by stakeholders, but neglects
to acknowledge the child as a stakeholder in their education. The view of the child
and play is an important component to consider whilst creating a curriculum for early
care and development in Vietnam. Van Oudenhoven & Nhom Chan Troi Moi (1999)
believe that children’s views must be taken into account, for the best interests of all
136
stakeholders and every effort should be made to listen to children and to value their
perceptions.
Teacher educators
Teacher education in Vietnam is in the midst of ongoing improvement and
reform. A new teacher education program has been implemented and aims to
improve the national general educational system (Vietnam News service, 2001).
Since the beginning of the 21st century, professional and academic skills are being
upgraded, dated teaching methods modernised and new curricula will be introduced to
trainee teachers. Introducing Vietnam’s training teachers to new teaching
methodologies and practices which encompass dynamic child-centred learning
opportunities will create a positive step in the modernising early childhood institutions
in Vietnam. At this level of education, however, there is resistance to the reform
processes. Teacher educators accustomed to long-established practices have not
conformed to curriculum changes and policies. These recommendations could be a
useful starting point for teacher educators in the country’s colleges and training
centres:
• Bring play to the forefront in teacher education curriculum. Become a
play advocate in communities and colleges.
• Upgrade teacher’s qualifications.
• Introduce more theory and practice subjects – ensuring a
comprehensive understanding of the role of play in young children’s
development and learning.
137
• Introduce observation studies – develop an understanding of how
children learn and how to create a responsive curriculum from
observations.
• Provide both cross-cultural and locally produced videos and
documentation about play in children’s lives.
Teachers
UNICEF (2000) recommends further promotion of “participatory and activity
based approach to teaching-learning issues to improve quality of education in
kindergartens” and to reduce resistance to change in Vietnam (pg.103). At present,
most teachers and early childhood professionals attend short in-service training, with
a small minority doing a full diploma level or degree level program (Pham 1999).
Teachers may do this by becoming engaged in children’s outdoor play as a co-
participant. Observations and insights may be used to build new topics for classroom
learning and enquiry. Observing children during play and providing analytical
feedback enables teachers to discover opportunities for children’s growth and
development and creates opportunities to build and develop learning experiences.
Outdoor play gives teachers the chance to make capital out of everyday experiences
and activities. Children’s play can be enriched and extended by utilising a decision
making process which involves observing, planning, enhancing and reflecting in order
to provide children with relevant and rich learning opportunities.
Teachers may further promote cultural learning and identity by providing
culturally relevant materials, valuing cultural events and holidays, sharing cultural
138
stories and beliefs, and teaching culturally valued skills, such as art, craft and cooking.
In Vietnam, current teaching practise entails transmitting cultural values and beliefs to
a child, yet current policy advocates a move to play-based approaches which moves
beyond transmission approaches. Play is culturally grounded and influences
development and cultural learning. Hyun (1998) believes that if teachers were able to
clearly identity “emerging cultures” found in children’s play, “it would allow early
childhood practitioners to interact with children in culturally relevant and congruent
modes” (pg. 21).
To overcome the constraints and challenges associated with implementing
play experiences, curriculum documents should include the following approaches and
strategies in implementing play in their classrooms.
• Communication and Social Interaction: The program should focus on adult-
child communication of problem solving, role playing, open-ended
questioning and encouraging can assist teachers to facilitate and extend young
children’s play.
• Position and roles of teachers: Demonstrating and suggesting that teachers can
take on many roles. Rather than being an observer, the teacher can take on the
role as stage manager, mediator, player, scribe, communicator and planner in
children’s play. Teachers can support and enrich play by setting the stage,
listening, perceiving and facilitating children’s imaginative play experiences.
Play creates an opportunity for children to express their feelings and ideas. A
wide variety of open ended materials and props should be available daily to
encourage children to explore and experiment.
139
• Classroom resources: MOET could prepare lists of inexpensive materials
teachers that can use for play. Locally produced videos and vignettes of
teachers who regularly use play might also be included in professional
development programs and in education resource libraries. Access to open
ended materials for use in play is seen as a central issue since “appropriate
resources support and extend children’s learning and development, as they
investigate their environment and solve problems through play” (Queensland
School Curriculum Council, 1998, pg. 26). Materials which that enable child-
initiated explorations and experiences are valuable (Cornelius, 2004). It is
universally acknowledged that resources should include consumable and
commercial items, natural and manufactured resources, as well as junk and
everyday items which experimentation and creativity in symbolic play.
Teachers may support valuable learning opportunities by allowing the
curriculum to evolve directly from the children’s play, by being aware of the
changing environment, and thoughtfully introducing a wide variety of
materials and resources and exposure to new learning experiences (Cornelius,
2004).
• Philosophy: Provide teachers and school administrators with workshops that
focus on promoting and explaining the importance of play.
• Environments: Provide a play-based environment that will support children’s
learning. The early childhood class can be seen as a “container” that
encourages social interaction, learning and exploration. The space is also
contains culturally appropriate educational “content” enveloped with messages
and “charged with stimuli toward interactive experience and constructivist
learning” (Gandini, 1993, pg 138).
140
• Timetable: Create quality time for play. Children should have at least 30
minutes or more in order for play to evolve (Stone, 1995). This may mean
doing away with traditional timetabling restrictions and limitations.
• Planning and Programming: Establish a curriculum decision making process
which encompasses a cycle of observing, planning, enacting and reflecting.
Implementing this cycle ensures curriculum decisions are based on
information gathered about children’s learning and development, giving
teachers the opportunity to plan developmentally appropriate learning
experiences. Reflecting on children’s play allows the teacher to identify
children’s learning and to describe children’s learning outcomes.
• Evaluation: Regularly evaluate early childhood programs to ensure that each
program is meeting the needs of stakeholders.
• Scholarly inquiry: Implementing a research process that engages researchers,
teachers, policy makers and others to gather diverse stories of children’s views
of further subjects, e.g. family, future, world affairs and other emergent ideas.
Research methodologies such as phenomenography, ethnography and action
research can be powerful tools in the research of young children’s experiences
and conceptions.
Conclusion
The large interpretative panel on display at the Vietnam Museum of Ethnology
in Hanoi provided a snapshot of children’s play in Vietnam (see Chapter Two, pg.
13). The positioning and content of the text panel promotes optimism and hope in the
place and value of play in Vietnamese community life. The text describes the
141
outdoors, the relationships, the Vietnamese culture, the materials and resources
children utilised and children’s imagination and dreams. In this study, identical
conceptions emerged through children’s drawings and stories, giving the researcher an
opportunity to deeper insights into young Vietnamese children’s play lives. Young
Vietnamese children’s conceptions of their own play are refreshing, invigorating and
wholesome. These welcome voices and views can be utilised to generate an emergent
curriculum and gives teachers and curriculum planners an opportunity to jointly
construct a curriculum which is dynamic and meaningful. The participatory process
enables children to have legitimate contact, genuine participation and engagement. A
collaborative and shared approach gives children opportunities to develop and extend
their capabilities and their learning to the fullest.
Continuing research and inquiry on children’s ideas needs to become standard
practice in early childhood education classrooms. A cycle of ongoing connections to
children’s ideas can provide an insight in to children’s interests, values and
conceptions, thus providing a genuine stimulus for an authentic child-centred
program.
This study presents and emphasises the need to acknowledge the rights of the
child to express themselves and have their voices heard, as addressed by Article 12
and 13 of the UN Convention of the rights of the child. Valuing and listening to
children enables a paradigm shift, which repositions the child from the recipient in
learning to being an agent of their own learning.
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APPENDICES
152
APPENDIX A
Kindergarten play program - Ministry of Education and Training
153
Kindergarten play program
Creative games Games with regulations
Suggested themes to play
Games for movement
Games to learn
Folk games
Games with assigned roles
A good driver Find a thing like this
Tug of war
Department store Are you sleeping wolf?
What is this? What is it made of?
Putting clout
Restaurant Passing on the ball Rearrange these things like before
“Do” game
Hospital Revolving wheel Transmit information
Hide-and –seek
Kindergarten Relay hopping Guess who has come
“Con” folk ball throwing
General school Compete to catch the ball
Look for your neighbour
Ups and downs
Building Games Compete to walk fast
Blindfold oneself to recognise another’s voice
Carry off the banner
Residential area (my village)
Throwing the ball into the air
Flower shop Moving in lines like a dragon and a snake
Hospital Who gets the highest mark?
Clock Hopping on one square to another
Soldier’s camp Who is quicker? Magic door Loading banners Uncle Ho’s Mausoleum
Exchange scarves A good breeder Maize and paddy banner
Flower garden Passing on an egg Find the correct house number
Playing badminton
Zoo Horse riding/horse racing
Find your closest friend
Jumping in and out
Games to role play Trapping a mouse Find your seat Piles of buds, piles of flowers
Little girl with red scarf
Go on counting Present a gift to your friend
Squares, seeds and boulders
Black bear and two rabbits
Relay race with a banner
Speech competition
Black goat
Adapted from: Ministry of Education and Training. (1997). Programme of education of children aged 5-6 at kindergarten, pg. 36-37. MOET: Hanoi.
154
APPENDIX B
Kindergarten art program - Ministry of Education and Training
155
Kindergarten art program
Stage Content in class time Kind of class Content outside class time
I Kneading round fruits of assorted varieties
Theme Kneading some fruit
Drawing flowers - Kneading some local fruit Kneading some long
fruits Theme Kneading a fish or prawn
Drawing a chicken Model Draw a rain scene Kneading a bag - Drawing and applying
colour to fruit Paste coloured circles - Drawing and applying
colour to tees Drawing flowers to
present to teachers on teachers day (Nov 20)
Theme Drawing some familiar houses
Paste paper slats Model Tear paper and paste them as you wish
Drawing and orchard Theme Kneading a known
animal -
Drawing a flock of roosters and hens
-
Kneading something you like
Wish
Drawing something you like
-
Kneading a doll in a dress
Model
Drawing a toy to give to a friend
Theme
Cutting paper slats Model Drawing something to
give to a soldier Theme
II Tear and paste a paper fish
Model
Try to fold paper into two and then four parts
Drawing spring flowers Theme
Try to tear indiscriminately, tear along a piece of paper and imagine it to be something, name it
Kneading a forest animal
Theme
Draw some portraits of your mother, little sister, friends – Apply colour
Stage Content in class time Kind of class Content outside class time
II Drawing rectangles for Model Draw a scene of a
156
decoration playground, street, village road, a general school or kindergarten
Teach and stick a school of fish
Theme
Draw ovals and circles for decoration
Model
Knead as you wish Wish Draw your house Theme Cut and paste big and
small rectangular shapes
Model
Draw a flower vase and a ball
-
Cut and paste big and small triangular shapes
-
Draw your teacher - Tear and paste flower
strings Theme
Draw your friend - Paste a picture of a bus Model Draw a member of your
family Theme
Paste some decorative patterns on paper
Model
Draw as you wish Wish Draw a teapot Model Cut pictures to make a
collage Theme
Draw an illustration of a story that you like
-
III Tear and paste an orchard
Theme Knead a person running, jumping or walking
Draw a scene of the sea - Paste as you wish Tear and paste some
boats on a sea scene -
Draw a scene of a mountain region
-
Knead a person Model Stage Content in class time Kind of class Content outside class
time Draw some means of
transport Theme
Cut and paste some toys for your friends
Model
Draw as you wish Wish Cut some flowers Theme Draw some flowers and Theme
157
leaves as decoration on paper
Knead as you wish Model Draw an illustration for
a fairy tale Theme
Draw as you wish Wish Thread and decorate
flowers Theme
Adapted from: Ministry of Education and Training. (1997). Programme of education of children aged 5-6 at kindergarten, pp. 37-40. MOET: Hanoi.
158
APPENDIX C
Associates for research team
159
Research team Dr Barbara Piscitelli – Principle researcher Suzan Vujanovic – Research Assistant
Associates for the research team Hanoi Institute of Psychology Block H 1 Kim Ma Thuong Street Cong Vi, Ba Dinh District
Le Van Hao Le Thi Khanh Phan Thi Mai Huong
MOET Research Centre for Early Childhood Education 4 Trinh Hoai Duc Hanoi
Dr Pham Thai Mai Chi
Ho Chi Minh City National Teachers Training College of Early Childhood Education – Number 3 182 Nguyen Chi Thanh District 10 HCMC
Cao Thi Thanh, International Relations Department Nguyen Thi Bac, Art teacher
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APPENDIX D
Schedule of meetings and activities – Vietnam 2000-2001
161
Schedule of meetings and activities – Vietnam 2000-2001
2000
12th December Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) - meeting
13th December Morning Star Kindergarten, Hanoi International School
14th December Viet Bun Kindergarten, data collection
MOET - seminar
15th December Dong Da Kindergarten - data collection
18th December Institute of Psychology - meeting
19th December Institute of Psychology - seminar
20th December UNICEF and UNDP Library research and meetings
21st December Ba Ding Kindergarten - data collection
22nd December Australian Embassy, Paul Davies - meeting
23rd December Hanoi Cultural Palace - data collection
24th December Hanoi Cultural Palace - data collection and meetings
2001
2 January National Teacher Training College for Early Childhood
Education, # 3 - meeting
3rd January Lan Anh Kindergarten - data collection
5th January Experimantal Kindergarten - data collection
Ho Chi Minh City Art Gallery -children’s exhibition
7th January Ho Chi Minh City Children’s Cultural House - data
collection
8th January Bong Sen 2 Kindergarten, Cu Chi - data collection
9th January Minh Dang Kindergarten, Vung Tau - data collection
11th January National Teacher Training College for Early Childhood Education, #3
- Seminar and discussion
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APPENDIX E
Lesson Plan
163
Introduction
Today we are here to talk to you about something you are all experts about. We are
going to talk to you about play. Now I would like you to think what you like to do
when you play. Do you like to play?
Children are invited to share their answers.
We are now going to pass around some pictures that other Vietnamese children have
drawn and shown us what they like to do when they play. (A collection of pictures
from the Our World collection (Piscitelli, 1993) that depict children’s play lives).
Children are given time to examine the pictures and discuss the pictures with other
children.
I want you to put your hand up and tell me what you see in you picture.
Children discuss their ideas with the group on what they see in the pictures.
Pictures are handed back.
Now I want you to close you eyes and imagine yourself playing.
Are you playing:
Inside or outside?
At home/at school/on the street?
With your friends/alone?
With your parents, brothers and sisters?
With animals/ with your toys/with nature?
What do you like to do when you play?
Now that you have this image in your head, I would like you to stand up and sit at
your desks and draw this picture that you have in your head.
Children given opportunity to draw and discuss their stories with researchers during
this exercise or on completion.
164
APPENDIX F
Data sets
165
Appendix F - Data Sets Contains 48 pages of children’s drawings not available online. Please consult the hardcopy thesis available from the QUT Library.
APPENDIX G
Comparison” stage – coding the data
214
Ba Dinh Kindergarten, Hanoi 20/12/00
Barbara Piscitelli Suzan Vujanovic
Le Van Hao Le Thi Khanh
Phan Thi Mai Huong Picture code
Sex Age Stories Name Stories Images
BD 1 M 5 Running around; play like dragon; many friends in the garden
Viet Trung
BD 2 F 5 See-saw in the garden with my friend Thuy Duong
BD 3 M 5 Play indoors at home Thai Son
BD 4 M 5 Play outside in the grass Le Hiep
BD 5 F 5 Play alone outdoors with flowers Pham Nguyet Nga
BD 6 M 5.5 Tank and soldiers at Military Museum
Duc Anh
.BD 7
M 5.5 One cat, two trees at home Quang Minh
BD 8 M 5 Trucks and tanks at home Hai Long
BD 9 F 5 School, friends and sliding board Trong Khoi
BD 10 M 5 House; I play in the garden, run around tree and play with flowers
Quynh Nga
BD 11 F 5 Exercise in the front garden Tran Giang Huong
BD 12 F 5 Play alone at home skipping rope Ngan Giang
BD 13 F 5 Play alone at home with the cat Truc Quyen
BD 14 M 5 Four friends in the flower garden Hui Hai
BD 15 M 5 Exercise at school with friends in the playground while the supervisor watches
Tuan Anh
BD 16 F 5 Playing with my friend in the school playground
Vo Thuy Trang
BD 17 F 5 Playing in school with the merry go round and see-saw
Minh Hang
Legend Alone Organised games Friends School Family Park Pets/animals Flowers/nature Outdoors Cultural festivals Indoors Learnt drawing Equipment Toys Imagination Home
215
APPENDIX H
Statement of consent
216
Appendix H – Statement of consent
Contains 10 pages of letters of consent not available online. Please consult the hardcopy thesis available from the QUT Library.
APPENDIX I
Ethical Clearance
228
Appendix I – Ethical Clearance Contains a 1 page memorandum not available online. Please consult the hardcopy thesis available from the QUT Library.