Public Financial Management and Corruption

Public Financial Public Financial Management and Management and

CorruptionCorruption

Bill DorotinskyBill Dorotinsky

Shilpa PradhanShilpa Pradhan

May 2, 2006

22

OutlineOutline

IntroductionIntroduction Definitions and ScopeDefinitions and Scope Patterns of Corruption and PFM Patterns of Corruption and PFM

SystemsSystems Measuring CorruptionMeasuring Corruption Entry Points and Mitigating MeasuresEntry Points and Mitigating Measures

33

Rome 70 BCERome 70 BCE

“[His] conduct of his naval affairs was not to defend the province at all. No, it was to extract personal financial profit out of what was meant to be expended on the fleet.”

“The power of your position…..was enormous…….Yet it never….crossed your mind that these assets had not been placed in your hands … just to make it possible for you to treat any and every man’s possessions as your own personal loot….” *

Conscripted sailors could buy out their service requirements, and the Governor simultaneously pocketed the pay and sustenance allowance for the sailor.

From Governor’s trial on corruption charges

Example of:

Theft of public funds, bribery, abuse of office

* Cicero, ‘Against Verres’

44

IntroductionIntroduction

Governments throughout history Governments throughout history have had a public financial have had a public financial management (PFM) systemmanagement (PFM) system

And corruption has always been a And corruption has always been a concernconcern

The development of PFM systems The development of PFM systems over time have been largely due to over time have been largely due to concerns over waste, fraud, and concerns over waste, fraud, and abuseabuse

55

DefinitionsDefinitions

Diversion of public resources Diversion of public resources for private (personal or other for private (personal or other non-public) gain, or abuse of non-public) gain, or abuse of public authority and position public authority and position for private gainfor private gain

Corruption is not necessarilyCorruption is not necessarilyPolitical leveragingPolitical leveragingLeaky BucketLeaky BucketDiversion of public resources from Diversion of public resources from intended to another public purposeintended to another public purpose

All phases of public resource All phases of public resource acquisition, safeguarding and acquisition, safeguarding and useuse

• revenue collection and revenue collection and administration (tax, customs, and administration (tax, customs, and non-tax revenue)non-tax revenue)

• cash management and bankingcash management and banking• debt issuance and managementdebt issuance and management• asset management (physical and asset management (physical and

financial)financial)• budget preparationbudget preparation• budget executionbudget execution• accounting and reportingaccounting and reporting• internal control and auditinternal control and audit• procurementprocurement• external audit and legislative external audit and legislative

oversight. oversight.

CorruptionPublic financial management (PFM)

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Basic PFM FunctionsBasic PFM FunctionsResource Acquisition

Resource Safeguarding

Resource Application

• taxes (cash, in-kind)• non-tax revenue (fees, asset sales)• debt (bonds, loans)• labor• land

• Treasury• National Bank• Warehouse• Holding site (e.g. grainery)• Investments

• Personnel• Goods and Services• Capital• Debt Repayment• Direct Transfers

• Tax Collection• Customs• Debt Management• Draft Office, Ministry Requisition Office

• Skimming Receipts• Under Collection• Write-offs of receivables• Lending• Abetting draft dodging• Staff for personal use• Under pricing assets

• Theft• Lending• Skimming interest• Favoritism in fund placement• Unrecorded interest or delayed transfer of resources to Treasury

• Theft of assets• Contract steering• Fraudulent invoices• Ghost workers• Kick-backs• Ghost beneficiaries• Substandard goods• Over pricing goods, services

Function

Issues

Corruption

Agents

• Treasury, MoF• General Services• Spending Ministries• National Bank• Land management agency

• Treasury, MoF• General Services• Spending Ministries• Civil Service Admin• Public Works Admin• Procurement Office

+

+

+

+

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Resource Safeguarding

Resource Application

• Treasury• National Bank• Warehouse• Holding site (e.g. grainery)• Investments

• Personnel• Goods and Services• Capital• Debt Repayment• Direct Transfers

• Theft• Lending• Skimming interest• Favoritism in fund placement• Unrecorded interest or delayed transfer of resources to Treasury

• Theft of assets• Contract steering• Fraudulent invoices• Ghost workers• Kick-backs• Ghost beneficiaries• Substandard goods• Over pricing goods, services

• Treasury• General Services• Spending Ministries• National Bank• Land management agency

• Treasury• General Services• Spending Ministries• Civil Service Admin• Public Works Admin• Procurement Office

Oversight and Accountability

Function

Issues

Corruption

Agents

• Internal Control, Management Control• Internal Audit• External Audit• Accounting, Reporting• Planning

• Bribery• Favoritism

• Treasury• Min Finance• Min Planning• Internal Auditor• External Auditor• Legislature• Pres./PM-Cabinet• Procurement Office

Basic PFM Functions (2)Basic PFM Functions (2)

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Basic PFM CycleBasic PFM Cycle

Budget Execution

Accounting and Reporting

Budget Formulation

External Audit and Oversight

-review of prior year spending-setting policies and objectives for new year-planning future spending-drafting budget document

-implementation of budget-managing resources-changing budget or managing PFM crises-collecting revenues, making payments

In-year reporting; year-end reporting; accounting and recording

External audit; legislative review; civil society

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There are many weeds in the There are many weeds in the untended gardenuntended garden

PFM system nature and quality will PFM system nature and quality will largely determine the ease with which largely determine the ease with which public corruption can occurpublic corruption can occur • and also the risk and personal cost of and also the risk and personal cost of

detection. detection. PFM system conditions enable PFM system conditions enable

corruption to flourishcorruption to flourish PFM systems where corruption can PFM systems where corruption can

flourish are characterized by high flourish are characterized by high informality and the absence of an informality and the absence of an ethos of professionalism in the public ethos of professionalism in the public finance cadrefinance cadre

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Better PFM systems have lower Better PFM systems have lower perceived corruptionperceived corruption

Corruption and Capacity

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Capacity - CPIA - Quality of Budget and Financial Management

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edo

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(T

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1111

PFM Characteristics Enabling CorruptionPFM Characteristics Enabling Corruption absence of rules and procedures for routine or annual processesabsence of rules and procedures for routine or annual processes

(e.g. budget formulation, execution), or (e.g. budget formulation, execution), or general disregard for rules and general disregard for rules and proceduresprocedures where they exist where they exist

absence of records, record-keepingabsence of records, record-keeping, for key transactions, or , for key transactions, or inability to inability to access the information in a timely wayaccess the information in a timely way for management control or audit for management control or audit

highly inaccurate, untimely, non-user friendly reporting, recordinghighly inaccurate, untimely, non-user friendly reporting, recording, , or or absence of procedures for testing accuracyabsence of procedures for testing accuracy

absence of controls on spending, goods, stores and equipmentabsence of controls on spending, goods, stores and equipment, or , or absence segmentation of key duties/roles in expenditure chainabsence segmentation of key duties/roles in expenditure chain (the (the latter increases the opportunity for latter increases the opportunity for individualsindividuals to engage in theft or corrupt to engage in theft or corrupt practices, while segmentation requires collusion and raises risk of detection practices, while segmentation requires collusion and raises risk of detection and prevention)and prevention)

excessively complex or rigid proceduresexcessively complex or rigid procedures that impede routine program that impede routine program operations and create incentives for special spending procedures or breaking operations and create incentives for special spending procedures or breaking rulesrules

absence of sound, time-bound, explicit plans for using fundsabsence of sound, time-bound, explicit plans for using funds (budgets, necessary for management control and accountability)(budgets, necessary for management control and accountability)

excess fragmentation of funds, procedures for accounting, reportingexcess fragmentation of funds, procedures for accounting, reporting (making information consolidation, reporting and management control (making information consolidation, reporting and management control difficult)difficult)

absence of staff or qualified public finance staffabsence of staff or qualified public finance staff, or adequate training, , or adequate training, no standardization of PFM positions across government (no cadre of PFM staff no standardization of PFM positions across government (no cadre of PFM staff or professional ethos, inadequately compensated staff)or professional ethos, inadequately compensated staff)

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PFM System Principles Countering PFM System Principles Countering CorruptionCorruption

ComprehensivenessComprehensiveness • - include all revenue and expenditure, all agencies, in common - include all revenue and expenditure, all agencies, in common

treasury, reporting, budgeting systemstreasury, reporting, budgeting systems AccuracyAccuracy

• record actual transactions and flows, report accuratelyrecord actual transactions and flows, report accurately AnnualityAnnuality

• funding allocations, budgets, and reports should cover a funding allocations, budgets, and reports should cover a defined (stated) period of time (e.g. one year budget, multi-defined (stated) period of time (e.g. one year budget, multi-year forecasts) (with explicit accounting standards)year forecasts) (with explicit accounting standards)

AuthoritativenessAuthoritativeness • only spend as authorized by law (budget and finance laws, only spend as authorized by law (budget and finance laws,

statutes authorizing ministries and programs), and according statutes authorizing ministries and programs), and according to established proceduresto established procedures

TransparencyTransparency • information on spending is public, timely, understandable; information on spending is public, timely, understandable;

rules are explicit, and publicly availablerules are explicit, and publicly available

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Measuring Corruption PotentialMeasuring Corruption Potential

Directly measuring corruption is not Directly measuring corruption is not feasiblefeasible

no direct measures of bribery, asset theft, contract no direct measures of bribery, asset theft, contract steering, cash theft, etc. steering, cash theft, etc.

External audit capture only some corrupt practicesExternal audit capture only some corrupt practices PFM system quality can be measured and PFM system quality can be measured and

monitored monitored There is now an internationally-accepted set of There is now an internationally-accepted set of

actionable PFM performance indicators (PEFA)actionable PFM performance indicators (PEFA) See www.pefa.orgSee www.pefa.org

PFM system quality assessment PFM system quality assessment measures corruption measures corruption potentialpotential

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PFM PEFA IndicatorsPFM PEFA Indicators

Budget Execution


Budget Formulation


1. Aggregate expenditure out-turn2. Composition of expenditure out-turn3. Aggregate revenue out-turn

4. payment arrears

5. Classification of the budget

11. Orderliness in annual budget process

12. Multi-year perspective

13. Transparency of taxpayer obligations and liabilities

14. Effectiveness of taxpayer registration and assessment

15. Effectiveness of tax collection16. Predictability of funds for commitment17. Recording/management of cash, debt

and guarantees18. Effectiveness of payroll controls

19. Competition, value for money and controls in procurement

20. Effectiveness of internal controls21. Effectiveness of internal audit

22. Accounts reconciliation

23. Resources received by service delivery units

24. Quality and timeliness of in-year budget reports

25. Quality and timeliness of annual financial statements

26. External audit

27. Legislative scrutiny of budget

28. Legislative scrutiny of external audit reports

6. Comprehensiveness of information7. unreported government operations8. Transparency of inter-governmental fiscal relations9. Oversight of aggregate fiscal risk10. Public access to key fiscal information

Cross-cutting Indicators

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Over-all PFM System FeaturesOver-all PFM System FeaturesBudget

Execution


Budget Formulation


PFM Indicators and Corruption

IndicatorIndicator Corruption RelevanceCorruption Relevance

PI-5PI-5 Classification Classification of the budgetof the budget

Enabling factor through transparency of Enabling factor through transparency of government spending. A good budget government spending. A good budget classification enables good information on classification enables good information on government activities for costing and budgeting, government activities for costing and budgeting, for planning, for monitoring and control of for planning, for monitoring and control of spending, and for auditing and accountability. spending, and for auditing and accountability.

PI-6PI-6 ComprehensiComprehensiveness of veness of information information included in included in budget budget documentatidocumentationon

The more information included in budget The more information included in budget documents (greater transparency), the greater documents (greater transparency), the greater the ability of stakeholders to evaluate budget the ability of stakeholders to evaluate budget credibility, policies and intentions, and hold credibility, policies and intentions, and hold Government to account ex poste. Government to account ex poste.

PI-7PI-7 Extent of Extent of unreported unreported government government operationsoperations

A highly relevant issue for enabling corruption is A highly relevant issue for enabling corruption is the absence of reports on spending for some the absence of reports on spending for some types of operations, frequently a characteristic of types of operations, frequently a characteristic of extrabudgetary funds, state-owned enterprises, extrabudgetary funds, state-owned enterprises, and autonomous agencies. Related to this is the and autonomous agencies. Related to this is the use of different accounting and auditing systems use of different accounting and auditing systems that make consolidation of accounts difficult, and that make consolidation of accounts difficult, and opens reporting to errors. opens reporting to errors.

Honduras: 14 % of spending was recorded ex ante and ex poste as

‘assignaciones globales’

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Budget Execution - ExpenditureBudget Execution - Expenditure

Budget Execution


Budget Formulation


PFM Indicators and Corruption

IndicatorIndicator Corruption RelevanceCorruption Relevance

PI-PI-1616

Predictability Predictability in the in the availability of availability of funds for funds for commitment commitment of of expendituresexpenditures

Predictable flow of funds to spending units is critical for plan Predictable flow of funds to spending units is critical for plan fulfillment and accountability, and unpredictable funds flow leads fulfillment and accountability, and unpredictable funds flow leads to arrears and opportunities for discretionary decision-making and to arrears and opportunities for discretionary decision-making and corruption in payment of government liabilities. Cash flows should corruption in payment of government liabilities. Cash flows should be forecasted and monitored, and variations from predictions be forecasted and monitored, and variations from predictions understood. Information needs to flow regularly to spending units understood. Information needs to flow regularly to spending units on fund availability for program operations and fulfillment of plans. on fund availability for program operations and fulfillment of plans.

PI-PI-1717

Recording Recording and and managememanagement of cash nt of cash balances, balances, debt and debt and guaranteesguarantees

Absent records of debt incurred, there is no way of monitoring Absent records of debt incurred, there is no way of monitoring total debt and any irregular debt issued outside formal procedures, total debt and any irregular debt issued outside formal procedures, or debt improperly contracted or contracted at excessive rates. A or debt improperly contracted or contracted at excessive rates. A formal system, with authorized officials, for contracting debt and formal system, with authorized officials, for contracting debt and issuance of guarantees is critical for accountability and minimizing issuance of guarantees is critical for accountability and minimizing opportunities for corruption or favoritism. Consolidation of cash opportunities for corruption or favoritism. Consolidation of cash balances is important for efficient cash management, and also balances is important for efficient cash management, and also safeguarding cash from improper transfer, theft, or lending. A safeguarding cash from improper transfer, theft, or lending. A single treasury account simplifies recording of payments and single treasury account simplifies recording of payments and monitoring for irregularities, enabling better management control monitoring for irregularities, enabling better management control and accountability.and accountability.

PI-PI-1818

EffectiveneEffectiveness of ss of payroll payroll controlscontrols

Absent payroll controls, funds can easily flow to fictitious Absent payroll controls, funds can easily flow to fictitious employees, and nepotism and favoritism can be rampant. employees, and nepotism and favoritism can be rampant. Important elements include the degree of integration and Important elements include the degree of integration and reconciliation between personnel and payroll records to detect reconciliation between personnel and payroll records to detect anomalies, timeliness of changes to personnel records and payroll anomalies, timeliness of changes to personnel records and payroll records, effective internal controls in personnel and payroll record records, effective internal controls in personnel and payroll record management, and payroll audits to identify control weaknesses management, and payroll audits to identify control weaknesses and ghost workers.and ghost workers.

Loan guarantees were non-transparent in

Macedonia, issued by the Minster of Finance. Macedonia changed its budget law, requiring all

guarantees to be approved by Cabinet

and Parliament. Requests for guarantees

stopped.

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A Framework for assessing A Framework for assessing reform strategiesreform strategies

Country Capacity and Government Willingness

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Government Willingness (CPIA)

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Ca

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)

Outliers

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Key ChallengesKey Challenges

Type of Type of StatesStates

Key ChallengesKey Challenges

Fragile StatesFragile States

(Guinea-Bissau, (Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Equatorial Haiti, Equatorial Guinea)Guinea)

Low political leadership and managerial commitment Low political leadership and managerial commitment to anti-corruption reformsto anti-corruption reforms

Absence of rules and regulations (authoritativeness) Absence of rules and regulations (authoritativeness) governing the budget processgoverning the budget process

Poor quality fiscal informationPoor quality fiscal information Civil Society is not engaged in the budget processCivil Society is not engaged in the budget process Absence of internal and external oversightAbsence of internal and external oversight

Reforming Reforming StatesStates

(Ghana, (Ghana, Armenia)Armenia)

Improving the accuracy of fiscal information Improving the accuracy of fiscal information Disregard for rules governing the budget processDisregard for rules governing the budget process Limited transparency of budgetary information Limited transparency of budgetary information Ineffective internal and external audits Ineffective internal and external audits Sustaining political commitment to reformSustaining political commitment to reform

Capable StatesCapable States

(Brazil, South (Brazil, South Africa)Africa)

Increase performance orientation in public spending, Increase performance orientation in public spending, increase coordination and integration between increase coordination and integration between central institutions central institutions

Strengthening transparency, external audit and Strengthening transparency, external audit and external scrutiny of public spendingexternal scrutiny of public spending

Strengthening accountability and enforcementStrengthening accountability and enforcement

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High Level Focus & Sequencing of High Level Focus & Sequencing of InterventionsInterventions

Fragile States Build internal demand for informationDevelop basic PFM systems

Reforming States

Refine basic PFM systemsProgressively introduce complex PFM System reforms Strengthen commitment for AC reforms

Capable States

Implement complex PFM systems reforms with a performance orientationStrengthen transparency, accountability and enforcementSustain commitment for reforms

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Budget Execution


Budget Formulation


Fragile StatesFragile StatesAssessing Detail InterventionsAssessing Detail Interventions

Key Issues that increase the risk of corruption in budget formulation:

Adhoc budget formulation and delays in budget formulation,

Limited or no involvement of key actors in budget formulation

Incomplete budget classification, budget classification system does not facilitate a direct link between programs and executing agencies and does not conform to international standards

Budget not comprehensive and budget documents are incomplete

Suggested mitigating measures:

Increase internal demand for information

Strengthen the ability of the PFM system to capture the budget information

Authoritativeness: Review the legislative framework for budget formulation to establish a timetable, with clear mandates for key actors (Political leadership commitment is key)

Comprehensiveness:

Annual budget document to include all sources of revenues, expenditures

Strengthen budget classification: economic, administrative and functional

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Fragile StatesFragile StatesAssessing Detail InterventionsAssessing Detail Interventions

Budget Execution

Budget Formulation


Accounting & Reporting

Key Issues that increase the risk of corruption:Irregular reconciliation of Bank accounts with government accounting data, existence of multiple accounts or the Single Treasury Account is not respected

Accounting books remain open for a long time after year end

Fiscal reports not being produced in a timely manner, are inconsistent and incomplete

Key Issues that increase the risk of corruption:External audits weak, non-existent or politically captured

Key Issues that increase the risk of corruption:Cash management on a day to day basis

Absence of clear rules and controls during budget execution

Absence of payroll control

Absence of internal audits

Authoritativeness in budget execution

Establish budget execution procedures

Regular reconciliation of Governmentaccounts with bank data

Regularity, timeliness of reportsEstablish external audit

capacity

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Reforming States:Reforming States:Assessing Detail InterventionsAssessing Detail Interventions

Budget formulationBudget formulation Budget regaining its role as a primary resource Budget regaining its role as a primary resource

allocation mechanism, budget increasingly allocation mechanism, budget increasingly realistic with actual expenditures closer to realistic with actual expenditures closer to budgeted …… but budget still not a policy budgeted …… but budget still not a policy instrumentinstrument

Comprehensiveness of the annual budget Comprehensiveness of the annual budget document increasing document increasing

Extent of unreported government operations is Extent of unreported government operations is still high still high

Budget classification may not be along Budget classification may not be along recommended economic, administrative and recommended economic, administrative and functional (including sub-functional lines) functional (including sub-functional lines)

Public Access to key budget information is limitedPublic Access to key budget information is limited

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Budget Execution


Budget Formulation


Key Issues increasing the risk of corruption in budget execution:Weak cash planning and management (planning not based on realistic budgetary requirements of line ministries, no systematic review of cash forecasts) affecting predictability of funds for commitmentWeak internal controls during budget execution (controls on commitments may be poor or disregarded, weak controls on payments) Weak quality of internal audits not conforming to international standards

Weak coordination between key actors during execution


Recording and management of cash balances, debt and guarantees

Strengthen internal controls that manage risks, are comprehensive and are widely disseminated and understood

Strengthen internal audit process

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Budget Execution


Budget Formulation


Key issues increasing the risk of corruption (Accounting and Reporting):Accounting procedures are not uniformly observed during record keepingWeak internal accountability for not conforming with accounting proceduresReconciliation is not regular and comprehensiveInaccurate and inconsistent in-year budget reportsInaccurate and inconsistent annual statement


Streamline, disseminate and train staff on accounting principles

Incremental implementation of FMIS

Regularity in reconciliation of Bank accounts with government accounting books

Regularity and reconciliation of suspense accounts and advances

Consolidated annual statements are prepared which include full information on revenues, expenditures and financial assets and liabilities

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Capable States:Capable States:Assessing Detail InterventionsAssessing Detail Interventions

Budget FormulationBudget Formulation Generally high capacity of PFM systems and reliable tracking of Generally high capacity of PFM systems and reliable tracking of

public expenditures, well established and respected legal public expenditures, well established and respected legal framework for the budget process, budget fairly framework for the budget process, budget fairly comprehensive, integrated budgetingcomprehensive, integrated budgeting

Budget ExecutionBudget Execution Fairly high adherence to well-developed Internal controls, good Fairly high adherence to well-developed Internal controls, good

cash planning and management, internal audits functioning but cash planning and management, internal audits functioning but may be limited to financial and compliance audits.may be limited to financial and compliance audits.

Accounting and ReportingAccounting and Reporting Accounting standards adhere to established standards, timely Accounting standards adhere to established standards, timely

accounts reconciliation, regular and accurate fiscal reports accounts reconciliation, regular and accurate fiscal reports produced and made available to all key internal actors, and produced and made available to all key internal actors, and may be available to civil societymay be available to civil society

There is room for improvement in the basic PFM There is room for improvement in the basic PFM systems and processes…..systems and processes…..

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Capable States:Capable States:Assessing Detail InterventionsAssessing Detail Interventions

Budget Execution


Budget Formulation


Key issues increasing the risk of corruption (External Audit, Oversight and Accountability):

External audit institutions are not independent and do not have clear mandate

Scope and coverage of external audit is limited

Audit reports not submitted to the parliament

Ineffective follow up of audit recommendations

Civil society engagement in budget formulation but not in audits


Authoritativeness: Legislative mandates for independent external audit institutions with clear mandates, coverage and scope

Develop clear and timely follow up procedures

Timely submission of audit reports to the parliament

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Back to the Basics…..Back to the Basics…..

Mitigating the risk of corruption in public expenditures, is as Mitigating the risk of corruption in public expenditures, is as much about strengthening technical capacity of PEM much about strengthening technical capacity of PEM systems as about changing institutions, both formal and systems as about changing institutions, both formal and informal, within which the system operates. informal, within which the system operates.

Improvements to PEMImprovements to PEM system performance occur in incremental system performance occur in incremental steps with the fundamental elements of expenditure management steps with the fundamental elements of expenditure management strengthened before more complex reforms can be undertakenstrengthened before more complex reforms can be undertaken

Sustaining reforms requires (i) commitment from stakeholders in Sustaining reforms requires (i) commitment from stakeholders in the budgetary process, in particular the implementers of the the budgetary process, in particular the implementers of the budget, and (ii) capacity of key budgetary departments. budget, and (ii) capacity of key budgetary departments.

Reforming the PFM systems can be a large and complex Reforming the PFM systems can be a large and complex undertaking which requires strengthening the interlinkages undertaking which requires strengthening the interlinkages between the different elements of the system and the principles between the different elements of the system and the principles underlying the PEM systems. underlying the PEM systems.

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