Indigenous Peoples of Canada

A Brief History before European Contact© Ruth Writer 2015

Western Michigan University

https://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1307460755710/1307460872523

Indigenous Peoples of CanadaThere are 3 separate federally-recognized indigenous groups:1. First Nations (Native American/Amerindian – US term “Indian” considered pejorative with use reserved for historic reference.

• Most heterogeneous• South of tree line

• Inuit• Most homogeneous• Arctic

• Métis• Most recent• Union of Euro fur traders and Natives * This group does not receive attention here because they were not a recognized group before European contact.

Geography Determined Lifestyles

• First Nations Arrived in Canada approximately 15,000 years ago• Beringia—Bering Strait Theory• Other theories abound• Hopewell Culture

• Knew ecosystems well and exploited them • Hunters and Gatherers• Sparsely populated—500,000 to 2 million• Most dense on Northwest Coast and in Iroquois Nation • Sparest in Arctic

• Diversity of culture• Diversity of language• Egalitarian societies with consensus the rule

http://drarchaeology.com/map/beringamigration.jpg; http://www.terradaily.com/reports/Humans_Inhabited_New_World_Doorstep_For_20000_Years_999.html

Major Categories before European Contact1. First Nations (Native American/Amerindian)• Newfoundland Beothuk (separate people)• Northeastern Woodland • Algonquin First • Iroquois

• Plains• Plateau• Pacific [Northwest] Coastal• Subarctic

2. Inuit • Arctic locations

Native American Cultures

circa 1500

www.maps.com

http://www3.onf.ca/enclasse/doclens/visau/index.php?mode=about

First Nations had varied cultures and broad cultural areas• Similar geography• Similar resources• Similar economy• Similar language• Similar culture• Similar religious concepts• Similar lifestyles• Most diverse in Pacific Northwest—first

settlements

A dozen linguistic families with 50 languages

Overall generalizations

• Majority of First Nations: nomadic hunters-gatherers/fishermen

• Evolved over thousands of years• Knew resources• Exploited resources• Technology was knowledge of land not tools

First Peoples of Newfoundland –

Beothuk

Newfoundland Beothuk [500+ in 1500]

• Original “Redskins” due to use of red ochre• Coastal lifestyles but isolated• Fished [sturgeon, lobster], hunted, gathered eggs• Moved inland in winter—caribou, moose• Summers along coast• Birch bark canoes, snowshoes, sleds• Homes: birch banked with dirt, central fire• Concept of personal property problematic• FINAL BEOTHUK—Shanawdithit in 1829

http://www.novaweather.net/main.html

Beothuk Settlements

http://www.heritage.nf.ca/aboriginal/sites_map.html

Beothuk area today

Photos by R. Writer - Newfoundland, 2011

Boyd’s Cove

Interpretative Center

– NL

http://www.newfoundlandlabrador.com/PlanYourTrip/Detail/210411

http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/shawnadithit_6E.html

Eastern Woodland

First NationsAtlantic Coastal First Nations

Eastern Woodland First Nations—Atlantic First Nations [4500 +]

• People of the Rising Sun• Coastal—fish, sea mammals, seal, birds, walrus—

90% of food• Hook, line, weirs, harpoons, traps, spearing with torch

light• Canoes, snowshoes, sleds, toboggans• Homes like wigwams—portable on backs• Lacrosse likely began here• Mi’kmaq of Gaspé and Atlantic regions• Abenaki of Québec south of St. Lawrence River

[blonde]

Abenaki and Mi’kmaq

Abenaki wigwam, clothing--http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AbenakiAbenaki village--http://www.cowasuckabenaki.com/timeline.htmlMi’kmaq family circa 1899—www.gov.pe.ca

Interactive information can be found at: https://prezi.com/uu90ln9rg4zk/the-nulhegan-abenaki-tribe

Eastern Woodland First

NationsAlgonquin

Eastern Woodland First Nations —Algonquin [350,000+]

• Eastern Canada, Great Lakes and North of St. Lawrence

• Most widespread linguistic group• Nomadic seasonally• Large band in summer with smaller groups in winter• Trade and farm by 800 A.D.• Slash and burn—moved every 10-50 years• Three sisters, rice

• Land of the white pine• Male dominance in tribe• Wigwams—mobility• Ojibwa, Potawatomi, Ottawa, Menominee, Sauk, Fox,

Naskapi

Eastern Woodland First Nations—Huron

• 30,000 likely by 1600 (in 25 villages)• 4 to 5 nations at southern end of Georgian Bay/Lake

Simcoe• Fishing

• Furthest north for farming [135-142 frost free days]• 7000 acres under cultivation• Corn, beans, squash, tobacco, hemp twine

• Feast of the Dead• Dead put in ossuary periodically

• Trade Crossroads• Assumed the French were poor when they came to Huronia

• Huron, Tobacco, Erie and Neutral tribes

Denise Boiteau, et. al. Origins: A History of Canada. Markham: Fitzhenry & Whiteside, Ltd., 1989. p. 37.

Eastern Woodland First Nations

http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/lac-bac/search/arch_adv

www.cabrillo.edu

Lacrosse, National Sport of Canada• Origins in St. Lawrence region with Woodland First Nations

http://filacrosse.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/indian_lacrosse_592x433.jpg

Eastern Woodland

First NationsIroquois

Eastern Woodland First Nations—Iroquois[60,000+]

• South of St. Lawrence—Perhaps best known First Nations group

• Less nomadic hunters and agricultural base—3 sisters• Corn, beans, squash• Slash and burn

• Long houses up to 25’x200’—apartments on both sides—communal with palisades around village

• Matriarchal society—moved with female, took mom’s name

• Trade with Algonquin—corn and tobacco• Limited warfare—retaliation, ritualistic• Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca

Iroquois’Long House

http://www.sanders-studios.com/illustration/artpage/history/iroquoislonghouse.html

http://kids.britannica.com/comptons/art-136194/The-interior-of-a-reconstructed-longhouse-shows-the-typical-living

Iroquois Village

Iroquois village circa 1651-- www.1st-art-gallery-com

Three Sisters—corn, beans, squash

https://americanorchard.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/3sisters.jpg

Iroquois—Six Nations

http://www.sixnationsindianmuseum.com

Clothing

Source and for more information: http://www.haudenosauneeconfederacy.com/appearance.html

Plains First Nations

Photos by R. Writer

Plains First Nations [15,000]

• Nomadic--sparse population—1 per 10 square miles• Basis of all life—BUFFALO [drives and jumps] supermarket on

hooves• Food• Shelter• Clothing• Fuel• Tools

• Teepees• Horses after mid-1500s• Warfare—counting coup• Sun dance—sun origin of all life• Plains Ojibway, Crow, Plains Cree, Blackfoot, Crow, Sioux,

Blood

Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Hunt

Source: Painting by Alfred Jacob Miller http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffalo_jump

Lifestyles

https://thislandisourland.wikispaces.com/Great+Plains+Native+Americans+Dalton

Plateau First NationsPhotos by R. Writer

Plateau First Nations[40,000+]

• Mountains, plateaus, valleys• Desert to heavy forest• Most diverse• Stable, sedentary life with mobility and trade in

summer• Pit homes—circular—or teepees made of hemp at times• Bison then later elk, deer• Fishing and gathering• Tattoos on face• Crazy Dog Society—vowed never to retreat• Salish, Kutenai, Athapaskans

Crazy Dog Society Source: http://www.nativi.altervista.org/page_15.htm Pit House Source: http://wgssplateau.weebly.com

Northwest Coastal

First NationsPhotos by R. Writer

Northwest Coastal [200,000+]

• Highest population density• Maritime dependent—salmon, halibut, seals, clams, cod,

seaweed, kelp, urchins, whales especially on Vancouver Island

• Rainforest [cedar]—dugout canoes, plank homes, totem poles

• Gatherers—berries, plants, nuts• Hunting—bear, deer, elk• Complex hierarchy—chief, nobility, commoners, slaves

[33%]• Potlatch—give away feasts, social status—reciprocity of

tangible and immaterial goods, i.e. songs, dances, rituals• 16 languages within 5 families• Lip plugs, ear spools• Female descent—exogamous marriage in North not in

South• Haida, Tlingit, Salish, Chinook, Nootka, Tsimshian

Source: Royal British Columbia Museum—photo by R. Writer

Haida house source: www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com; Chilkat weaving and Potlatch: www.wikipedia.com

Source: Royal British Columbia Museum

Salmon: The Key Exhibit - Hell’s Gate, BC

Photos by R. Writer

Subarctic First Nations

Subarctic First Nations [50,000+]

• Taiga and tundra• Nomadic hunters (caribou, moose, bear used like buffalo)• Some slash and burn• Least known—few traces of small nomadic bands• Barren land—few trees but lots of bugs• Teepees with banked snow in winter• Pierced nose, tattoos • Fur trade• Tagish, Carrier, Slave, Beaver, Dogrib, Chipewyan,

Swampy Cree, Montagnais

Photo source: www.wikipedia.com; www.furtrapper.com

Photos by R. Writer

Subarctic Homes

The Inuit

Inuit [30,000+]

• Northernmost (Arctic) Indigenous Peoples —most recent arrivals

• Strong, rugged to cope with harsh living conditions

• Main foods—meat, blubber—eaten raw• Dog sleds—distance in sleeps not miles• Kayaks and umiaks [larger for ocean travel]• Snow goggles• Igloo in winter, skin tent in summer• No source of wood—seal oil• Last to come in contact with Euro culture• Impacted by World War II

Traditional Inuit Lifestyle

Photo Sources: http://www.tradition-orale.ca/english/photo-83.html; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuit_snow_goggles ; http://fortheloveofthedogblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/inuit_anddogs.jpg

Inuksuk (now a Universal Symbol)

Photo by R. Writer -– Taken atop Whistler Mountain after 2010 Winter Olympic Games

Spirituality/Religion• All living things related—web of life• Balance between nature and man• Polytheistic—problematic with Europeans• Harmony—peaceful cooperation• Ceremonies, rituals, taboos• All powerful spirit recognized by many tribes• Shamans • False Face Society--Healing powers• Dream guessing• Worship on personal level• #4—directions, seasons, parts of plants, colors, etc.

.

Boiteau, Denise, et.al. Origins: A History of Canada. Markham, Ontario: Fitzhenry & Whiteside, 1989. pg 42

Cultural Frameworks

• Group as well as self• Egalitarian division of labor • Consensus ruled• Communal property—problematic after European

contact• Role of humor• Games and sports• Hospitable • Wars not as violent pre-contact—captives,

hostages adopted• Marriage • Children center of attention—not corrected

Trade Vital

• Culture not possible without orderly trade alliances• Good relationships• Blood ties• Value of goods and gifts but not accumulation of wealth• Acquiring prestige more important than wealth• Gift exchanges—social and diplomatic obligation• Far ranging trade routes using rivers, lakes and coastlines• Obsidian from Pacific coast found way to eastern Canada• Copper from Lake Superior mistaken by Cartier for copper on

Saguenay• Chert, flint, shells, abalone, oolachon oil from Pacific

• Trade languages developed then incorporated Euro

Destruction of Native Culture

• Disease—smallpox, measles, etc.• Diet—altered dramatically • Demoralized—alcohol • Drawn into Euro conflicts—French v. English• Guns—new type of weapon• Type of genocide

Recent First Nations Issues• Assembly of First Nations• Status v. Non status—based on status of husband• Both Native and Canadian only in 1960s• Treaty Rights—fishing, logging, • Environment - resource use/management, XKL pipeline (Idle No

More)• Land Claims back to Proclamation of 1763 - Oka in 1990/Few

in BC• Economic conditions—jobs, poverty, 33% no running water • Urbanization—40% live off reserve• Justice—incarceration rates high• Health and Social Issues —TB, addiction, lack of hospitals• Education—residential schools• Self government—NUNAVUT in 1999

Linguistic Families

The Nystrom Atlas of Canada and the World. Chicago: Nystrom, 2006. pg 55

The Newest Territory — Nunavut

Source: www.wikipedia.com

Nunavut — April 1, 1999

Sources: http://www.arcticphoto.co.uk/supergal/ba/ba08/ba0810-10.htm andhttp://earthjustice.org/irreplaceable/polar-bear?gclid=CjwKEAiAgfymBRCEhpTR8NXpx1USJAAV0dQyBPaVM9Sfbs7hviW-6iQYJ5bCQkvnzGOfZiRf3bJ-zhoC4Zrw_wcB#; www.plateshack.com

Shawn Atleo — July 2012National Chief of the Assembly of First Nations

http://news.nationalpost.com/2012/07/19/marni-soupcoff-atleos-re-election-proof-of-a-quiet-first-nations-majority-thats-above-wallowing-in-accusations

Resources• The Nystrom Atlas of Canada and the World. Chicago: Nystrom, 2006. • Boiteau, Denise, et.al. Origins: A History of Canada. Markham, ON: Fitzhenry &

Whiteside, 1989.• Crompton, Samuel Willard, ed. Illustrated Atlas of Native American History. Edison, NJ:

Chartwell Books Inc., 1999.• Dickason, Olive Patricia. Canada’s First Nations: A History of Founding Peoples from

Earliest Times. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart Inc., 1992.• Liversey, Robert and Smith, A.G. Discovering Canada: Native Peoples. Toronto: Stoddart,

1993.• Marshall, Ingeborg. The Beothuk of Newfoundland: A Vanished People. St. John’s, NL:

Breakwater Books, 1989.• Morrison, R. Bruce and Wilson, C. Roderick, ed. Native Peoples: The Canadian

Experience. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart Inc., 1995.• Morgan, Lewis Henry. League of the Iroquois. New York: Corinth Books Inc., 1962.• Trigger, Bruce G. Natives and Newcomers: Canada’s Heroic Age Reconsidered. Montreal:

McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1985. • http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/shawnadithit_6E.html • http://drarchaeology.com/map/beringamigration.jpg • http://www.newfoundlandlabrador.com/PlanYourTrip/Detail/210411• http://www.terradaily.com/reports/

Humans_Inhabited_New_World_Doorstep_For_20000_Years_999.html