A2 Tectonic Case Studies

By Kit Parker

Expanding Earth Theory0 The expanding Earth or growing

Earth hypothesis asserts that the position and relative movement of continents is at least partially due to the volume of Earth increasing. Conversely, geophysical global cooling was the hypothesis that various features could be explained by Earth contracting.

0 In 1889 and 1909 Roberto Mantovani published a hypothesis of Earth expansion and continental drift. He assumed that a closed continent covered the entire surface of a smaller Earth. Thermal expansion led to volcanic activity, which broke the land mass into smaller continents. These continents drifted away from each other because of further expansion at the rip-zones, where oceans currently lie. Although Alfred Wegener noticed some similarities to his own hypothesis of continental drift, he did not mention Earth expansion as the cause of drift in Mantovani's hypothesis.

0 A compromise between Earth-expansion and Earth-contraction is the "theory of thermal cycles" by Irish physicist John Joly. He assumed that heat flow from radioactive decay inside Earth surpasses the cooling of Earth's exterior. Together with British geologist Arthur Holmes, Joly proposed a hypothesis in which Earth loses its heat by cyclic periods of expansion. In their hypothesis, expansion led to cracks and joints in Earth's interior, that could fill with magma. This was followed by a cooling phase, where the magma would freeze and become solid rock again, causing Earth to shrink.

Earthquakes

Physical Factors Affecting an Earthquake

Small Earthquake Factors Affecting Big Earthquake

Deep/ Intermediate (70 –700km deep)

Depth of FocusShallow Focus (0-

70km deep)

Far away from it Epicentre Location Close to an area

Kashmir - 20050 Epicentre 80km North –East of

Islamabad0 Magnitude 7.6 on the Richter scale0 Depth of focus 10km deep0 88,000 people dead, 70,000 people

injured and the earthquake affected 3.5m people. 20th highest death toll ever

0 earthquake was strong enough to topple a building 100km from the epicentre. To add to this winter was approaching after the earthquake. Freezing temperatures of –15C to –20 and heavy snow in highland areas meant that there was more chances of diseases spreading and aid workers found it difficult to get through to these remote areas (e.g. Neelum Valley).

0 80% of health facilities in the earthquake struck region where destroyed.

0 Muzaffarabad a sports stadium is being used to look after the homeless and provide food and water.

0 Due to lack of recourses and shelter the government had to distribute 350,000 tents, 3.2 million blankets and 3,000 tonnes of medicine.

0 The Pakistani government has distributed $44milion to 379,600 people to rebuild homes.

0 $4.5 billion dollars of International aid was given to help relief efforts in the area struck by the earthquake.

0 The UK government has provided £12 million to help the relief effort.

0 Pakistan’s Earthquake Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Authority (Erra) has been put in place.

LEDC

Haiti 20100 The magnitude of the earthquake was actually

quite small, at only 7.0 on the Richter scale. In comparison, The Japanese tsunami of 2011 had bigger fore and aftershocks!

0 The epicentre was 15 miles or 20km from the nation’s capital, port au Prince, and the hypocentre or focus was very shallow at only 13km deep. Seismic waves started at a fault line that was 10km in length.

0 200 years since the last major earthquake – 1755

0 V.Poor0 38% of the population are under 140 Infant Mortality is 60/10000 Life expectancy was just 600 GDP was only $1,3000 80% of the population lived below the

poverty line and 0 53% were literate

0 Geologist Paul Mann wrote a report in 2008 that a major earthquake could happen here, and that the damage could be catastrophic.

0 reliant on international aid for over 30% of national GDP even before the earthquake.

0 50% of buildings collapsed due to cheap construction methods

0 316,000 people died and more than a million people were made homeless

0 It is estimated that 1 in 5 jobs were lost as a result of the quake

0 The EU gave $330 million and the World Bank waived the countries debt repayments for 5 years.

0 The Senegalese offered land in Senegal to any Haitians who wanted it!

0 6 months after the quake, 98% of the rubble remained uncleared

0 23 major charities, $1.1 billion had been collected for Haiti for relief efforts, but only two percent of the money had been released

0 Dwayne Wade donated $175000 as well as other sport stars due to Haitian roots.

LEDC

Kuril Islands 19630 The 1963 Kuril Islands earthquake occurred at

05:17 UTC, on October 13. The earthquake had a magnitude of 8.5 and was followed by a Mw=7.8 event seven days later. Both earthquakes triggered tsunamis that were observed around the northern part of the Pacific ocean.

0 The Kuril Islands form part of the island arc formed above the subduction zone, where the Pacific Plate is being subducted beneath the Eurasian Plate. This convergent boundary has been the site of many large megathrust earthquakes.

0 No damage, deaths or injuries are recorded for these two earthquakes or their associated tsunamis. The tsunami triggered by the earthquake of October 13, caused a 4.5 m wave locally. The tsunami was also observed in Canada, Japan, Mexico, Hawaii, Alaska, California and on many islands across the northern Pacific Ocean. The tsunami associated with the October 20 event was larger in the local area with a maximum recorded run-up of 15 m at Urup, but was only observed in the western part of the northern Pacific

0 Also had another 8+ earthquake in 1994

0 The 2003 Colima earthquake occurred on 21 January 2003 and registered a magnitude of 7.6 on the Richter scale. The epicentre was located on the Pacific coast in the Mexican state of Colima.

0 The 2003 Colima earthquake resulted in the death of 29 people and 300 injured. Additionally, approximately 10,000 were left homeless as the earthquake destroyed 2,005 homes and seriously damaged 6,615. Most of the deaths and damage occurred in Villa de Álvarez, a city which borders the northern part of the city of Colima. Extensive damage (rating VIII) occurred in the city of Colima and in Tecomán. Some deaths and damage occurred in the states of Jalisco and Michoacán and a few buildings were damaged as far away as Guanajuato and Morelos. The quake was felt strongly (rating VI) in parts of Mexico City

0 After the massive 1982 earthquake the country which is often corrupted has set up an effective earthquake management group.

MEDC2003 Colima earthquake

LEDC

Izmit 1999 Earthquake0 7.4 on Richter Scale0 17 000 people were killed by the

disaster0 A further 24 000 people were

injured, and 600 000 people were made homeless

0 1000 aftershocks shook Izmit after the quake.

0 60-70% of buildings near the plate boundary collapsed.

0 Many of the builders and contractors who built houses and other buildings in Izmit took short cuts to save money and time.

0 The government regulations about making sure buildings can withstand earthquakes were often ignored in this part of Turkey.

0 The quake sparked a disastrous fire at the Tüpraş petroleum refinery & also a Ford Plant there

0 Economic cost: $26 billion0 The U.K announced an immediate grant

of £50,000 to help the Turkish Red Crescent, while the International Red Cross and Red Crescent pledged £4.5 million to help victims. Blankets, medical supplies and food were flown from Stansted airport. Engineers from Thames Water went to help restore water supplies. India also assisted by providing 32,000 tents and 2 million rupees to help in the reconstruction process.

LEDC MEDC

California Earthquake Proof0 California Memorial Stadium on the Hayward

fault. where right-lateral strike-slip motion is shifting the northeast half of the building to the southwest at a rate of 1.2 mm/yr. $14 million renovation of sand foundation under a portion of the stadium

0 Earthquakes have caused over $60 billion in losses in California since 1971

0 All insurance companies that sell residential property insurance in California are required by law to offer earthquake insurance to homeowners when the policy is first sold and then every two years thereafter.

0 California Earthquake Authority (CEA) insurance policies, which are designed to rebuild your home if it suffers significant damage from an earthquake.

0 2009, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger promulgated the 2009 edition of the State of California Emergency Plan

0 New buildings shorter than three stories are required to have reinforced walls and foundation slabs of a certain thickness

0 Mid-rise buildings, those up to 100 feet, require much more-intensive engineering, while designs for high-rise structures often employ innovative earthquake-resistant designs that undergo rigorous review by the country's top structural engineers.

0 The most sophisticated systems employ fluid-filled shock absorbers that slosh thick oil in the opposite direction of any swaying. One of the tallest buildings in Tokyo, the 781-foot Roppongi Hills Mori Tower, included such a "semi-active oil damper" design when completed in 2003.

0 2,200 people died in wood-and-tile homes during the Kobe earthquake

0 That toll prompted the Japanese government to launch an intensive research and retrofitting program - called "Dai-Dai-Toku," or, roughly translated, "very, very special" - to prevent a similar catastrophe

MEDCJapanEarthquake Proof

Japan tsunami0 Japan was hit with a 9.0 magnitude

earthquake which then triggered a 23 foot tall tsunami

0 45,700 buildings were destroyed and 144,300 were damaged by the quake and tsunami

0 98% of damage from the tsunami very little effect from the earthquake

0 Whole population notified 1 minute before quake

0 Tsunami wave height of 38.9 meters (128 ft.) at Omoe peninsula, Miyako city, Japan

0 over 1000 aftershocks since the earthquake, with 80 registering over magnitude 6.0 Mw and several of which have been over magnitude 7.0 Mw

0 the disaster left 15,839 dead, 5,950 injured, and 3,642 missing. According to the World Bank the estimates of the damages are placed around $122 billion and $235 billion. The Japanese estimate costs to reach $309 billion making it the world’s most expensive natural disaster on record.

0 Japan government provided 15 trillion ¥ to help businesses and stabilise markets.

0 Have started to build the Great Wall of Japan. A sea wall to prevent tsunamis. 230m long

0 Killed 2 people in California from the resulting tsunami.

0 . Aid organizations both in Japan and worldwide also responded, with the Japanese Red Cross reporting $1 billion in donations

MEDC

Volcanoes

Physical Factors Affecting an Eruption

Small Eruption Factors Affecting Big Eruption

Basaltic Magma Type Andesitic/ Rhyolitic

Low Viscosity High

Low Silica Content High

Little violence; gas escapes easily

Type of EruptionPotentially explosive;

lava shatters into pieces

Mainly Lava Material EruptedLava Bombs, ash,

dust

Regular can be continuous

Frequency Long Dormant Periods

Mount Pinatubo0 Mount Pinatubo had been dormant for 500

years. The first sign that this situation might be changing occurred on July 16, 1990 when a magnitude 7.8 earthquake

0 June 15th, the volcano exploded in a massive eruption that ejected more than 5 cu. kms. of volcanic material. The ash cloud from this huge eruption rose 22 miles (35 kms.) into the air. A blanket of volcanic ash and larger pumice pebbles blanketed the countryside. Fine ash fell as far away as the Indian Ocean, and satellites tracked the ash cloud several times around the globe. Huge avalanches of red hot ash, gas, and pumice fragments called pyroclastic flows roared down the sides of Mount Pinatubo, filling the deep valleys with fresh volcanic deposits as much as 660 ft. (200 m.) thick. The eruption removed so much magma and rock from below the volcano that the summit collapsed to form a large volcanic depression or caldera 1.6 miles (2.5 kms.) across.

0 847 People Killed - 300 from collapsing roofs , 100 from the mud flows known as lahars, the rest from disease in the evacuation centres including measles

0 650,000 workers lost jobs0 $700 Million Damages0 1.2million people lost homes0 Volcanic ash is blown in all directions

over hundreds of KMs, smothering fields and buildings.

0 Global cooling caused by ash in the atmosphere of 0.5°C

0 75,000 people were evacuated due to accurate predictions. There was no monitoring until the 3rd of April but seismometers were put into place.

0 The United States Geological Service helped to predict the disaster

LEDC

Montserrat0 After a long period of dormancy (500 year), the

Soufriere Hills volcano became active in 1995, and has continued to erupt ever since.

0 When pyroclastic flows and mudflows began occurring regularly, the capital, Plymouth, was evacuated, and a few weeks later a pyroclastic flow covered the city in several metres of debris.

0 2/3 of the island was covered in ash0 A second large eruption on 25 June 1997 resulted in

the deaths of nineteen people. The island's airport was directly in the path of the main pyroclastic flow and was completely destroyed

0 The governments of the United Kingdom and Montserrat led the aid effort, including a £41 million package provided to the people of Montserrat; however, riots followed as the people protested that the British Government was not doing enough to aid relief. The riots followed a £10 million aid offer by International Development Secretary Claire Short, prompting the resignation of Bertrand Osborne, then Chief Minister of Montserrat after allegations of being too pro-British and not demanding a better offer.

0 About 7,000 people, or two-thirds of the population, left Montserrat; 4,000 to the United Kingdom

0 The volcano has become one of the most closely monitored volcanoes in the world since its eruption began, with the Montserrat Volcano Observatory taking detailed measurements and reporting on its activity to the government and population of Montserrat. The observatory is operated by the British Geological Survey under contract to the government of Montserrat

0 Located in Southern Chile0 In May 2008, Chaitén began erupting violently, producing numerous

plumes, pyroclastic flows, minor earthquakes and lahars. It produced a high Plinian eruption. Chaitén was classified as a VEI of 4. By late May the lava eruptions had created a new dome of 540,000m2 containing 55million m3 of material.

0 Chile only has 20 volcanoes with completed geological studies, 7 which have had hazard assessments and 7 more that are monitored. Chaitén was classified as a low threat volcano, but even without this low rating there is only one volcano observatory in all of Chile. USGS didn’t start monitoring until after eruption.

0 The town of Chaitén, located about 10 kilometres southwest of the eruption site, was blanketed with ash. About 4,000 people who lived there were evacuated by boat.

0 The ash plume was so thick in some parts of Argentina that schools, highways and airports were forced to close. Indeed, Chaitén was a major concern to both the airline industry and the neighbouring country of Argentina

0 90% of Chaitén was flooded due to increased flows0 80-90% of the town of Chaitén reported damaged, 0 The Chilean Navy had managed to evacuate 3900 people initially and

emergency measures included the following; not to drink the water, they distributed face masks and fresh water, ordered a 50km exclusion around the town, issued a monthly disaster grant of $1200 and $2200 per month per family as well as a freeze on payment of existing loans on the state bank Banco Estado to aid businesses in trouble

0 The long term response to this eruption was that Chile's geological survey (the Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería, or SERNAGEOMIN) created a new program to improve monitoring and hazard mitigation at 43 of Chile's high-threat volcanoes. The program will support studies of the history of eruptions at these volcanoes, assessments of volcanic hazards, and the creation of a real-time monitoring network and early warning system.

LEDC Chaitén

Eyjafjallajökull (E15)0 Seismic activity started at the end of 2009 and

gradually increased in intensity until on 20 March 2010, a small eruption started rated as a 1VEI

0 Britain had fine anticyclonic weather for a lot of the time that the Ash cloud existed. This was a problem because winds would have dispersed the cloud better.

0 The other complicating factor is that the volcano is covered by the Eyjafjallajökull glacier. This caused a flood (a jökulhlaups - glacier outburst flood) on the 14th of April, when an eruption partly melted a glacier and set off a major flood which prompted authorities to order 700 people to evacuate. This flood had huge discharges of 2000-3000 m3/sec

0  The volcano also emitted lava from a 500m long fissure, spewing the 1,000°C lava 150m into the air. The volcano was classified with a VEI of 4, with greater than 1.4 ± 0.1 x 107 m3 (100 million cubic meters) of lava erupted and > 1.4 x 108 m3 (1,000million cubic meters!) of Tephra erupted. It was also categorised as both a fissure and explosive eruption

0 From 14–20 April, ash covered large areas of northern Europe when the volcano erupted. About 20 countries closed their airspace to commercial jet traffic and it affected more than 100,000 travellers.

0 IATA stated that the total loss for the airline industry was around US$1.7 billion (£1.1 billion, €1.3 billion

0 Following Air France-KLM's and British Airways' requests to the European Union, and additionally in the latter's case to the British government, for compensation, Gordon Brown announced that the EU Solidarity fund, designed to aid EU member states in the event of large-scale disasters, could be a possible source of compensation)

0 Beginning on 14 April 2010, the eruption entered a second phase and created an ash cloud that led to the closure of most of the European IFR airspace from 15 until 20 April 2010. Consequently, a very high proportion of flights within, to, and from Europe were cancelled, creating the highest level of air travel disruption since the Second World War. The second phase resulted in an estimated 250 million cubic metres (330,000,000 cu yd.) (0.25 km3) of ejected tephra and an ash plume that rose to a height of approximately 9 kilometres (30,000 ft.), which rates the explosive power of the eruption as a 4 on the Volcanic Exclusivity Index. By 21 May 2010, the second eruption phase had subsided to the point that no further lava or ash was being produced.

0 By the evening of 6 June 2010, a small new crater had opened up on the west side of the main crater. Explosive activity from this new crater was observed with emission of small quantities of ash. Seismic data showed that the frequency and intensity of earth tremors still exceeded the levels observed before the eruption, therefore scientists at the Icelandic Meteorological Office and the Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland (IES) continued to monitor the volcano.

0 Effects on Economies:0 EU- weren’t able to send manufactured goods,

BMW, FedEx food and flowers and other fresh goods lost

0 ROW- Kenya is reported to have destroyed 400 tonnes of flowers it was unable to airship into the UK . As a result, their economy was estimated to be incurring losses of $3.8m each day of the disruption. Many lost jobs.

MEDC

Etna0 The eruption in 1991 started on 14th December

and lasted for 473 day0 The lava flowed down the SE flank of the

volcano into the Valle del Bove The acidic lava had a low effusion rate (rate and volume of lava emitted in m³/sec)which posed very little threat to human life

0 The UN has classified it as a Decade Volcano due to its activity and nearby population

0 Supports rich agricultural land and it is estimated that 35% of Sicily’s population live on its slopes.

0 Since 2001, it has seen an eruption every year.0 It is well monitored and actively managed. 77

deaths can be attributed to eruptions on Mount Etna.

0 The majority were caused when visitors strayed into hazardous areas, such as the nine tourists killed in September 1979 near Bocca Nuova by a phreatic explosion,

0 In the last 20 years, all deaths on Etna have been due to lightening strikes and accidents.

0 The eruptions of 2002 completely destroyed the tourist station at Piano Provenzana and part of the tourist station around the Rifugio Sapienza on the south side of the volcano. It took the lava two weeks to reach the station. On July 29th airports of Catania were closed due to ash and the winter tourist industry was affected badly.

0 In most instances locals have rebuilt their own properties from salvaged materials or relocated elsewhere, and government intervention has been rare.

0 One intervention occurred in 1991-3 when Zafferana was threatened by a lava flow. Initial attempts proved unsuccessful when hastily built earth barriers were surmounted. Instead, explosives were detonated to disrupt and redirect the flow and break up the efficient lava tubing system which had guided it 7km downslope. Later in 2002, dams of soil and volcanic rock were put up to protect the tourist base at Rifugio Sapienza and helped divert the flow. The Army’s heavy earth-moving equipment was also brought in to block the flows. The Italian government pledged immediate financial assistance to losses in tourism and agriculture of more than £5.6m and tax breaks for villagers

0 The Catania Section of the Instituto Nazionale di Geofiisica e Vulconalogia (INGV) has monitored the volcano for 20 years with a permanent network of remote sensors (seismic, gedetic, magnetic, gravimetric and videos) connected in real time, radio and by mobile phone, to the acquisition centre.

MEDC

Hawaii0 Encompassing more than 50 percent of Hawaii's Big

Island, the active volcano of Mauna Loa is one of the most imposing land masses on earth. Measuring from the sea floor, Mauna Loa rises 56,000 feet above its base. One of the planet's most active volcanoes, Mauna Loa has wrought destruction through the ages. Although this "Long Mountain" hasn't erupted since 1884

0 A very active volcano, it has produced large, voluminous flows of basalt (very fluid, dark lava) that have reached the ocean eight times since 1868. It last erupted in 1984, when a lava flow came within 7.2 km (4.5 miles) of Hilo, the largest population centre on the island.

0 Since 1843, Mauna Loa has erupted 33 times, averaging one eruption every 5 years.

0 the Island of Hawaii is the fastest growing region in the State of Hawai‘i, with more than 100,000 residents and a population that grew by 24 percent in the past decade. High levels of interest and affordable land lead to developmental pressures, which means that more and more construction will occur on the flanks of the island’s volcanoes.

0 This rapid growth includes several multimillion-dollar developments built or proposed on the slopes of Mauna Loa in Waikoloa, Hilo, and Hawaiian Ocean View Estates—the last is the Nation’s largest development in terms of area. Between 1984, the most recent eruption of Mauna Loa, and 2002, approximately $2.3 billion were invested in new construction on the flanks of the volcano.

0 The USGS’s Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) has recently upgraded its monitoring networks to improve its ability to detect early unrest. Numerous seismic, GPS, and tilt stations across the flanks of Mauna Loa keep a vigilant eye on the mountain 24 hours a day. When unrest is detected, scientists notify emergency-management officials and increase monitoring efforts

0 The greatest direct hazards associated with shield volcanoes are the lava flows and emissions of volcanic gases. Although these seldom cause deaths, lava flows typically do extensive damage by covering, burning, and crushing everything in their path. Basalt flows can travel more than 50 km from their vent, making most communities on the Island of Hawai‘i susceptible to lava-flow inundation. And gas emissions can be carried by the wind and reach other islands in the State, producing human health concerns and damaging crops and livestock.

0 The whole island is zoned,0 Management

0 Deformation, they check the summit deformation. This monitoring has gone on since the 1970s, although at times it has decreased in size, the general trend is a 2cm/year increase in the size, probably due to an increase in lava.

0 Seismicity, Since 2005, seismic activity has been near background levels, with an average of two earthquakes per month. Before Mauna Loa's next eruption becomes imminent, we expect that rates of shallow seismicity will elevate to levels much higher than those currently observed.

0 Monitoring volcanic gases can provide clues about the internal workings of an active volcano. So, in 2005, HVO installed two gas monitors atop Mauna Loa: a fixed-view ultraviolet spectrometer system and a real-time ambient gas monitor.

MEDC

A2 Globalisation Case Studies

By Kit Parker

Millennium Development Goals: UAE

0 The UAE has been very impressive as by 2007 it had already completed most of the goals and started to implement more goals to beat. The government has focused on raising the level of education, health care and social welfare services. It has adopted a number of policies to diversify and increase income, including: allocating farmland to farmers of limited income; supporting agriculture; providing interest-free loans to small and medium enterprises; distributing highly subsidized or free housing; giving fishermen financial and material support; and providing citizens and economic utilities with water and electricity services at subsidized prices.

0 One of the main reasons the country had been able to achieve these goals is in part due to urban planning. 84% of the country live in urban areas which allows them to have greater access to services such as health and education but it also means that they are more likely to be hooked up to electricity and also to clean water.

0 One of the biggest issues is that the UAE needs diversify its sources of income and expand the production base, so as not to depend on oil production and exports; and to further activate the role of the private sector as a partner in the development process. This could become a much larger issue in the future as their oil reserves start to dry up and so developing a private sector is important. Especially as how successful the country has been about catering to Western Culture compared to other countries in the Middle East has encouraged a lot of development from business trying to move into the Middle Eastern Market.

Goal Achieved Stats To Back it up

Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

Yes  

Achieve universal primary education

Yes

Net enrolment ratio in primary education (% both sexes): 95.1

Percentage of pupils starting Grade 1 and reach Grade 5 (% both sexes): 99.1

Promote gender equality and

empower womenYes

Gender parity Index in primary level enrolment (ratio of girls to boys): 1.0

Literacy rates of 15-24 years old (% both sexes): 97.7

Seats held by women in national parliament (%): 22.5

Reduce child mortality

Yes

Mortality rate of children under 5 years old (per 1,000 live births): 8

1-year-old children immunized against measles (%): 92

Improve maternal health

Yes Maternal mortality ratio (per 100,000 births):

37

Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other

diseasesYes

People living with HIV,15-49 yrs. old (%): 0.2%

Prevalence of tuberculosis (per 100,000 people): 24

Ensure environmental sustainability

Yes

Land area covered by forest (%): 3.7 Carbon dioxide emissions per capita (metric

tons): 37.7966 Access to improved drinking water sources

(% of total population): 100

Develop a global partnership for development

Insufficient Evidence Internet users (per 100 people): 36.7

South KoreaDemographic

Population 48,955,203Dependency Ratio 37.1%

Pop Growth 0.18%Life Expectancy 79.55

SocialUrbanisation 83.2%

Literacy Rates 97.7%HIV prevalence <0.1%

Pop Below poverty line 16.5%Economic

Unemployment 9.6%GDP Growth 2%

GDP per capita $32,300Inflation 2.2%

1970sRural & Social Development. Due to large inequality between rural and urban areas the government implemented a new tax policy similar to England to redistribute income in the two areas. ‘Barnett Formula’

1980sEconomic change. The market changed from a closed system looking out to a more open market with easy access especially from the outside such as a reduction on foreign tariffs and also of government intervention. This was in conjunction with the early growth of the RIC’s who had lower wages which was very appealing to foreign companies.

Investment in education & skills. A way to allow for the manufacturing of more high tech goods, as a way to keep domestic brands such as Samsung and LG in the country instead of exporting their manufacturing.

1990sEconomic Downturn. The Asian Financial crisis of 1997 started after the collapse of the Thai Baht (currency), which caused many western countries and businesses to lose confidence in the area. Wasn’t helped as the biggest importer in the area also had a recession which heavily reduced the demand for Asian products. This saw many criticise the previously heavily government run markets which left companies with a limited knowledge of world markets. However did have a positive as it later saw a reduced value of its currency which made it cheaper to import South Korean goods which saw demand increase.

NowSouth Korea has a market economy which ranks 15th in the world by nominal GDP and 12th by purchasing power parity (PPP), identifying it as one of the G-20 major economies. Trade Balance of $29.79bn

1960sExport Led Growth. Encouraged all businesses to focus on exporting their goods, due to a larger and more stable market. They did this due to a weak currency meant that foreign countries could buy more of their exports as it was cheaper. Subsidies to further reduce the prices of their goods. Tariffs on raw material imports were reduced to further bring down the costs of production. They also stabilised relations with Japan and a large and near market they could easily expand to.Improvements in Infrastructure. Grants were given to firms to buy machinery to expand production. Improved the transport inside of the country, not only allowed the goods to be transported easier but also the workforce.FDI was encouraged by the government with all of their subsidies and tariff reductions also allowed to new businesses. Many Chaebols started up, large enterprises with multiple areas of production such as Daewoo & Hyundai.

0 ExxonMobil is the largest of the world's supermajors (Also known as Big Oil" it is used to describe the world's five or six largest publicly owned oil and gas companies; BP, Chevron Corporation, Royal Dutch Shell and Total SA) with daily production of 3.921 million BOE. In 2008, this was approximately 3 percent of world production, which is less than several of the largest state-owned petroleum companies. When ranked by oil and gas reserves, it is 14th in the world

0 They are the world's third largest company by revenue; ExxonMobil is also the second largest publicly traded company by market capitalization. The company was ranked No. 5 globally in Forbes Global 2000 list in 2013. ExxonMobil's reserves were 72 billion BOE (barrels of oil equivalent) at the end of 2007. With 37 oil refineries in 21 countries constituting a combined daily refining capacity of 6.3 million barrels, ExxonMobil is the largest refiner in the world.

0 2012 profit of $44.9B0 All-time annual earnings record for any

company, of $45.2 billion before recession. It then halved the next year.

0 The core of Exxon Mobil’s business is oil and gas. Petroleum is mostly sold through Exxon’s/Esso’s service stations of which they have 45,000 in 118 countries. Aviation fuel is sold at more than 700 airports in 80 countries, and ExxonMobil Marine Fuels serves more than 300 ports in 70 countries. They are the world’s largest non-governmental marketer of equity natural gas. It is also the world’s leading marketer of finished lubricants, using the brand name Mobil and the world’s largest wholesaler of helium. Exxon Chemical products include plastics, oriented polypropylene film, synthetic rubber, fluids, plasticizers, basic chemical building blocks such as ethylene, ethylene glycol, propylene and paraxylene, fuel and lubricant additives and synthetic lubricant base stock.

0 Worldwide it employs over 100,000 people. They pay different amounts to their staff depending on their job. The CEO Rex Tillerson earns $25m a year (2011), whereas a cashier at one of their US gas stations earns $8.45 an hour.

0 It mainly grew around the world to get different resources as well as to supply around the world.

China0 China’s economy is predicted to overtake the US

economy in GDP by 2020.0 Biggest Manufacturing producer in the world.0 The non-democratic and authoritarian political regime in

China has meant that it has been possible to embrace western-style free market economics while maintaining control over the political system. In many ways, the planned economy of China (where the state controls economic activity rather than private business) has accelerated economic growth because the government has controlled all decision-making.

0 China first began moving away from a centrally planned economy towards a market-oriented system in 1978. Deng Xiaoping was Mao’s successor and he sought to bring an end to China’s relative economic isolation.

0 This is the strategy which China initially pursued. The strategy is beginning to become phased out in favour of Import Substitution Industrialisation.

0 Followed USSR 5 year plans to encourage production rates. (12th 5 year plan aims to grow GDP by 8% annually, also remove variations in living and reduce population growth)

0 Average yearly salary is under $8k a year0 77% of woman in workforce0 6 SEZs or 14 Open Cities. These are designated

zones where TNCs are offered incentives such as reduced tax rates to set up manufacturing operations. An example is a Taiwanese TNC, EUPA, which manufactures coffee machines in Xiamen (an Open City) and employs 25,000 workers.

0 6 SEZs or 14 Open Cities. These are designated zones where TNCs are offered incentives such as reduced tax rates to set up manufacturing operations. An example is a Taiwanese TNC, EUPA, which manufactures coffee machines in Xiamen (an Open City) and employs 25,000 workers.

0 Since the 1990s China has been developing its energy base, with new hydroelectric and nuclear power plants.

0 The government has built many new roads, improved the rail system and made China’s major rivers navigable all year round. It has also encouraged urbanisation.

0 95% literacy levels – 600,000 new engineers each year

0 China has started to globalise economically by buying up foreign companies. In fact, in 2010 China invested $56bn in in outward FDI. With inward FDI averaging some $60bn per year, China is poised to turn from a net recipient to a net investor in FDI, a marker of its economic maturity in many respects.

0 China has a great wealth of natural resources, having vast reserves of coal, oil and natural gas. These are being used to fuel the industrial development of the country

India0 The Economy of India is the 8th-largest in the

world by nominal GDP and the third-largest by purchasing power parity. India is one of the fastest developing economic Superpower with potential to become world third largest economy(nominal gdp) by 2020.The country is one of the G-20 major economies and a member of BRICS. According to the IMF. India is the 16th-largest exporter and the 8th-largest importer in the world

India Economy Stats

GDP $2.13t (8th)

GDP per capita $1.7k (135th)

Below Poverty 21.9%

Labour Force by occupationagriculture: 51.1%, industry:

22.4%, services: 26.6% (2012 est.)

Unemployment 3.8%

Average Salary $1,580

Exports $312b

Imports $451b

Public Debt 67% of GDP

0 During the year 2011, FDI inflow into India stood at $36.5 billion, 51.1% higher than 2010 figure of $24.15 billion. India has strengths in telecommunication, information technology and other significant areas such as auto components, chemicals, apparels, pharmaceuticals, and jewellery. Despite a surge in foreign investments, rigid FDI policies were a significant hindrance.

0 Goldman Sachs predicted that "from 2007 to 2020, India's GDP per capita in US$ terms will quadruple", and that the Indian economy will surpass the United States (in US$) by 2043. In spite of the high growth rate, the report stated that India would continue to remain a low-income country for decades to come but could be a "motor for the world economy" if it fulfils its growth potential.

0 74% Literacy rate0 High levels of corruption on all scales

Brazil0 Brazil has the seventh largest economy by nominal GDP in

the world, and seventh largest by purchasing power parity. The Brazilian economy is characterized by moderately free markets and an inward-oriented economy.

0 Brazil’s economy is the largest of the Latin American nations and the second largest in the western hemisphere. Brazil is one of the fastest-growing major economies in the world with an average annual GDP growth rate of over 5 percent. In future decades, Brazil is expected to become one of the five largest economies in the world

0 The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 67.0 percent, followed by the industrial sector at 27.5 percent. Agriculture represents 5.5 percent of GDP (2011). Brazilian labour force is estimated at 100.77 million of which 10 percent is occupied in agriculture, 19 percent in the industry sector and 71 percent in the service sector.

0 The Brazilian government has undertaken an ambitious program to reduce dependence on imported petroleum. Imports previously accounted for more than 70% of the country's oil needs but Brazil became self-sufficient in oil in 2006-2007. Brazil is one of the world's leading producers of hydroelectric power, with a current capacity of about 260,000 megawatts. Existing hydroelectric power provides 90 percent of the nation's electricity

0 In the last decade, domestic production increased by 32.3 percent and agribusiness (agriculture and cattle-raising), which grew by 47 percent or 3.6 percent per year, was the most dynamic sector – even after having weathered international crises that demanded constant adjustments to the Brazilian economy. The Brazilian government also launched a program for economic development acceleration called Programa de Aceleração do Crescimento, aiming to spur growth.

0 Dubai's gross domestic product as of 2008 was US $82.11 billion The International Herald Tribune has described it as "centrally-planned free-market capitalism."[ Dubai's economy was initially built on revenues from the oil industry, revenue from petroleum and natural gas currently account for less than 2% of the emirate's gross domestic product. Dubai became important ports of call for Western manufacturers. Most of the new city's banking and financial centres were headquartered in the port area. Dubai maintained its importance as a trade route

0 Today, Dubai has focused its economy on tourism by building hotels and developing real estate. Port Jebel Ali, constructed in the 1970s, has the largest man-made harbour in the world, but is also increasingly developing as a hub for service industries such as IT and finance, with the new Dubai International Financial Centre.

0 Dubai is stepping up its efforts to improve energy efficiency, while boosting the role played by renewable resources in meeting demand

0 Dubai has teamed up with the Environmental Centre for Arab Towns, a research institute, in a bid to drive down energy usage by 20% over the next three years. Its efforts also include a plan to cut CO2 emissions by 6200 tonnes annually.

0 Dubai is greatly dependent on the availability of cheap energy, and its per capita consumption of energy is amongst the highest in the world. Cheaply available oil is used to desalinize the water that irrigates the lush tropical landscapes implanted in its desert, and that supports the water-spending habits of its leisure tourism and residents. It is used to air-condition its massive interior spaces during the gruellingly hot summer months. It is used to run motor vehicles in a city designed exclusively for automobiles (which increasingly are stuck in traffic) and not for pedestrians.

0 As global warming is becoming a more serious and real threat to the livelihood of the planet, there is a rising awareness that such a lifestyle that is dependent on an intensive consumption of fossil fuels may not be sustainable. Dubai's coastal location and low-lying reclaimed land mean it is at increased risk from flooding as sea-levels rise.

0 The city's location requires an almost total dependency on medium-haul air travel to survive, most visitors coming from Europe and India.

Dubai

LDCBasic Facts0 50 Least Developed Countries (34 in Africa, 14 in Asia and the Pacific

Region, 1 in Western Asia – Yemen, 1 in the Caribbean – Haiti)

Economic Growth0 Since 2001, LDCs have generally grown faster than other developing

countries.0 In 2004, LDCs saw the fastest annual growth rate (6%) in four

decades.

Debt Relief0 Total debt burden for LDCs increased to a record $158.9 billion in

2003, up $20.8 billion from 2001.0 13 LDCs were chosen to receive 100% cancellation under the

Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative effective July 2006.0 An additional 9 LDCs have been recommended for such debt relief.

Foreign Direct Investment0 Foreign direct investment (FDI) in LDCs increased from $6.8 billion in

2001 to a record $10.7 billion in 2004. However, FDI in LDCs accounted for only 1.6% of world FDI inflows.

Trade0 Exports of LDCs increased from $45.9 billion in 2003 to $57.8 billion in

2004. The 4 largest oil exporting0 LDCs (Angola, Equatorial Guinea, Sudan, and Yemen) accounted for

56% of that increase.0 The share of LDC exports was a meagre 0.6% of world merchandise

exports in 2004.

Poverty0 Almost 50% of the population in LDCs lives on less than $1 a day.0 Rates of undernourishment over 40% reported in 10 LDCs.

Aid0 Total ODA to LDCs from developed countries increased from $12.4

billion in 2000 to $23.5 billion in 2004.0 Almost 90% of aid was provided in grants and 86% of aid to LDCs was

untied by 2004.0 36% of all aid was directed to the social sector.0 Of 22 donors, 7 met the 0.20% target for ODA to LDCs as a share of

their GNI in 2004. 2 more reached 0.15%.

Infrastructure and Communication0 In 2004, only 4 LDCs met the target of five telephone lines per

1,000 inhabitants by 2010.0 Only 4 LDCs reported the extensive use of railways for freight in

2004.0 In 2000, there were only 7 LDCs with one or more Internet

connections per 100 inhabitants. In 2006, use has grown by 3 to 10 times although still below 1 per 100 in 25 LDCs.

0 Road length has been increased by at least 20% since 1990 in 13 LDCs.

Education0 Universal primary enrolment in primary education has improved.0 The target of 50% adult literacy by 2015 has been met for women

in 26 of 33 LDCs with data. For men, the target has been met in only 10 of 32 LDCs with trend data.

Population0 Average annual population growth in LDCs is 5%, the highest in

the world, compared to developing countries (1.2%).0 Annual fertility rate in LDCs is at 5 children per woman compared

to an average of 2.6 in the rest of the world.0 Over 40% of LDC population is under 15 years compared to 28%

in developing countries.0 Average life expectancy is the lowest in the world (51 years),

compared to 65 years in industrialized nations.Health0 Maternal mortality in the LDCs remains the highest (890 deaths

per 100,000 live births) in the world.0 Under five mortality rate is 160 deaths per 1,000 live births

compared to 86 in the rest of the world.0 2.1 million new TB cases were reported in 2004, mainly as a result

of HIV/AIDS.0 Rate of new HIV/AIDS cases (3.2%) in LDCs remains the highest in

the world.Malaria (Reduction in malaria prevalence in 15 LDCs but deterioration in 13 among 30 LDCs with trend data.)Water (Only 58 % of the population in LDCs has access to improved water.)Slums (Nearly 140 million people in LDCs live in poor housing conditions.)

EU0 The EU was created in the aftermath of the Second World War. The

first steps were to foster economic cooperation: the idea being that countries who trade with one another become economically interdependent and so more likely to avoid conflict. The result was the European Economic Community (EEC), created in 1958

0 The EU has delivered half a century of peace, stability and prosperity, helped raise living standards, and launched a single European currency, the euro.

0 The single or 'internal' market is the EU's main economic engine, enabling most goods, services, money and people to move freely. Another key objective is to develop this huge resource to ensure that Europeans can draw the maximum benefit from it.

0 U’s main goals is to promote human rights both internally and around the world. Human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights (Lisbon Treaty)

0 The economy of the European Union generates a GDP of over €12.894 trillion (US$16.566 trillion in 2012) according to Eurostat, which makes it the largest economy in the world if treated as a single economy

0 Reasons for this massive growth include government commitments to stable monetary policy, export-oriented trade policies, low flat-tax rates and the utilisation of relatively cheap labour

0 The European Union is the largest exporter in the world and as of 2008 the largest importer of goods and services. Internal trade between the member states is aided by the removal of barriers to trade such as tariffs and border controls. In the Eurozone, trade is helped by not having any currency differences to deal with amongst most members.

0 The European Union Association Agreement does something similar for a much larger range of countries, partly as a so-called soft approach ('a carrot instead of a stick') to influence the politics in those countries.

0 The services sector is by far the most important sector in the European Union, making up 69.4% of GDP, compared to the manufacturing industry with 28.4% of GDP and agriculture with only 2.3% of GDP.

0 It is an economic and political agreement among Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Venezuela; with Bolivia

0 The bloc comprises a population of more than 270 million people, and the combined Gross Domestic Product of the full-member nations is in excess of US$3.0 trillion a year according to IMF numbers, making Mercosur the fifth-largest economy in the World. It is the fourth-largest trading bloc after the European Union

0 The working of Mercosur has not met with universal approval within interested countries. Chile has to a certain extent preferred to pursue bilateral agreements with trading partners

0 The free transit of produced goods, services and factors among the member states. Among other things, this includes the elimination of customs rights and lifting of nontariff restrictions on the transit of goods or any other measures with similar effects on it

0 Fixing of a common external tariff and adopting of a common trade policy with regard to non-member states or groups of states, and the coordination of positions in regional and international commercial and economic meetings (Mercosur have signed free trade agreements with Israel, Egypt & the State of Palestine)

0 Coordination of macroeconomic and sectorial policies of member states relating to foreign trade, agriculture, industry, taxes, monetary system, exchange and capital, services, customs, transport and communications, and any others they may agree on, in order to ensure free competition between member states;

0 The commitment by the member states to make the necessary adjustments to their laws in pertinent areas to allow for the strengthening of the integration process.

Mercosur

NAFTA0 It is an agreement signed by Canada, Mexico, and the United States,

creating a trilateral rules-based trade bloc in North America0 The goal of NAFTA was to eliminate barriers with trading and

investment between the U.S., Canada and Mexico. The implementation of NAFTA on January 1, 1994 brought the immediate elimination of tariffs on more than one-half of Mexico's exports to the U.S. and more than one-third of U.S. exports to Mexico. Within 10 years of the implementation of the agreement, all U.S.-Mexico tariffs would be eliminated except for some U.S. agricultural exports to Mexico that were to be phased out within 15 years. Most U.S.-Canada trade was already duty-free. NAFTA also seeks to eliminate non-tariff trade barriers and to protect the intellectual property right of the products.

0 Canada received a modest positive economic benefit as measured by GDP2008 alone, Canada exports to the United States and Mexico were at $381.3 billion, and imports from NAFTA were at $245.1 billion

0 Maquiladoras (Mexican factories that take in imported raw materials and produce goods for export) have become the landmark of trade in Mexico. These are plants that moved to this region from the United States, hence the debate over the loss of American jobs. The overall effect of the Mexico–U.S. agricultural agreement is a matter of dispute. Mexico did not invest in the infrastructure necessary for competition, such as efficient railroads and highways, which resulted in more difficult living conditions for the country's poor. Mexico's agricultural exports increased 9.4 percent annually between 1994 and 2001, while imports increased by only 6.9 percent a year during the same period

0 The U.S. Chamber of Commerce credits NAFTA with increasing US trade in goods and services with Canada and Mexico from $337 billion in 1993 to $1.2 trillion in 2011, while the AFL-CIO blames the agreement for sending 700,000 American manufacturing jobs to Mexico over that time.

0 It is an international organization whose mission is to coordinate the policies of the oil-producing countries. The goal is to secure a steady income to the member states and to secure supply of oil to consumers

0 Iraq, Kuwait, Iran, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. Later it was joined by nine more governments: Libya, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Algeria, Nigeria, Ecuador & Angola.

0 OPEC's ‘Policy Statement' states that there is a right of all countries to exercise sovereignty over their natural resources.

0 OPEC is a swing producer and its decisions have had considerable influence on international oil prices. For example, in the 1973 energy crisis some OPEC members refused to ship oil to western countries that had supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War, which Israel had fought against Egypt and Syria. This refusal caused a fourfold increase in the price of oil, which lasted five months, starting on 17 October 1973, and ending on 18 March 1974. OPEC nations then agreed, on 7 January 1975, to raise crude oil prices by 10%.

0 despite technological advances that increase the productivity of oil wells, the rate of decline of oil fields will eventually increase as time continues

0 According to current estimates, more than 81% of the world's proven oil reserves are located in OPEC countries

0 However not all key oil producing countries are part of the group. The USA & Russia are huge producers but haven't joined. This can also mean that at times OPEC may try to underpin the other two countries oil prices to reduce demand for their product.

OPEC

0 Since independence in 1971, Bangladesh has received more than $22 billion in grant aid and loan commitments from foreign donors, about $15 billion of which has been disbursed. Major donors include the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, the UN Development Program, the United States, Japan, Saudi Arabia, and a number of West European countries. As of 1991, the United States had provided more than $3.3 billion in food and development assistance. Food aid provides food, promotes production, and helps stabilize prices. Other US programs target family planning and health, agricultural development, and rural unemployment. In 1991, the US forgave Bangladesh $293 million of development assistance debt.

0 Bangladesh historically has run a large trade deficit, about $1.5 billion annually during the late 1980s. This was financed largely through foreign assistance. The balance of payments swung into surplus in 1990-91 because of increased exports of garments and depressed domestic demand for imports. In recent years, remittances from workers in the Middle East have been Bangladesh's most important source of foreign exchange earnings. The US trade balance with Bangladesh has been negative since 1986, due largely to imports of ready-made garments.

Trade Aid

• Trade has a long-term impact upon international co-operation. Developing countries maintain trade relationship with other countries to develop on-going trading relationship. This will eventually help to flow money and goods in the developing countries, irrespective of the economical condition of the developed country. In contrast, if the developed country goes through a bad economic time, the aid budget may be cut.

• Trade helps developing countries to maintain their dignity, whereas aid is more or less related to the act of getting approval and support from the developed countries. It can be treated as a form of charity, where the developing countries need to admit the superiority of the developed country.

• Trade establishes a strong impression in the international market, whereas the country administering aid is considered as an unimpressive country.

• Trade promotes economical improvement of the country, but in the event, if aid is mishandled, then the people of the country will be deprived from getting the benefits and eventually obstruct the growth of the country.

• Aid is given to a country to be well apportioned against their need. On the other hand, trade is treated as an inefficient distributor of resources. The benefit of trade is mostly confined within elite group of people of the country.

• Aid is not always provided in the form of money and is sometimes provided through expert advisors. On the other hand, trade needs a good infrastructure of the country to prosper. It is very difficult for the developing countries to maintain a good infrastructure.

• Aid allows for money in a given country to be allocated well against need.

• Exposing fragile developing economies to free trade is very risky.

• Trade requires investment first.

Bangladesh Trade vs. Aid

Mamirauá0 In the year 2000 about 1,530,000 hectares of forest

was managed through these “simplified management plans” in the Brazilian Amazon, which represented less than 1% of the region’s total area. Most of these initiatives were made viable starting in the 1990’s with support from the government and civil society organizations; the Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve

0 In the past three decades, the Amazon lost almost 600 thousand km2. By 2001, this represented a total loss of 13.31% of the original forested area due to through expansion of the agricultural frontiers and predatory economic extraction by logging companies

0 The Mamirauá Project combines researchers, extension workers and local community members, working together. Approximately 20 researchers, various specialists in ecology, social science and the management of natural resources, from many regions of Brazil and abroad

0 Town not joining in is called Nazareth0 At most a successful ecotourism project could yield

at most $7 per acre much less lucrative than logging or alternative forms

Strengths Weaknesses

Opportunities Threats

A2 Ecosystems Case Studies

By Kit Parker

Sand Dunes0 The south east Purbeck National Nature Reserve (NNR) covers an area of

631 hectares and comprises of a variety of habitats which include five kilometres of beach, dunes, woodland, bogs and lowland heath. In fact this is one of the largest tracts of heathland in southern Britain with all six species of British reptiles present with nightjars and Dartford warblers as well as the carnivorous plant the sundew and the globally rare masonry wasp.

0 The area of Studland heath has only been present during the last six hundred years where the accumulation of sand started to build up along the coast of south haven point. This process extended the expanse of dunes due mainly to marram grass stabilising the dunes enriching the soil and facilitating the area for the succession of heaths and woodland.

0 Studland beaches are one of the most popular beaches in Britain at any one time in summer there can be as many as 25,000 people on the beach a day, evidently there is an impact. 

0 A wide sandy beach of Studland Bay forms the eastern seaward side of the South Haven Peninsula. Onshore easterly winds, especially during storms can blow the sand inland. The source of the sand is the sand bottom of Poole Bay. The sand gets trapped on the shoreline by driftwood and subsequently by vegetation which stabilises the embryo dune and dunes are simply accumulations of sand grains, shaped into mounds or ridges by the wind under the influence of gravity.

0 Until thickly vegetated, dunes are a very fragile environment, and heavy use - through recreation, for example - may cause the break-up of the roots, ultimately causing the destruction of the dune system. They are, therefore, a very dynamic system.

0 As time goes by so the type of vegetation changes and more advance and less adapted plants can colonise the areas. The pioneer plants and add humus which can hold moisture and nutrients. The pioneer plants become out competed and so gradually give way to others. This process of change is called succession. This process of succession in a sand dune system is called a psammosere.

Northern Uplands Regeneration Project

Mamirauá0 In the year 2000 about 1,530,000 hectares of forest

was managed through these “simplified management plans” in the Brazilian Amazon, which represented less than 1% of the region’s total area. Most of these initiatives were made viable starting in the 1990’s with support from the government and civil society organizations; the Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve

0 In the past three decades, the Amazon lost almost 600 thousand km2. By 2001, this represented a total loss of 13.31% of the original forested area due to through expansion of the agricultural frontiers and predatory economic extraction by logging companies

0 The Mamirauá Project combines researchers, extension workers and local community members, working together. Approximately 20 researchers, various specialists in ecology, social science and the management of natural resources, from many regions of Brazil and abroad

0 Town not joining in is called Nazareth0 At most a successful ecotourism project could yield

at most $7 per acre much less lucrative than logging or alternative forms

Strengths Weaknesses

Opportunities Threats

Amazonia0 Amazonia is located either side of the equator in South

America and stretches from the eastern slopes of the Andes Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean. It occupies 68% of Brazil, and smaller parts of surrounding countries

0 About 80% of Amazonia is rainforest; the rest is composed of seasonally flooded swamp forest and cleared, or cultivated, land

Biome Characteristic

ClimateHot with temperatures between 25 and27°C and rainfall averages 2677mm of precipitation.

Fauna

300 birds, 428 amphibians, 427 mammals, 378 reptile species, and 3000 typesof fish.

SoilRed Latosoils due to lots of leaching leaving behind iron

Biomes

80% of Amazonia is rainforest;the rest is composed of seasonallyflooded swamp forest and cleared,or cultivated, land

Adaptations

Amazonia, because of its equatorial position, receives high levels of solar energy throughout the year which leads to high rates of photosynthesis and lots of biomass. This together with a warm, wet climate encourages luxuriant growth.

Adaptations

Trees

Canopy trees have umbrella shaped crowns to maximise exposure to sunlight, large leaves to maximise photosynthesis, Leaves are dark green in colour and have a thick cuticle and waxy surface to help shed rainfall and provide protection against strong solar rays. Tree bark is thin (1–2mm) because protection is not needed against low temperatures or high water loss.

Epiphytes

They are plants that use tree branches for support, but do not feed off their hosts. Instead their aerial roots extract moisture from the air and trap dead leaves and insects.

Lianas

They are large, rooted, woodyvines which use trees to gain accessto sunlight and produce fruit andflowers in the canopy. The plants bind themselves to trees using hooks.

Parasitic plants

They which live on other living organisms occur on the floor of the rainforest, where low light levels limit photosynthesis

Animals

• strong, large, lightweight bills to prise open fruit and crack seeds, eg the toucan

• specially developed hands and feet which can cling to branches, eg the sloth has an opposable thumb

• prehensile tails to facilitate easy movement through the canopy, eg spider monkey

• mimicry, eg the false-leaf katydid looks like a leaf• thick, scaly skin, eg the armadillo• bright colours, eg the poison dart frog• nocturnal habits, eg the kinkajou

Blue Loop0 The Blue Loop is a continuous loop of

waterways and riverside walkways in the heart of Sheffield, made up of The River Don and Tinsley Canal. It travels for 8 miles from the city centre and flows close by the communities of Burngreave, Attercliffe, Darnall and Tinsley.

0 Sheffield’s industrial past caused badly polluted waterways unable to provide homes for wildlife. Today, water quality in Sheffield is much improved and the Blue Loop has become a haven for wildlife, with fish, kingfishers and otters all thriving in the area. Sheffield’s waterways are one of the city’s most valuable wildlife assets.

0 The Process has also increased biodiversity in the city by adding a habitat for fish, butterflies, dragonflies, herons, kingfishers, grey wagtail, ducks, moorhens, coots, otters, Japanese knotweed, water vole, kestrel, bats and reptiles & amphibians.

0 Surrey is divided in two by the largely chalk ridge of the North Downs, running east-west. The ridge is pierced by the rivers the Wey and the Mole, which are tributaries of the Thames

0 Flora naturally present from west to east comprise mixed woodland and meadow; continuing where the band of loam continues to Farnham, but between this and the river floodplain, Bagshot Sands is now covered by acid heathland increasingly moving west, rising to gentle hills. In this band are the well-maintained sites of biodiversity and woodland such as managed by Surrey Wildlife Trust as well as government and groups who help to manage Chobham and Horsell commons, St Anne's Hill, Fetcham and Weyside meadows, Esher and Oxshott Commons and Princes Coverts west of the Chessington outspur of Greater London, east of this, wooded Epsom with Ashtead Commons and Banstead Common and Downs.

0 Much of Surrey is in the Metropolitan Green Belt. It contains a good deal of mature woodland. Its natural beauty spots with widest panoramas include Box Hill, Leith Hill, Frensham Ponds, Newlands Corner and Puttenham & Crooksbury Commons, part of the Hog's Back. Surrey is the most wooded county in England, with 22.4% coverage compared to a national average of 11.8% and as such is one of the few counties not to include new woodlands in their strategic plans. Box Hill has the oldest untouched area of natural woodland in the UK, one of the oldest in Europe. Surrey also contains England's principal concentration of lowland heath, on the sandy soils in the west of the county mentioned above.

Surrey Biodiversity

Serengeti, TanzaniaHeading Info

Geographical

A UNESCO conservation area and World Heritage Site. Close to Kenya it covers over 2 million ha and consists of savannah grasslands and volcanic uplands. The Serengeti plains harbour the largest remaining unaltered animal migration in the world . The volcano Ol Doinyo Lengai is one of the only volcanoes to erupt carbonite lavas making it an incredibly rare habitat.

Biodiversity

The ecosystem supports 2 million wildebeests, 900,000 Thomson’s gazelles and 300,000 zebras as the dominant herds. Other herbivores include 7,000 elands, 27,000 topis, 18,000 hartebeests, 70,000 buffalos, 4,000 giraffes, 15,000 warthogs, 3,000 waterbucks, 2,700 elephants, 500 hippopotamuses, 200 black rhinoceroses, 10 species of antelope and 10 species of primate. Major predators include 4,000 lions, 1000 leopards, 225 cheetahs, 3,500 spotted hyenas and 300 wild dogs

Sustainable Lifestyle

The Maasai people had been grazing their livestock in the open plains for around 200 years when the first European explorers visited the area. To preserve wildlife, the British evicted the resident Maasai from the park in 1959 and moved them to the Ngorongoro Conservation Area. There is still considerable controversy surrounding this move, with claims made of coercion and deceit on the part of the colonial authorities

TourismThe park is Tanzania's oldest national park and remains the flagship of the country's tourism industry, providing a major draw to the Northern Safari Circuit encompassing Lake Manyara National Park, Tarangire National Park, Arusha National Park, and the Ngorongoro Conservation Area. 350,000 visitors a year.

Management

since 2009 funds have been allocated to demarcate the entire boundary. Its management is regulated by both international and government policies and legal obligations. The National Parks Ordinance Cap 412 of 1959 provides for Tanzania National Parks with the mandate to manage the site. In addition, The 1974 Tanzanian Wildlife Conservation Act and the 2009 Wildlife Conservation Act provide for both within the site and adjacent area protection of resources, respectivelyFunds generated at Serengeti (US$ 22.4 million in 2009/10) have been used to strengthen protection and management of the park, as well as other Tanzanian parks.

Threats

Development of road and other infrastructure corridors, Water shortage, Commercial poaching for trophies, Subsistence poaching, Tourism infrastructure development, Tourist numbers, distribution and carrying capacity, Fire, Disease transmission from domestic animals, Invasive alien species, Human-wildlife conflict, Insufficient funding for management, Change of land-use in adjacent areas, Climate change & Insufficient regional and international collaboration