Introduction - Relative clauses with who, which and that

Emma: / saw Natalie the other day.

Melanie: Natalie? The girl who plays the piano?

Emma: No, that's Natasha. Natalie is the student who dropped out of college, the one who never did any studying. She's working in Davidson's now, the shop that sells very expensive clothes.

The relative clauses in this conversation

identify which person or thing we are

talking about. The clause who plays the

piano tells us which girl Melanie means.

The clause that sells very expensive

clothes tells us which shop Emma means.

Sometimes we can use an adjective or a phrase to identify someone or something.

Adjective: the tall girl the new student the red car

Phrase: the man in the suit the shop on the corner the woman with red hair

But when we need a longer explanation, we can use a relative clause.

Relative clause: the woman who gets up early the car that broke down

Who, which and thatThe relative pronouns who, which and that go after the

noun and at the beginning of the relative clause.Who refers to people.

Nick is the man who owns that enormous dog. I don't like people who tell jokes all the time.The little girl who sat next to me on the coach ate sweets the whole way.Sarah is pretty annoyed with the person who stole her mobile phone. We

can also use that, but it is less usual.Jake is the man that plays the guitar.The woman that lived here before us is a romantic novelist.

That and which refer to things. That is more usual than which, especially in conversation.

The car that won the race looked very futuristic, didn't it? They've recaptured all the animals that escaped from the zoo. The children saw the actual spacecraft that landed on the moon.

Which can be a little formal.

There are several restaurants which do Sunday lunches. Is Zedco the company which was taken over last year?

Relative clauses (1)Relative clauses (1)

A A relative clause relative clause gives more information gives more information about someone or something referred to in about someone or something referred to in a main clause. Some relative clauses a main clause. Some relative clauses (defining relative clauses) (defining relative clauses) are used to are used to specify specify whichwhich person or thing we mean, or person or thing we mean, or which which typetype of person or thing we mean:of person or thing we mean:

The couple The couple who live next to us who live next to us have have sixteen grandchildren.sixteen grandchildren.

Andrew stopped Andrew stopped the police car the police car that was that was driving past.driving past.

Notice that we don't put a comma between the Notice that we don't put a comma between the noun and a defining relative clause. Relativenoun and a defining relative clause. Relative

clauses begin with a clauses begin with a relative pronoun: relative pronoun: a a wh-word wh-word ((who, which, who, which, etc.) or etc.) or that. that.

However, sometimes we omit the However, sometimes we omit the wh-word wh-word I I that that and use a and use a zero relative pronounzero relative pronoun::

We went to a We went to a restaurant (which/that) restaurant (which/that) Jane had Jane had recommended to us.recommended to us.

We prefer to put a relative clause immediately We prefer to put a relative clause immediately after or as close as possible to the noun it adds after or as close as possible to the noun it adds information to:information to:

The building for sale was The building for sale was the house the house which had which had a slate roof and a slate roof and was by the stream.was by the stream.

((rather thanrather than The building for sale was the house The building for sale was the house by the stream which had a slate roof.)by the stream which had a slate roof.)

When we use a defining relative clause, the relative When we use a defining relative clause, the relative pronoun can be the subject or the object of the pronoun can be the subject or the object of the clause. In the following sentences the relative clause. In the following sentences the relative pronoun is the pronoun is the subject. subject. Notice that the verb follows Notice that the verb follows the relative pronoun:the relative pronoun:

Rockall is an uninhabited Rockall is an uninhabited island island which/that which/that lies lies north west of mainland Scotland.north west of mainland Scotland.

We have We have a friend a friend who/that who/that plays plays the piano.the piano.

In the following sentences the relative pronoun is In the following sentences the relative pronoun is the the object. object. Notice that there is a noun (or Notice that there is a noun (or pronoun) between the relative pronoun and the pronoun) between the relative pronoun and the verb in the relative clause. In this case, we canverb in the relative clause. In this case, we can

use a use a zero relative pronoun:zero relative pronoun:

He showed me the He showed me the rocks rocks (which/that) he (which/that) he had had brought back brought back from Australia.from Australia.

That's That's the man the man (who/that) I (who/that) I met met at Allison's at Allison's party.party.

Adding information about thingsAdding information about things

relative relative pronounpronoun

whichwhich thatthat zero relative zero relative pronounpronoun

subject subject

orderorder

√√

√√

√√

√√

XX

√√

Adding information about peopleAdding information about people

relative relative pronounpronoun

whowho thatthat zero zero relative relative pronounpronoun

subject subject

orderorder

√√

√√

√√

√√

XX

√√

We can also use We can also use whom whom instead of instead of who who as as object, although object, although whom whom is very formal:is very formal:

She's an actress She's an actress whom whom most people think most people think is at the peak of her career.is at the peak of her career.

We use We use that that as as subject subject after after something something and and anything; anything; words such as words such as all, little, much, all, little, much, and and none none used as nouns; and used as nouns; and superlatives. superlatives. (Which (Which is also used as subject after is also used as subject after something something and and anything, anything, but less commonly.) but less commonly.) We use We use that that or or zero relative pronoun zero relative pronoun as as object object after these:after these:These walls are These walls are all all that that remain remain of the city, of the city, (not (not ...all which remain...)...all which remain...)She's one of She's one of the kindest the kindest people (that) I know, people (that) I know, (not (not ...who I know.)...who I know.)Is there Is there anything anything (that) I (that) I can do to help? can do to help? (rather (rather than than ...anything which I can do...)...anything which I can do...)

You can't add a subject or object to the relative You can't add a subject or object to the relative clause in addition to the relative pronoun:clause in addition to the relative pronoun:

The man The man who who gave me the book was the gave me the book was the librarian, librarian, (not (not The man who he gave me...)The man who he gave me...)

Notice also that adding a pronoun to the main Notice also that adding a pronoun to the main clause in addition to the relative clause isclause in addition to the relative clause is

unnecessary, although it is found in speech:unnecessary, although it is found in speech:

A friend of mine A friend of mine who who is a solicitor helped me. is a solicitor helped me. (or, in speech (or, in speech A friend of mine who is a A friend of mine who is a solicitor - she helped me.)solicitor - she helped me.)

Exercises: 1 & 2Exercises: 1 & 2

Relative clauses (2)Relative clauses (2)

Some relative clauses are used to add extra Some relative clauses are used to add extra information about a noun, but this information isinformation about a noun, but this information is

not necessary to explain which person or thing not necessary to explain which person or thing we mean:we mean:

Valerie Polkoff, Valerie Polkoff, who has died aged 90, who has died aged 90, escaped from Russia with her family in 1917.escaped from Russia with her family in 1917.

These are sometimes called These are sometimes called non-defining non-defining

relative clauses. relative clauses. We don't use them often in We don't use them often in

everyday speech, but they occur frequently in everyday speech, but they occur frequently in

written English. Notice that we put a comma written English. Notice that we put a comma

between the nounbetween the noun and a non-defining relative and a non-defining relative

clause, and another comma at the end of this clause, and another comma at the end of this

clause if it is not also the end of a sentence.clause if it is not also the end of a sentence.

When we use a non-defining relative clause to add When we use a non-defining relative clause to add information about a information about a person person or or people:people:

we use we use who who as the as the subject subject of the clauseof the clause

One of the people arrested was Mary Arundel, One of the people arrested was Mary Arundel, who who is is a member of the local council.a member of the local council.

we use we use who who or or whom whom as the as the object object of the clause,of the clause,

although although whom whom is more formal and rarely used in is more formal and rarely used in spoken English:spoken English:

Professor Johnson, Professor Johnson, who(m) I who(m) I have long admired, is to have long admired, is to visit the university next week.visit the university next week.

When we use a non-defining relative clause to When we use a non-defining relative clause to add information about a add information about a thing thing or or group of group of things, things, we use we use which which as the as the subject subject or or object object of the clause:of the clause:

These drugs, These drugs, which which are used to treat stomach are used to treat stomach ulcers, have been withdrawn from sale.ulcers, have been withdrawn from sale.

That That is sometimes used instead of is sometimes used instead of which, which, but but some people think this is incorrect, so it issome people think this is incorrect, so it is

probably safer not to use it. We also use probably safer not to use it. We also use which which to refer to the whole situation talked about in to refer to the whole situation talked about in the sentence outside the relative clause:the sentence outside the relative clause:

The book won't be published until next year, The book won't be published until next year, which which is disappointing.is disappointing.

We can also use We can also use whose whose in a non-defining relative in a non-defining relative clause:clause:

Neil Adams, Neil Adams, whose whose parents are both teachers, parents are both teachers, won first prize in the competition.won first prize in the competition.

Notice that we Notice that we don'tdon't use use zero relative pronoun zero relative pronoun in a in a non-defining relative clausenon-defining relative clause..

When we want to add information about the When we want to add information about the

whole or a part of a particular number of things whole or a part of a particular number of things

or people we can use a non-defining relative or people we can use a non-defining relative

clause with clause with of which of which or or of whom of whom after words after words

such as such as all, both, each, many, most, neither, all, both, each, many, most, neither,

none, part, some, a number none, part, some, a number (one, two, etc.; (one, two, etc.;

the first, the second, etc.; half, a third, etc.) and the first, the second, etc.; half, a third, etc.) and

superlatives superlatives (the best, the biggest, etc.):(the best, the biggest, etc.):

The speed of growth of a plant is influenced by The speed of growth of a plant is influenced by a number of factors, a number of factors, most of which most of which we have we have no control over.no control over.

We can use the following phrases at the We can use the following phrases at the beginning of a non-defining relative clause: beginning of a non-defining relative clause: at at which point/time, by which point/time, which point/time, by which point/time, during which time, during which time, and and in which case:in which case:

It It might snow this weekend, might snow this weekend, in which case in which case we we won't go to Wales.won't go to Wales.

Exercises: 3Exercises: 3

Relative clauses 3Relative clauses 3whosewhose

We use a relative clause beginning with We use a relative clause beginning with whose + nounwhose + noun, , particularly in written English, when we talk about something particularly in written English, when we talk about something belonging to or associated with a belonging to or associated with a personperson. . Compare:Compare:Stevenson is an architect. Her designs have won international Stevenson is an architect. Her designs have won international praise.praise.

andandStevenson is an architect Stevenson is an architect whose designswhose designs have won have won international praise.international praise.Dr Rowan has had to do all his own typing. His secretary Dr Rowan has had to do all his own typing. His secretary resigned two weeks ago. resigned two weeks ago.

andandDr Rowan, Dr Rowan, whose secretarywhose secretary resigned two weeks ago, has had resigned two weeks ago, has had to all his own typing.to all his own typing.

We can use We can use whosewhose in both in both definingdefining and and non-definingnon-defining relativerelative clausesclauses..

We sometimes use We sometimes use whose whose when we are talking when we are talking about about things, things, in particular when we are talkingin particular when we are talking

about towns or countries, and organisations:about towns or countries, and organisations:

The film was made in The film was made in Botswana, Botswana, whose whose wildlife parks wildlife parks are larger than those in Kenya.are larger than those in Kenya.

We can also use We can also use whose whose when we are talking when we are talking about particular items, although it is often more about particular items, although it is often more natural in spoken English to avoid sentences natural in spoken English to avoid sentences like this:like this:

I received I received a letter, a letter, whose poor spelling whose poor spelling made made me think it was written by a child.me think it was written by a child.

(more natural would be (more natural would be I received a letter, and its I received a letter, and its poor spelling...)poor spelling...)

where, when, whereby, whywhere, when, whereby, whyWe often use the words We often use the words where, when, where, when, and and

whereby whereby as relative pronouns. But in formal as relative pronouns. But in formal English in particular, a phrase with English in particular, a phrase with preposition preposition + which + which can often be used instead:can often be used instead:

This was the place This was the place (where) (where) we first met. we first met. (or (or ...the place ...the place at/in which at/in which we...)we...)

We can also use We can also use why why as a relative pronoun after as a relative pronoun after the word the word reason. reason. In informal English we can In informal English we can use use that that instead of instead of why:why:

I didn't get a pay rise, but this wasn't the I didn't get a pay rise, but this wasn't the reason reason why why I left, I left, (or (or ...the reason ...the reason (that) I (that) I left.left.))

who, what, whatever, whoever, who, what, whatever, whoever, whicheverwhichever

We sometimes use relative clauses beginning We sometimes use relative clauses beginning with with who who or or what. what. In this case, In this case, who who means 'the means 'the people that' and people that' and what what means something like means something like 'the thing(s) that':'the thing(s) that':

Can you give me a list of who's been invited?Can you give me a list of who's been invited?

Notice that we can't use Notice that we can't use what what in this way after a in this way after a noun:noun:

I managed to get all the I managed to get all the books books that that you asked you asked for. for. (not (not ...books what you asked for.)...books what you asked for.)

Relative clauses beginning with Relative clauses beginning with whatever whatever (= (=

anything anything or or it doesn't matter what), it doesn't matter what), whoever whoever (= (=

the person/group who the person/group who or or any person/group any person/group

who), or who), or whichever whichever (= one thing or person from (= one thing or person from

a limited number of things or people) are used a limited number of things or people) are used

to talk about things or people that are indefinite to talk about things or people that are indefinite

or unknown:or unknown:

I'm sure I'll enjoy eating I'm sure I'll enjoy eating whatever whatever you cook.you cook.

Exercises: 4 & 5Exercises: 4 & 5

Relative clauses 4Relative clauses 4

In formal styles we often put a preposition before In formal styles we often put a preposition before the relative pronouns the relative pronouns which which and whom:and whom:

The rate The rate at which at which a material heats up depends a material heats up depends on its chemical composition.on its chemical composition.

Notice that after a preposition you can't use Notice that after a preposition you can't use who who instead of instead of whom, whom, and you can't use and you can't use that that or or zero zero relative pronoun:relative pronoun:

The valley The valley in which in which the town lies is heavily the town lies is heavily polluted, polluted, (not (not The valley in that the town...)The valley in that the town...)

In informal English we usually put the preposition In informal English we usually put the preposition later in the relative clause rather than at the later in the relative clause rather than at the beginning:beginning:

The office The office which which Graham led the way to was Graham led the way to was filled with books.filled with books.

In this case we prefer In this case we prefer who who rather than rather than

whom whom (although 'whom' is used in formal (although 'whom' is used in formal

contexts). In 'defining relative clauses we contexts). In 'defining relative clauses we

can also use can also use that that or or zero relative zero relative

pronoun pronoun instead of instead of who who or or which which

(e.g. ...the children (e.g. ...the children (that) (that) it was built for).it was built for).

If the verb in the relative clause is a two- or three-If the verb in the relative clause is a two- or three-word verb (e.g. come across, word verb (e.g. come across, fill in, go fill in, go through, look after, look up to, put up with, through, look after, look up to, put up with, take on) take on) we don't usually put the preposition we don't usually put the preposition before the relative pronoun:before the relative pronoun:

She is one of the few people She is one of the few people (who/that) I (who/that) I look look up up to. to. (not (not ...to whom I look up.)...to whom I look up.)

In formal written English, we often prefer to use In formal written English, we often prefer to use of which of which rather than whose to talk about rather than whose to talk about things:things:

A huge amount of oil was spilled, A huge amount of oil was spilled, the effects the effects of of which which are still being felt, are still being felt, (or (or ...whose ...whose effects effects are still being felt.)are still being felt.)

Notice that we can't use Notice that we can't use of which of which instead of instead of whosewhose::

Dorothy was able to switch between German, Dorothy was able to switch between German, Polish and Russian, Polish and Russian, all of which all of which she spoke she spoke fluently, fluently, (not (not ...all whose she spoke...)...all whose she spoke...)

We can sometimes use We can sometimes use that...of that...of instead of instead of of of which. which. This is less formal than This is less formal than of which of which and and whose, and is mainly used in spoken English:whose, and is mainly used in spoken English:

The school The school that that she is head she is head of of is closing down, is closing down, (or (or The school The school of which of which she is head...)she is head...)

Whose can come after a preposition in a relative Whose can come after a preposition in a relative clause. However, it is more natural to put the clause. However, it is more natural to put the preposition at the end of the clause in less preposition at the end of the clause in less formal contexts and in spoken English:formal contexts and in spoken English:

I now turn to Freud, I now turn to Freud, from whose from whose work the work the following quotation is taken, following quotation is taken, (or (or ...whose work ...whose work the following quotation is taken the following quotation is taken from.)from.)

Exercises: 6Exercises: 6

Participle clausesParticiple clausesWe can give information about someone or We can give information about someone or

something using an something using an -ing, past participle (-ed) -ing, past participle (-ed) or or being + past participle (-ed) being + past participle (-ed) clause after a clause after a noun. These clauses are often similar to noun. These clauses are often similar to defining relative clauses defining relative clauses beginning beginning which, which, who, who, or or that:that:

We stood on We stood on the bridge the bridge connecting the two connecting the two halves of the building, halves of the building, (or (or ...which ...which connects/connected the two halves...)connects/connected the two halves...)

-ing clauses-ing clauses

We often use an We often use an -ing -ing clause instead of a defining clause instead of a defining relative clause with an relative clause with an active verb:active verb:

The man The man driving the bus driving the bus is my brother, is my brother, (or (or The man who is driving the bus...)The man who is driving the bus...)

Sometimes, however, we can't use an Sometimes, however, we can't use an -ing -ing clause. For clause. For example:example:

when there is a noun between the relative pronoun when there is a noun between the relative pronoun and the verb in the defining relative clause:and the verb in the defining relative clause:

The man The man who who Tim Tim is meeting is meeting for lunch is from for lunch is from Taiwan, Taiwan, (not (not ...the man Tim meeting...)...the man Tim meeting...)

when the event or action talked about in the defining when the event or action talked about in the defining

relative clause comes before the event or action talked relative clause comes before the event or action talked

about in the rest of the sentence, except when the about in the rest of the sentence, except when the

second event or action is the second event or action is the result result of the first. of the first.

Compare:Compare:

The snow The snow which fell which fell overnight has turned to overnight has turned to ice. ice. (not (not The snow falling overnight...) The snow falling overnight...)

andand

The snow The snow which fell which fell overnight has caused overnight has caused traffic chaos, traffic chaos, (or (or The snow The snow falling falling overnight overnight has caused traffic chaos.)has caused traffic chaos.)

when we talk about a single, completed action when we talk about a single, completed action in the defining relative clause, rather than a in the defining relative clause, rather than a continuous action. Compare:continuous action. Compare:

The girl The girl who fell over who fell over on the ice broke her arm. on the ice broke her arm. (not (not The girl falling over...) The girl falling over...)

andand

I pulled off the sheets I pulled off the sheets which covered which covered the the furniture, furniture, (or (or ...sheets ...sheets covering covering the furniture.)the furniture.)

Past participle (-ed) Past participle (-ed) and and being + past being + past participle (-ed) clausesparticiple (-ed) clauses

We often use a We often use a past participle past participle or or being + past being + past participle participle clause instead of a defining relativeclause instead of a defining relative

clause with a clause with a passive verb:passive verb:

The boys The boys being chosen for the team being chosen for the team are are under 9. under 9. (or (or The boys who are being chosen...) The boys who are being chosen...)

Sometimes, however, we can't use a Sometimes, however, we can't use a past past participle participle or or being + past participle being + past participle clause. clause. For example:For example:

when there is a noun between the relative when there is a noun between the relative pronoun and the verb in the defining relative pronoun and the verb in the defining relative clause:clause:

The speed at The speed at which which decisions decisions are made are made in the in the company is worrying, company is worrying, (not (not The speed at which The speed at which decisions made...)decisions made...)

when the defining relative clause includes when the defining relative clause includes a modal verb other than a modal verb other than will:will:

There are a number of people who should There are a number of people who should be asked, be asked, (not (not ...people should be asked.)...people should be asked.)

Exercises:7 & 8Exercises:7 & 8