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You guys are going to do great.

Final Review 2015

+Testing Macromolecules

Macromolecule Indicator Color Change

Simple

Sugars(Carbohydrates)

Benedicts Solution Blue to Brick Red in

presence of heat

Complex Carbohydrates

(Starch)

Iodine Yellow-Orange to Blue

Black

Lipids Paper Bag test Opaque to Translucent

Lipids Sudan III Red to Globby Red

Lipids Sudan IV Clear to Red

Protein Biuret’s Reagent Blue to Lavender or

Purple

+

Pro

tein

Com

ple

x

Sugar

Sim

ple

Sugar

Brown Paper

Sudan III

Sudan IV

+Cell Cycle

Period of growth and division for the

cell.

Interphase

G1-Cell Growth

S- DNA replication

G2- Preparation for Mitosis

Mitosis

Prophase-Chromatin Condenses,

nuclear envelope dissolves

Metaphase-Chromosomes line up

on equator of cell.

Anaphas e-Sister Chromatids

separate to opposite poles

Telophase-Chromatids start to

unwind, nuclear envelope reforms

Cytokinesis

Cytoplasm is split.

In animal cells forms

cleavage furrow

In plant cells forms cell plate

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+

+Which Phase?

+Protein Synthesis

Transcription

DNA – RNA

DNA code is put into RNA language (AUCG) in

form of Messenger RNA

RNA is single stranded leaving bases

open for it to be read.

Happens in the nucleus

Translation RNA - Protein

mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes into

cytoplasm.

Pairs up with Ribosome.

Ribosome starts reading the mRNA and

signals for the appropriate tRNA

molecules with amino acids for each three

letter sequence called a codon.

Amino acids are joined together by

peptide bonds and once stop codon is found,

protein will be released.

+Transcription

+Translation

+Transcription

To figure out the sequence of

Amino Acids, read the RNA

in sets of three.

AUG GAG AUA CAG UAA

MET-GLU-ISO-GLU-STOP

+DNA Replication

+DNA Replication

Making an exact copy of the DNA

Happens during the S-phase of the cell cycle.

Get two strands from 1

Unzip with helicase

Add bases with DNA Polymerase

+

+Evolution

The process of Change over time.

Process of Natural Selection-in which environmental pressures have

impacts on organisms and bring about change in the population.

Main theories supported by evidence gathered in

Fossil Record

Anatomical Similarities

DNA Similarities

Embryological Similarities

Geographic Distribution

+Types of Evolution

Divergent

Common

ancestor that

gives rise to

multiple new

species over

time.

+Types of Evolution

Convergent Evolution

Organisms Developed

the same characteristics

for similar

environmental

pressures, but not the

result of a common

ancestor.

+Types of Evolution

Coevolution

Species evolve together in response to changes.

Insects and flowers

Predator and Prey

+Ecology

Study of the relationships between organisms and their environment

(both biotic and abiotic)

All energy ultimately comes from the sun.

Top level consumers get the least amount of energy from their food than

any other group due to how energy is used and transferred within the

system.

10% rule. Only 10% of the available energy is available for use by the

organisms in the level above

+Ecology

Succession-observed process of change in the species structure of an

ecological community over time.

Primary-The first time organisms are growing and changing in the

environment. Starts with bare rock to which pioneer species attach,

grow, die and reproduce. These organisms create the original soil to

which other plants can attach. Over time, bigger plants, insects and

mammals will begin to appear in the area

+Ecology

Secondary Succession

Caused by Natural Disaster-established community wiped out and then must

restart the process.

Volcano

Earthquake

Fire

Land Slide

+Enzymes

Enzymes are special kinds of proteins that help reactions get

started by lowering the activation energy necessary for the

reaction to take place.

Typically will end in the suffix –ase (Catalase, Helicase)

Substrate Specific

Reusable

+Enzymes

+DNA and RNA

DNA

Double Stranded

Found in Nucleus

Deoxyribose sugar

ATCG

Holds Genetic Code

RNA

Single Stranded

Found in Cytoplasm

Ribose Sugar

AUCG

Produces protein

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Pedigrees

Choosing Patterns of Inheritance

+Autosomal Dominant

Males and Females are equally likely to have the trait.

Traits do not skip generations (generally)

The trait is present whenever the corresponding gene is

present.

There is male to male transmission

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+Autosomal Recessive

Males and Females are equally likely to have the trait.

Traits often skip generations

Often, both parents of offspring who have the trait, are

heterozygous.

Only homozygous individuals have the trait.

Traits may appear in siblings without appearing in their parents.

If a parent has the trait, those offspring who do not have it are

heterozygous carriers of the trait.

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+X-Linked Dominant

All daughters of a male who has the trait will also have the trait.

There is no male to male transmission

A female who has the trait may or may not pass the gene for

that trait to her son or daughter.

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+X-Linked Recessive

The trait is far more common in males than in females.

All daughters of a male who has the trait are heterozygous carriers.

The son of a female carrier has a 50% chance of having the trait.

There is no male to male transmission.

Mothers of males who have the trait are either heterozygous carriers or homozygous and express the trait.

Daughters of female carriers have a 50% chance of being carriers.

+

+MEIOSIS VS. MITOSIS

During Prophase I, homologous chromosomes pair up and form a tetrad

During metaphase I, the tetrads align at the metaphase plate

During anaphase I, the homologous chromosomes separate

4 daughter cells are formed at the end.

End cells are haploid

End cells are genetically unique from each other and the parent cell.

Sexual reproduction

Divides twice

In humans have 23 chromosomes.

During prophase, chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope disappears

During metaphase, single chromosomes align on the metaphase plate

During anaphase, the sister chromatids separate

2 daughter cells are formed at the end.

End cells are diploid

End cells are genetically identical to the parent cell.

Creates all the cells in your body except your sex cells.

Asexual reproduction

Divides once

In humans have 46 chromosomes

MEIOSIS MITOSIS

+Karyotypes-pictures of

chromosomes

+Abnormal Karyotype

+Genetics Vocabulary

Genotype-letters for the alleles in your genetic code.

Phenotype-the physical expression of the genotype

Homozygous-have two identical alleles for trait

Heterozygous-have two different alleles for trait

Dominant-Trait that masks other traits when present.

Recessive-Trait that is masked when dominant trait is present.

Requires two alleles to be expressed.

+Punnett Squares

When reading a genetics problem, make

a Genotype, Phenotype chart.

Then draw the box, put the gametes on

the edges, bring letters down and over

and solve.

Genotype Phenotype

R Red

r White

+Types of Inheritance

Incomplete Dominance-Heterozygous Phenotype is a blending of the two phenotypes (red and white make Pink)

Codominance-Heterozygous phenotype shows both phenotypes

Sex-Linked-Traits that are found on the sex chromosomes.

Multiple Alleles-Two dominant alleles and one recessive. (Blood type)

Dihybrid Traits-Traits that are linked and probability of both events happening is calculated using the 16 square punnettsquare.

+Incomplete Dominance

+Codominance

+Sex-linked

+Multiple alleles

+Dihybrid Cross

+Ratios

Phenotypic Ratio: Number of each type of expression you

have.

Monohybrid Ratio for two heterozygous individuals- 3:1

For double heterozygous 9:3:3:1

Genotypic Ratio-Number of each genotype combination

Monohybrid Ratio for two heterozygous individuals- 1:2:1