A History of the English Language

A History of the English Language

LANGUAGE CHANGE

Key dates: periods of English

450-1150 Old English1150-1500 Middle English

1500-1700Early Modern English

1700-1900 Modern English

1900-presentLate Modern English

An introduction

When analysing how language has changed, the following need to be considered for each period:• Semantics• Lexis• Syntax• Phonology• Graphology

Languages that have influenced English

• 5% Greek• 7.5% Latin• 40% Anglo Saxon• 15% Norse• 30% French• 2.5% other languages

Old English

years 450-1150

OLD ENGLISH

Context • Celts had been invaded by the Romans which brought

Latin words into the language• Germanic tribes then invaded England (5th century) and

established the Anglo Saxon Heptarchy (a collective name applied to the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of south, east, and central Great Britain) and introduced their language

• Celtic words are rare in modern English, although Celtic languages do still remain: Welsh, Irish, Gaelic and Cornish

• The conversion of the Anglo Saxons to Christianity began in the late 6th century – meaning a large amount of the texts that have been found of this time are religious

• Vikings began to invade at the end of the 8th century. Their Old Norse language resembled that of the Anglo Saxon invaders and much of its vocabulary was absorbed

OLD ENGLISH

Words from Old EnglishWords used today

• Pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, this, that, these, those

• Nouns: friend, husband, anger, window, bull, cake, dirt, sun

• Adjectives: happy, cold, black, bloody, tight, low, ill

• Verbs: can, shall, get, give, want, call

• Conjunctions: as, and, but, so, then

• Prepositions: up, down, in, on, to, by

• Adverbs: while, when, where

Archaic words• Fulsome: rich, plentiful• Onuppan: above• Pudh: horrible• Yore: years ago• Fere: friend, companion• Beseech: request, ask• Nary: none, nothing

OLD ENGLISH

Key features of Old English

• No single, agreed system of spelling• Heavy use of inflections (parts of words, usually

endings, that indicate grammatical functions, e.g. ‘-eth’)• Muscular quality to the words: short, direct and forceful• Grammatical gender in nouns and adjectives• Writing system involved runes as well as the Roman

alphabet• Use of kennings, e.g. ‘bone-house’ = body• Flexible word order due to inflections

OLD ENGLISH RU

NE

S

Key dates for Old English

OLD ENGLISH

450 Beginning of the Old English period

1000 Approximate date of the only surviving manuscript of Beowulf

1066

Battle of Hastings – Norman Conquest which brought in French to the language

(spoken by the most powerful people, therefore was used in political

documents, administration and literature)

1150 Middle English period begins

Examples of textsThe following text is from the Anglo

Saxon Chronicle – a text from the 19th century from Alfred the Great who

decided to compile important events.

‘Anno 449. Her Martianus and Valentinus onfengon rice, and ricsodon seofon winter. And on hiera dagum Hengest and Horsa, fram Wyrtgeorne gelaþode, Bretta cyninge, gesohton Bretene on þæm stede þe is genemned Ypwines-fleot, ærest Brettum to fultume, ac hie eft on hie fuhton. Se cyning het hie feohtan ongean Peohtas; and hie swa dydon, and sige hæfdon swa hwær swa hie comon. Hie þasendon to Angle, and heton him sendan maran fultum. Þa sendon hie him maran fultum. þa comon þa menn of þrim mægþum Germanie: of Ealdseaxum, of Englum, of Iotum.’

Translation…

Anno 449. In this year [lit here] Martianus and Valentinus succeeded to [lit received] kingship, and ruled seven years. And in their days Hengest and Horsa, invited by Vortigern, king of [the] Britons, came to Britain at the place which is called Ebbsfleet, first as a help to [the] Britons, but they afterwards fought against them. The king commanded them to fight against [the] Picts; and they did so, and had victory wherever they came. Then they sent to Angeln, and told them to send more help. They then sent to them more help. Then the men came from three tribes in Germany: from [the] Old Saxons, from [the] Angles, from [the] Jutes.

OLD ENGLISH

Middle English

years 1150-1500

MIDDLE ENGLISH

Context • This period followed the Norman invasion which brought a lot of French into the

language. This is because William, Duke of Normandy, crowned himself the king of England but only spoke French. This meant English was considered as only suitable for lower classes

• As a result of the Black Death, however, (1348-1351) there was a need for working class labourers. These people all spoke English, which led to a rise in the language

• The printing press arrived near the end of the period (1476) from William Caxton. He printed all kinds of texts and in the following 150 years around 20,000 books were printed. This led to improved literacy rates and lowered price of books. Printers were able to choose which grammar and spellings to use, leading to a more standardised language

• The accessibility of texts led to an increased interest in literature• The society was very religious at the time (influencing attitudes and also the texts

written at the time)• There was a lack of medical knowledge, so illness was a constant threat• Exploration of the New World brought new words from across the empire,

including coffee, yoghurt, kiosk (Turkish) and bizarre, chocolate, vogue (French)

MIDDLE ENGLISH

Key features of Middle English• Non-standard / inconsistent spelling• Biblical-sounding syntax and imagery• Grammatical conversions: verbification, prefixation, suffixation, compounding• The spelling of words resembles the literal pronunciation, influenced by the

Bible which was meant to be a spoken text• Prepositional semantic shifts• Lack of ‘do’ constructions for questions / negatives (e.g. ‘enter not’, ‘sit not’• Capitals used for proper nouns but also for important common nouns• Emergence of ‘;’ although not yet standardised• Changing vowel sounds (as the Great Vowel Shift began)• French words: more elegant and refined with softer sounds and different

stress on the endings of words• Loss of many inflections, making word order more important• Context can be used to decipher the meaning of unfamiliar words in texts of

this period (unlike Old English where words are difficult for modern readers to understand)

MIDDLE ENGLISH

Key texts• Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales

– Written from 1387, using romantic language (Latin and French). The influence of this is shown through other literary texts produced after the tales were published

• Gawain and the Green Knight• Written religious texts

MIDDLE ENGLISH

Key dates

1171

Henry II declares himself overlord of Ireland, introducing Norman French and English to the countryAround this time the University of Oxford is founded

1476 William Caxton’s printing press arrives

1500 Henry VIII cuts the link between Rome and the Church of England

MIDDLE ENGLISH

Examples of texts

Chaucer

‘A knyght ther was, and that a worthy man,That fro the tyme that he first biganTo riden out, he loved chivalrie,Trouthe and honour, fredom and curteisie.Ful worthy was he in his lordes werre,And therto hadde he riden, no man ferre,As wel in cristendom as in hethenesse,And evere honoured for his worthynesse.At alisaundre he was whan it was wonne.’

Translation…

A knight there was, and he a worthy man,

Who, from the moment that he first began

To ride about the world, loved chivalry,

Truth, honour, freedom and all courtesy.

Full worthy was he in his liege-lord’s war,

And therein had he ridden (none more far)

As well in Christendom as heathenesse,

And honoured everywhere for worthiness.MIDDLE ENGLISH

Early Modern English

years 1500-1700EARLY MODERN ENGLISH

Context • The printing press (established in the Middle English period)

meant spellings became more fixed and established• Science became a key factor in language change as more

discoveries were made. Many words introduced through scientists were ‘loan words’ which had been borrowed from other languages as people struggled to name their discoveries

• Religion was still just as important in society as it had always been (during this period the protestant reformation occurred, which also could have informed the language / attitudes )

• Exploration and colonisation also affected the use of language and meant more words were picked up

• The Renaissance led to a growth in interest in classical culture, contrasting to the ‘intellectual sterility’ of medieval times

• Latin was still spoken and was influential of the English language, aided by the Renaissance

EARLY MODERN ENGLISH

Words of Latin origin

• Ambiguous• Colossal• Emotion• Exaggerate• History• Immense• Intellect• Magnificent

• Monopoly • Nation• Opponent• Quotation• Ultimate• Vacuum


Shakespeare (1564-1616)• Shakespeare made a huge impact on the English language,

leading to a more romantic style of literature, with French and Italian influences (as well as creating his own words)

• He reduced inflections on endings of words, which led to grammatical conversion (particularly making verbs from nouns), e.g. ‘season your admiration’, ‘destruction shall dog them at their heels’, ‘I, who at Phillipi, the great Brutus ghosted’

• He also introduced idiomatic expressions into normal language, e.g. ‘in my mind’s eye’, ‘a tower of strength’, ‘be cruel only to be kind’, ‘love is blind’

• His use of hyphenated compounds also proved influential, often to form new words e.g. ‘faire-play’, ‘ill-tuned’, ‘pell-mell’


The King James Bible (1611)

• King James appointed a panel of university scholars to develop a single Bible translation for use across the country

• They listened to the translations being read out loud to assess rhythm and balance – it is intended as a spoken document

• Unlike Shakespeare’s language, the King James Bible reserves an archaic style (e.g. keeps ‘digged’ instead of ‘dug’ and ‘gat’ instead of ‘got’


Key features of Early Modern English

• The grammar reflected the transition between Middle English and contemporary English• Spelling and punctuation started to become more standardised (inconsistencies remained

but gradually began to disappear)• Shakespeare’s work utilised unusual words, some inflections (such as ‘–est’ and ‘–eth’)

were favoured while others completely rejected, and pronouns ‘thou’, ‘thee’ and ‘thy’ were used in his work

• The use of inflections was reduced (aided by Shakespeare’s works, mentioned above)• Phonology was influenced by the Great Vowel Shift. This is where the pronunciation of

long vowel sounds transformed to become similar to the pronunciation we have today• Latin and French influences on spelling still remained: ‘v’ and ‘u’ were interchangeable• Many prefixes (anti-, post-, pre-) and suffixes (-ate, -ic, -al) were taken from Latin. Latin

words are often lengthy and sound weighty and learned• Word order became more fixed: subject > verb > object• Literature flourished due to the Renaissance and the accessibility of texts• Shakespeare and Bibles / Book of Common Prayer increased the normality of idioms• There is evidence of class correlation with standard English (higher classed and better-

educated people speaking the standard language)• Different tense usage (e.g. ‘glad we are got acquainted)


Key dates1450-1650

The Great Vowel Shift occurred, where the pronunciation of vowel sounds changed and two were dropped completely

1509 Henry VIII reigned the throne

1534 Tynedale’s Bible was released – the first English version of the Bible

1549The first version of the Book of Common Prayer of the Church of England was published

1558Elisabeth I reigned the throne, which will have had a significant impact on attitudes towards women in society

1564-1616Shakespeare was alive – very significant contributor to the English language

1611 The King James Bible was published

1622 Weekly News, the first English newspaper, published in London

1721Samuel Johnson formed the most influential dictionary in the English language (meaning it was finished in the Modern English period)


Examples of texts

Extract from Shakespeare’s The Tempest

‘Where should this music be? I’the air or the earth?

It sounds no more; and, sure, it waits upon

Some god o’the island. Sitting on a bank,

Weeping again the King my father’s wreck,

This music crept by me upon the waters,

Allaying both their fury and my passion (line 395)

With its sweet air. Thence I have followed it –

Or it hath drawn me rather. But ’tis gone.

No, it begins again.’EARLY MODERN ENGLISH

Modern English

years 1700-1900

MODERN ENGLISH

Context

• The industrial revolution influenced the English language as new ideas and contraptions were being invented, along with a range of new fields people could work in

• English started to become an international language at this point. New varieties such as American English and Indian English began to form. The expansion of the British Empire (19th century) and growing ‘superpower’ status of the US (20th century) also influenced our language, as evident in the Americanisms in everyday modern use

• Cultural issues at this time included women’s and children’s rights. Religion also continued to play an important role in society

MODERN ENGLISH

Key features of Modern English

• Spelling became much more consistent and standardised• Regional differences in language lessened• A leap in quality of education, literacy and communication

meant English became much more standardised as a whole• Americanisms and American spellings (e.g. or/our and re/er

endings) started to form • Newly coined words were used more heavily and quickly• Use of auxiliary verbs became mandatory in interrogative

sentences, e.g. ‘did he go running?’• Archaic possessive pronouns were still in use in earlier

examples of texts, e.g. ‘thy’ and ‘thou’

MODERN ENGLISH

Johnson’s dictionary (1755)

• Samuel Johnson published his dictionary in 1755

• It was not the first dictionary but was the most thorough and authoritative, giving advice on usage and different senses of words as well as definitions.

• The dictionary provided clear, prescriptive standard spellings, though this took several decades to filter through to everyday use

MODERN ENGLISH

Key dates1755 Johnson’s dictionary is published

1760-1820/’40 Industrial revolution

1800’sExpansion of the British Empire brings other words into our language as well as taking English words into others

1828Webster publishes books on grammar, creating standards for grammar as well as spelling

MODERN ENGLISH

Late Modern English

years 1900-present

LATE MODERN ENGLISH

Context• Technology has become one of the main influences of modern

language, as well as pop culture (celebrity obsessions, tabloids, gossip publications)

• ‘Text speak’ such as ‘lol’ and ‘omg’ has filtered through into everyday usage, including spoken language

• The Internet, texting, new gadgets (iPads, Kindles) come with entirely new lexical sets as well as jargon and specialist language

• Attitudes in society change: the importance of belief and religion has lessened (we are in more of a secular society). Attitudes towards females and sexuality are slowly shifting. World wars, terrorism and environmental threats also impact values and attitudes in society

• English is now very much a global language, with many influences and new words being created constantly

• Regional differences in England have lessened, aided by widespread education, standardisation of language and the media (where the Internet has increased accessibility to types of language)

LATE MODERN ENGLISH

Key features of Late Modern English

• Standard spelling and grammar systems• Acronyms have become a normal part of language, e.g.

‘omg’, ‘lol’, ‘fomo’, ‘wtf’• Grammar rules can be flouted more easily, e.g.

experimenting with syntax and fronted conjunctions. The grammar can be used to suit the formality of the text

• Slang and jargon is heavily used• In the written word, informality is much more common,

especially in journalism where fronted conjunctions and the use of bullet points are normal, particularly in online news articles (appealing to on-the-go readers)

LATE MODERN ENGLISH

Key dates1914-1918 World War I

1922 BBC founded

1928 Oxford English Dictionary is published

1939-1945 World War II

1961 Webster’s Third New International Dictionary is published

1988 The Internet is released to the public

1994 Text messaging is introduced, and the first modern blogs go online

2006Twitter is formed, leading to impulsive online expressions, fast-spreading news and a constant (but concise) vent for users’ thoughts

LATE MODERN ENGLISH

Major influences on modern language development and

variation• The media• Technology• Social media and communication• Travelling and migration• Texting• Jargon and slang• Education• Worldwide language

LATE MODERN ENGLISH