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Chapter 2. Stepping Out of the Shadows
This chapter looks at why leaders cast shadows insight of light and how they can master these forces.
Shadow casters include 1. unhealthy motivations 2. faulty decision making caused by mistaken
assumptions and failure of moral imagination 3. lack of ethical expertise 4. contextual (group, organizational, societal) pressures
that encourage people to set their personal standard aside
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Shadow Casters
Unhealthy Motivations
Internal Enemies or Monsters Monster 1: Insecurity Monster 2: Battleground Mentality Monster 3: Functional Atheism Monster 4: Fear Monster 5: Denying Death Monster 6: Evil
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Shadow Casters
Unhealthy Motivations Selfishness (manifests through pride, greed,
narcissism, and Machiavellianism) Pride: proud of themselves and their accomplishments;
lack empathy for others and cannot see their points of view or learn from followers
Greed: driven to earn more and to accumulate additional perks, focuses attention on making the numbers
Narcissism: in love with the image of himself, are self-absorbed and constantly seeking positive feedback
Machiavellianism: skilled at manipulating others for their own ends; engage in lots of self-promotion, are emotionally cold, and are prone to aggressive behavior
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
The Susceptible Follower
A group of scholars from Penn State University argues that we can gain a better understanding of the process of destructive leadership by identifying the factors that make followers susceptible to the influence of destructive superiors.
They place susceptible subordinates into two categories: conformers and colluders
Conformers engage in destructive behavior while obeying their leaders. Colluders actively support or contribute to the leader’s destructive mission.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
The Susceptible Follower
Conformers: Lost Souls: these individuals are needy and are vulnerable to destructive leaders because they have basic unmet needs
Conformers: Authoritarians: authoritarians believe that leaders have a right to demand obedience and it is their belief in the legitimacy of the leader that triggers their obedience.
Conformers: Bystanders: bystanders, perhaps the largest group of susceptible followers, are generally passive and motivated by fear.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
The Susceptible Follower
Colluders: Opportunists: opportunists carry out the destructive directives of their leaders because they believe that they will be rewarded for doing so; they are ambitious, greedy, and manipulative, lacking in self-control
Colluders: Acolytes: acolytes are “true believers;” they actively partner with the leader because they share the leader’s goals and values.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Focus on Follow Ethics
Follower Motivations and the Dangers of Toxic Leadership A Need for Parent Figures: negative role models
(authoritative, abusive, demeaning) often encourage followers to seek out similar toxic leaders later in life
Exchanging Freedom for Security: insecure followers often give up their freedom in order to join unethical leaders and destructive causes
The Need to Feel Chosen: bad leaders take advantage of the need to feel special convincing followers that they are part of a unique organization or cause that is better than all others
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Focus on Follower Ethics
Follower Motivations and the Dangers of Toxic Leadership (cont’d) The Need for Community: people will sacrifice to
belong to a group including enduring abusive treatment from their leaders, obeying unethical orders, accepting low wages and so on
Fear of Ostracism, Isolation and Social Death: speaking out against an unethical leader, organization, or cause brings ostracism (social death) that keeps followers from dissenting
A Sense of Personal Weakness and Powerlessness: followers who otherwise feel competent find it intimidating to challenge a toxic leader
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Faulty Decision Making
Mistaken Assumptions
Theories About How the World Operates: these assumptions have to do with determining the consequences of choices, judging risks, and identifying causes
Theories About Other People: ethnocentrism and stereotyping are particularly damaging
Ethnocentrism: the tendency to think that we are better than “they” are, that our way of doing things is superior to “theirs”
Stereotypes: our beliefs about other groups of people
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Faulty Decision Making
Mistaken Assumptions (cont’d) Theories About Ourselves:
Faulty theory that involves self-perceptions Executives tend to think they are superior and can
control events Overconfidence is a problem Likely to interpret new information according to their
existing biases Unrealistic self-perceptions of all types put leaders at
ethical risk They may justify immoral behavior Powerful leaders are particularly likely to think they are
godlike
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Faulty Decision Making
Failure of Moral Imagination
Many ethicists believe that moral imagination—sensitivity to moral issues and options—is key to ethical behavior and works hand in hand with moral reasoning in the decision-making process.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Faulty Decision Making
Failure of Moral Imagination (cont’d) Three-part definition of moral imagination:
Reproductive imagination is being aware of elements of the context (participants, setting, etc.), what schemas (scripts, ways of thinking) are operating, and what ethical conflicts are present.
Productive imagination is reframing the problem from a variety of perspectives and revamping one’s current schemas.
Creative imagination is coming up with new and morally sound solutions that can be justified to outsiders.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Faulty Decision Making
Moral Imagination:
Facilitates ethical reasoning because it helps leaders step away from their typical mental scripts or schemas and to recognize the moral elements of events.
Moral imagination enhances moral reasoning by encouraging the generation of novel alternatives.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Moral Disengagement
Moral disengagement helps account for the fact that individuals can have a clear sense of right and wrong yet engage in immoral activities
These individuals convince themselves that their immoral conduct is moral, they minimize their role in causing harm, and they devalue the victims of their destructive behavior
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Turning Immoral Conduct into Moral Conduct
1. Moral Justification: Leaders persuade themselves that their harmful behavior is actually moral and beneficial
2. Euphemistic labeling: Euphemistic language has a
sanitizing function, making harmful behavior appear more respectable and reducing personal responsibility.
3. Advantageous comparison: Contrast involves
comparing unethical or criminal acts with even worse activities, thus making them appear more tolerable.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Minimizing Harm
4. Displacement of responsibility: These individuals often put the blame on someone else so as to minimize their responsibility for doing damage to others.
5. Diffusion of responsibility: Diffusing or spreading out responsibility also lessens personal accountability for immoral behavior.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Devaluing Victims
6. Dehumanization: It is easier to mistreat others if they are seen as less than fully human
7. Attribution of blame: Blaming others is an expedient way to excuse unethical behavior
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Leadership Ethics at the Movies: Lord of War
Discussion Questions:
What unhealthy motivations drive Orlov? What moral disengagement mechanisms
does Orlov use to justify his actions? Did Yuri’s wife deliberately remain
ignorant about his activities in order to maintain her family and lifestyle?
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Lack of Expertise
Leaders may unintentionally cast shadows because they lack the necessary knowledge, skills, and experience.
We may not have ever followed a formal, step-by-step approach to solving an ethical problem in a group.
We may not know what ethical perspectives or frameworks can be applied to ethical dilemmas.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Contextual Pressures
Conformity is a problem for many small groups.
Some groups might pressure dissenters, shield themselves from negative feedback, keep silent when the disagree, and so on.
Top managers at some organizations may fire employees who talk about ethical issues so that they can claim ignorance if followers do act unethically.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Contextual Pressures
Key Terms Ethical segregation: leaders and followers may have
strong personal moral codes that regulate their personal lives, but act much less ethically at work
Socialization: the workplace socialization process may blind members to the consequences of their actions
Co-option: organizational leaders use rewards to reduce new employees’ discomfort with immoral behaviors
Incrementalism: gradually leads new members up the “ladder of corruption”
Compromise: backs members into corruption as they deal with dilemmas and conflicts
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Contextual Pressures
Cultural differences can also encourage leaders to abandon their personal codes of conduct.
Leaders can be victims of contextual pressures as well as the architects of the unethical climates, structures, policies, and procedures that cause groups and organizations to fail in the first place.
Corporate scandals: typically the result of leaders who not only engage in
immoral behavior but also encourage their followers to follow their example
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Stepping out of the Shadows
Mastering the shadows leaders cast
Need to look inward to address our motivations We also need to improve our ethical decision
making Resist negative contextual influences at the same
time we create healthy ethical climates View your ethical development as part of your
overall development as a leader
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
3 Elements to Increase Your Ethical Competence
Assessment Feedback about how well you handle ethical
dilemmas, how others perceive your character, and how your decisions affect followers
Challenge You need the challenges and practice that come from
moving into new leadership positions
Support You need the support of others to maximize your
development
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Become an Ethical Expert
Learn in a well-structured environment (like a college or university
Master both moral theory and skillsLearn how previous experts have dealt with
moral problems and how some choices are better than others
More experience means you will get better at solving ethical problems and better able to explain your choices
Put in the necessary time and focused effort
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Ethical Skills: A Sampler
Ethical Sensitivity (recognition of ethical problems)
Understanding emotional expression Taking the perspective of others Connecting to others Responding to diversity Controlling social bias Interpreting situations Communicating effectively
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Ethical Skills: A Sampler
Ethical Judgment (decision making)
Understanding ethical problems Using codes and identifying judgment criteria Reasoning generally Reasoning ethically Understanding consequences Reflecting on process and outcome Coping and resiliency
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Ethical Skills: A Sampler
Ethical Focus (motivation to act ethically)
Respecting others Cultivating conscience Acting responsibility Helping others Finding meaning in life Valuing traditions and institutions Developing ethical identity and integrity
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Ethical Skills: A Sampler
Ethical Action (following through on moral decisions)
Resolving conflicts and problems Asserting respectfully Taking initiative as a leader Implementing decisions Cultivating courage Persevering Working hard
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
CASE STUDY: A MODERN DAY LIBERTINE
Discussion Questions What other powerful leaders have apparently engaged in
sexual misconduct out of a sense of entitlement? What can followers do to prevent their leaders from feeling
entitled? What other factors, besides power, might encourage leaders
to believe they are entitled to ignore the rules that apply to everyone else?
Do you think that powerful men are more likely to engage in sexual infidelity than powerful women? Why or why not?
Does being a libertine automatically disqualify someone from becoming a leader?
How much should citizens be concerned about the private lives of their political leaders?
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
CASE STUDY: The $300 Sneaker
Based on this case study from the book discuss the following scenario and question:
Imagine that you are a top level Nike executive. Would you produce and market the LeBron X Plus?
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
CASE STUDY: Death by Peanuts
Discussion Questions: What factors described in the chapter contributed to top
management’s decision to ship contaminated products? What factors encouraged plant workers to keep silent about
conditions at the plant? Were employees justified in keeping their concerns to themselves? Should former PCA employees face criminal charges for failing to
report the conditions at the plant to outside authorities? Why or why not?
How can leaders encourage followers to report unethical and illegal behavior?
What advice would you offer to employees who must decide whether or not to report unethical behavior or situations?
What leadership/followership ethics lessons do you take from this case?
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.