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This lecture explains the science behind the organic molecules that make you YOU!
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There are a ton of elements involved in life processes but thankfully, all of them can be divided into 4 main groups:
1. ______________________
2. ______________________
3. ______________________
4. ______________________ Don’t pretend you aren’t
jealous of this sweet Tee.
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Nucleic Acids
What 3 elements comprise all carbo-hydrates and in what arrangement? • It’s important that your remember this…especially if you plan to
take the SAT!
Most carbohydrates have a common suffix. What is it?
“-ose”
Can you name some carbs? • The group that can come up with the most will
receive some carbs, too! (Just make sure you burn ‘em off, or they’ll end up on those hips!)
Game on.
Glucose
Fructose
Maltose
Sucrose
Lactose
Cellulose
Ribose
Deoxyribose
Starch
Chitin
Increasing complexity
The scientific term for a carbohydrate is a ______________________, which literally translates to sugar.
Carbs range from very simple molecules to very complex molecules. Name ‘em.
saccharide
Monosaccharide Disaccharide Polysaccharide
The simplest sugars are referred to as monosaccharides.
What is a monosaccharide?
What does one look like?
A single-ringed carb.
Pentagonal Hexagonal
What are some examples of monosaccharides?
Glucose Dextrose Ribose
As you already know, the chemical formula of almost all carbs is a mix of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio. Some sugars even have the same exact chemical formula but have different structural formulas.
Can you think of 2 monosaccharides that have the same chemical formula but a completely different structural formula?
*This will be an exam question!
GLUCOSE FRUCTOSE C
6H
12O
6
Bland taste
Hexagonal
C6H
12O
6
70X sweeter
than glucose
Pentagonal
C
C
C C
C
O
CH2OH
H
H H
OH OH
OH
OH
H
H
C
C C
C
O CH
2OH
HO2HC
OH
OH
OH H
H H
What is a disaccharide?
A 2-ringed carb (AKA, carb made of 2 monosacc’s.)
Sucrose Maltose Lactose
What is a polysaccharide?
A carb made of many
rings or monosacc’s.
Depending on their structure and the monosaccharides they’re comprised of, polysacchardies can have one of 2 functions…
…storing energy or providing structure!
FAMOUS POLYSACCHARIDES
STORING ENERGY...
In plants... In animals....
PROVIDING STRUCTURE...
In plants... In animals...
Converted to
glycogen in
humans!
Stored in muscles and
burned off during physical
activity.
Makes up cell
walls of plant
cells.
Comprises the
exoskeleton of
arthropods.
Why is it so appropriate to differentiate between the “road muffin” of a horse and the “cow pie” of a cow?
Because cows can break down
cellulose…horses cannot! (Hence, the
consistency of the dung…)
How are disaccharides built?
What is this process called?
By removing water!
“Dehydration Synthesis”or “Condensation”
The human body cannot utilize most complex carbohydrates. Instead, they have to be broken down into smaller monosaccharides. How does this work?
By adding
water!
(“Hydrolysis”)
Over _________% of all the organic compounds in your body are composed of protein. What is the main function of protein?
50
To make us 3D!
Because proteins are so numerous, there’s no way you’re going to be able to memorize all the different types. However, most proteins can be lumped into 3 categories…
1. _____________________________________
2. _____________________________________
3. _____________________________________
Membranous proteins
Enzymes
Hormones
Since there are such a large number of proteins, the number of functions are also unending. Can you name at least 5 basic functions of protein?
1.) Building muscle
Since there are such a large number of proteins, the number of functions are also unending. Can you name at least 5 basic functions of protein?
2.) Catalyzing rxns (using enzymes)
Since there are such a large number of proteins, the number of functions are also unending. Can you name at least 5 basic functions of protein?
3.) Signaling responses
(hormones)
Since there are such a large number of proteins, the number of functions are also unending. Can you name at least 5 basic functions of protein?
4.) Helping with cellular interactions
Since there are such a large number of proteins, the number of functions are also unending. Can you name at least 5 basic functions of protein?
5.) Provide structure/support
Like carbs, proteins also have a basic subunit or monomer. It is called an _______________.
Similarly, just as almost all carbs have the
suffix “-ose,” almost all amino acids have the suffix ______________ with the exception of 3.
amino acid
-“ine”
How many total amino acids are there on the planet? ____
How many amino acids are
essential to human life? ____
20
9
There are 3 components to an amino acid: carboxyl group amino group “R-group”
In order to build a house, you need to stack some bricks. Think of amino acids as “bricks” and the complete protein as the “house.”
House
Bricks
Protein
Amino Acids
Amino Acid
Complete Protein
How does one build a protein? (i.e., how are amino acids linked?) • Draw a diagram to show how proteins are built!
Dehydration synthesis!
AA AA AA AA AA
peptide bond
dipeptide polypeptide
(complete protein)
OH HO
H2O
removed
Depending on how the polypeptides are arranged, they can form 4 basic structures of proteins (which, of course, have different functions): 1. Primary protein 2. Secondary protein 3. Tertiary protein 4. Quaternary
PROTEIN SHAPE ROLE
Linear
(simple chain) Nonfunctional
Folded
or
Spiraled
Nonfunctional;
structural only!
Makes up hair.
Coiled Ball Functional
(e.g., enzymes)
Group of
coiled balls Functional
(e.g., hemoglobin)
Just as proteins are built through dehydration synthesis, they are broken down by ______________________.
This disassembling of proteins is called _________________ _____________________ and can be caused by a number of factors, including…
hydrolysis
protein denaturation
1.) heat 2.) acids/bases 3.) heavy metals 4.) alcohol 5.) excessive sodium
What is a lipid?
How can you distinguish lipids from other molecules?
Any hydrophobic substance…anything
that repels water.
“Hydrocarbon” chains.
Technically, lipids are not synonymous with fats.
Lipids≠ Fats
What is a lipid then?
A CATEGORY that includes fats,
among other substances.
LIPIDS Fats Waxes Steroids
Fat-soluble Vitamins
Triglycerides
(in food)
Adipose
(in human body)
Chol-
esterol
Vitamins
A, D, E & K
Since there are 4 main types of lipids, lipids also perform a variety of functions, including, but not limited to…
1. ___________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________
5. ___________________________________________
Energy storage
Cushion/Insulation
Makes ear drum pliable
Adds strength/fluidity to PM
Maintains homeostasis!
Fats are, by far, the most notable of all the lipids.
“Fat” goes by many names. Fat tissue in the
human body is actually called ________________,
wherein, the fat that’s crammed into the food you
eat is called _________________________.
adipose
triglycerides
Label the components of a triglyceride… fatty acid
(notice, there are 3 of them)
Glycerol
What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats? SATURATED FATS UNSATURATED FATS
WTF? I don’t think
so...get the heck
out.
…but with the help of Olestra, you can literally make a hobby out it!
As you may have already guessed, fats (and all other lipid hydrocarbon chains) are built by ___________________________________________.
dehydration synthesis
How do you think they’re broken down? (Is there a special name for this?)
By adding
water…Duh!
However, this time it’s called
“Lipolysis.”
Steroids are, by far, the most diverse of all lipids. The most important of all steroids in humans is _________________________.
cholesterol
Steroids are also the primary structure in many lipid hormones, such as _______________________________.
testosterone
What are the 2 main functions of cholesterol?
1. ________________________________________ To add strength or fluidity to PMs
To serve as a “template” for hormones and vitamins
What are the 2 main functions of cholesterol?
2. ________________________________________________________________________________
Regardless of a steroid’s function, all steroids have one thing in common... …what is it?
They’re made of 4 ester
rings.
Recall that some vitamins (A, D, E & K) are fat-soluble lipids. What exactly is a vitamin, anyway?
Any necessary
nutrient that your
body cannot make
in sufficient
quantities.
Nucleic acids are the least diverse group of organic compounds in the human body. In fact, there are only 2 types of naturally-occurring nucleic acids on the planet:
1. ________________________________
2. ________________________________
DNA
RNA
What is DNA?
What is the shape of DNA?
Your
“genetic blueprints”
Double Helix
(“winding ladder”)
What are the 2 primary functions of DNA? 1. ____________________________ ____________________________ 2. ____________________________ ____________________________
Code for traits
(physical characteristics)
Code for RNA (the
recipe for protein)
All nucleic acids have basic building blocks (or monomers) called ___________________________.
What are the 3 parts of a nucleotide? 1) _____________________________ 2) _____________________________ 3) _____________________________
nucleotides
a nitrogenous base
deoxyribose sugar
a phosphate
= sugar
= phosphate
bases (A, T, C or G)
Let’s think of DNA as a ladder… • What are the “rungs” or “steps” of
the DNA ladder? • What makes up the “side railing”
of the DNA ladder? • Do we have a better term for this
“side railing?”
the bases
sugars and phosphates
The “sugar-phosphate backbone”
All of the DNA in your body is made of around 6 billion total nucleotides. Just to give you a refer-ence of how huge 6 billion is…if you were to try to count to 6,000,000,000 (1 number/second) you would finish by roughly your 208th birthday
The craziest thing is…the majority of the 6 billion
nucleotides are exactly the same.
Every single nucleotide is made up of an identical molecule of deoxyribose sugar and an identical molecule of phosphate
So what, then, makes one human being different from another?
Let’s take a look.
The arrangement (or
sequencing) of the
nitrogenous bases!
How many different nitrogenous bases are there in DNA? ________
We can divide these 4 bases into 2 main categories based on structure. What are they, what is their shape, and which bases are included in each?
4
VS.
CATEGORY SHAPE BASES
Purines
2-ringed Adenine
Guanine
Pyrimidine
1-ringed Cytosine
Thymine
Adenine
Guanine
Cytosine
Thymine
How are you going to remember which bases belong to which category for the test?
“Angels and God are PURE of heart.”
“Cool Tombs belong in PYRAMIDS.”
In order to make DNA, the 2 nitrogenous bases of nucleotides must be paired. What bases pair with each other?
We call bases that pair with one another ________________________________ bases.
A—T
C—G
complementary
Why does always pair with ? Why does always pair with ?
Well, there are 3 reasons actually… 1.)
A purine must
always pair with a
pyrmidine.
Why does always pair with ? Why does always pair with ?
Well, there are 3 reasons actually… 2.)
Hydrogen bonding…
and
Why does always pair with ? Why does always pair with ?
Well, there are 3 reasons actually… 3.)
30% 30% 20% 20%
“Chargaff’s Rule”...the # of As
matched the # of Ts, and so forth.
DNA is really long. Even the Y chromosome, the smallest in the entire human genome, is more than 30 million base pairs long. From end to end, DNA is about a meter long…and we have to cram it into our tiny, tiny nucleus. That’s like trying to cram a 300-meter long rope into a backpack!
So, the question remains…
*How the heck do we fit all of this DNA into a tiny little nucleus?
The answer…
By wrapping around
histone proteins
and coiling, and super-coiling into
chromosomes!
DNA “FORM” PICTURE DESCRIPTION WHEN DOES IT EXIST IN THIS FORM?
Chromatin
Loosely
packed
DNA
Interphase
(when the cell
isn’t dividing)
Chromosomes
Densely
packed
DNA
Mitosis or
Meiosis
(during cell
division)
What are genes? What do genes code for?
What do you call the part of a chromo-some where genes are located?
Sequences of nitrogenous bases.
They code for…
1. Traits
2. RNA
The gene locus.
Unfortunately, genes can also code for , which is nothing more than an
abnormality in the base sequence of genes.
DNA is so complex that it cannot just be “made” by your body from scratch. Instead, each cell is responsible for copying its DNA before dividing. • DNA replication is very complex, but let’s simplify… DNA replication requires several enzymes, but you’re required to
remember the 2 most important.
ENZYME FUNCTION
DNA
Helicase
(1) unwinds and
(2) unzips DNA
DNA
Polymerase
Adds complementary
bases to “parent” strand
Draw the process of DNA replication…
We call the process of “copying” DNA __________________________________________________ because each “daughter” strand of DNA has half of the “parent” DNA strand. In other words, we’ve conserved the parent strand—half went to one daughter strand and the other half went to the other!
semiconservative replication
Recall that one of the functions of DNA is to code for proteins. However, DNA can’t do it alone. Proteins are made outside of the nucleus, and as we’ve discussed in class, DNA never leaves the nucleus.
So, how does DNA code for proteins?
By making a copy of the
protein recipe = RNA!
DNA RNA
“-stranded” Double-stranded
Sugar Deoxyribose
Nitrogenous Bases A,T, C, G
Single-
stranded
Ribose
A, U, C, G
The process of “copying” DNA to make a strand of RNA (recipe for protein) is called ___________________________.
What enzyme is used? 1) ______________________________________
transcription
RNA Polymerase
Key
“When making
RNA, Uracil pairs with
Adenine, not Thymine!”
The process of building amino acids requires the cooperation of _______ and __________________ and is called __________________.
RNA ribosomes
translation