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BS2081 Ecology and Biodiversity Summary Lecture
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10/04/2023 1
BS2081Ecology and Biodiversity
Pat Heslop-HarrisonUniversity of Leicester, UK
[email protected] UserID/PW
‘visitor’Twitter: pathh1 –
cytogenomics.wordpress.com
Flip – teaching : Wiki “Flip teaching is a form of blended learning which encompasses any use of technology to leverage the learning in a classroom, so a teacher can spend more time interacting with students instead of lecturing. This is most commonly being done using teacher-created videos that students view outside of class time.” 2
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BiodiversityWhat is biodiversity?
Rio de Janeiro Conference in June 1992Defined biological diversity as “the
variability among living organisms from all sources including, among other things, terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.”
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BiodiversityAgriculture brings in new species and new genotypes‘Biodiversity’ includes weeds, pests, vectors, predators
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Domesticated species
What are domesticated species?
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What are domesticated species?Those where people control their
reproduction and nutritionMany alternatives
– People control their access to nutrition/space– People have selected the variety– They are different from wild species– They would die out in the wild– Species useful to humans– Those with molecular signatures of selection/bottlenecks
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Domesticated speciesWhat?
MammalsPlantsOther species–Fungi, Insects
–Fish, Molluscs
–Birds
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Are there many candidates?
380,000 plants4,629 mammals9,200 birds10,000,000 insects
But only 200 plants, 15 mammals, 5 birds and 2 insects are domesticated!
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How? The biological changes(others think of the anthropology)
Animals and plants–Not ‘fussy’ for diet, soil, climate–Control reproduction
• Fast and fertile–Fast growing–Doesn’t die–Thrives in monoculture–Not aggressive/unpleasant
The first steps to domestication
Being worthwhile to grow– Can propagate: Seeds germinate, eggs hatch,
young produced– Can harvest: Seeds not dispersed/can catch,
doesn’t rot, don’t die – Reasonably persistent (but the odd extinction
does not matter)– Determinate growth / uniform ripening– Large yield - seed/fruits/meat/milk
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Suite ofplant domestication traits
Seed dispersal – no!Seed dormancy – yes then no!Large harvested parts
– Gigantism– High proportion useful
Determinate/synchronized growth
Edible and tasty17
Tinyurl.com/domest
http://www.le.ac.uk/biology/phh4/public/PHH_AltmanHasegawa_ch001.pdf
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S. Banga – Punjab Agricultural Universityfirst determinate / terminal floweringBrassica juncea / B. napus lines Feb 2012
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When did domestication start?
About 8,000 years before present
Plants and animalsIn context:
Humans 6,000,000 years since divergence from apesor 50,000 years since recognizably ‘modern’
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Why did domestication start?(Not Archaeology and Anthropology!)
Hunter-gatherer no longer sustainableOver-exploitation?
Habitat destruction/extinction?Population growth?
Climate change? Food stability?Diet change?sf
Where?
After Diamond 2002
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Domesticated speciesWhat?
How?When?Why?Where?
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NASAThe Blue Marble
Apollo 17 7 Dec 1972
Ecosystems anchor slide
Largely– Self-organizing– Self-maintained– Cycling– Defined scope
– cf Household– Aircraft–
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Ecosystems
Living components– Plants and cyanobacteria (primary producers)– Bacteria, fungi, animals
Interacting with abiotic components– Light– Water– Wind, soil, nutrients, toxins, gasses ...
Recognizable homogeneity in one ecosystem 31
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RainfallDistribution
mm/yr
Ecosystems
Recognizing–Inputs–Outputs–Networks / webs of organisms–Cycles–Scales–Functions
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Inputs– Light– Heat– Water– Gasses– Nutrients
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50% of the world's protein needs are derived from atmospheric nitrogen fixed by the Haber-Bosch process and its successors.
Global consumption of fertilizer (chemically fixed nitrogen) 80 million tonnes
<<200 million tonnes fixed naturally
Outputs– Light– Heat
– Water– Gasses
– Nutrients
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OutputsEcosystem ServicesWater, gasses,nutrients”nature’s services, like flood control, water filtration, waste assimilation”
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Dynamic processes: turn-over
Outputs– Limestone
–Made by marine organisms, formation and stability affected by pH and
temperature
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Inputs - Biotic– Diseases– New organisms
• Aliens/invasives– New genes and
genotypes of existing organisms
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Outputs– Light– Heat
– Ecosystem services– Chemical energy
– Long term storage
Requiredand valued
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Biotic Inputs– New genes– New species
• Diseases• Alien species
Abiotic inputs– Irrigation– ‘Salt’ (NaCl)– Nitrogen– Phosphorous
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Water hyacinth – Eichornia: an invasive alien plant from South America, fills water courses (a surface habitat not used by any native species) in Asia and Africa
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Argenome mexicana: a goat-proof plant fromMexcio introduced and successful in Africa
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Occasional ‘extreme inputs’:Limiting composition of ecosystemsmore than ‘mean input’ - Robustness
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Anhalt, Barth, HH Euphytica 2009 Theor App Gen
2008
Light in ecosystems
Energy
Photosynthesis
Information
Quantity Quality Direction Periodicity
Control of development
Heat
Threats to sustainability:no different for 10,000 years
Habitat destructionClimate change (abiotic
stresses)Diseases (biotic stresses)Changes in what people wantMORE outputs neededMORE stability in outputs from
less stable inputs / poorer environments
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How to exploit modelsIncreased sustainabilityIncreased valueGenetic improvementRobustness (‘food security’)
Benefits to all stakeholders:Breeders, Farmers, Processors,Retailers, Consumers, Citizens
50 years of plant breeding progress
1961 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 20070
0.5
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1.5
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2.5
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3.5
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MaizeRiceWheatHumanArea
Agronomy
Genetics
GM maize
UK Wheat 1948-200752,909 data points, 308 varieties
From Ian Mackay, NIAB, UK. 2009. Re-analyses of historical series of variety trials: lessons from the past and opportunities for the future. SCRI website.
Conventional Breeding
Superdomestication
Cross the best with the best and hope for something better
Decide what is wanted and then plan how to get it– Variety crosses– Mutations– Hybrids (sexual or cell-fusion)– Genepool– Transformation
Economic growth
Separate into increases in inputs (resources, labour and capital) and technical progress
90% of the growth in US output per worker is attributable to technical progress Robert Solow – Economist
Market Demand “MORE”
Food production volume–No possibility of market collapse
–Only slow market increase–Reduced post-harvest loss–Some crops gain/hit by global trends
Inputs
Better genetically– Harvest more– Stress resistant (Disease = biotic and
environment – abiotic)Higher
– Weed control improving for 8000 yearsLower
– Production loss less than cost decrease– Better agronomy (cropping cycles etc.)
Needs from Stochastic Models of Ecosystems
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Outputs
Ecosystem services
– Chemical energy
– Long term storage
Inputs
– Light– Heat– Water– Gasses– Nutrients
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The major cropsWill not be displacedContinue to need 1 to 1.5% year-
on-year productivity increaseIncreased sustainability essentialMajor breeding targets
– Post-harvest losses– Water use– Disease resistance– Quality
Where do these genes come from?
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Other cultivarsLandracesWild and cultivated relatives
Other speciesMutation breedingSynthetic biology
Superdomestication
Cross the best with the best and hope for something better
Decide what is wanted and then plan how to get it
- variety crosses - mutations - hybrids (sexual or cell-fusion) - genepool - transformation
Conventional Breeding
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Exploiting novel germplasm
Optimistic for improved crops from novel germplasm
Benefits for people of developed and developing countries
Major role for national and international governmental breeding
Major role for private-sector local, national and multi-national breeders
United Nations Millennium Development Goals-MDGs
• Goal 1 – Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
•Goal 2 – Achieve universal primary education
• Goal 3 – Promote gender equity and empower women
• Goal 4 – Reduce child mortality
• Goal 5 – Improve maternal health
• Goal 6- Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
• Goal 7 - Ensure environmental sustainability
• Goal 8 - Develop a global partnership for development
50 years of plant breeding progress
50 years of plant breeding progress
1961 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 20070
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
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MaizeRiceWheatHumanArea
50 years of plant breeding progress
1961 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 20070
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
MaizeRiceWheatHumanArea
Agronomy
Genetics
GMmaize
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Why exploit novel germplasm?Increased sustainabilityIncreased valueUses genes outside the conventional genepool
Benefits to all stakeholders:Breeders, Farmers, Processors,Retailers, Consumers, Citizens
in developed and developing countriesand to all members of society.
Conventional BreedingCross the best with the best and hope
for something better
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New crops
The additions to the FAO list
–Triticale (Genome engineering)–Kiwi fruit (High value niche)–Jojoba (New product)–Popcorn is split (High value)
Farming – the seven Fs• Food (people)• Feed (animals)• Fuel (biomass and liquid)• Flowers (ornamental and horticulture)• Fibres & chemicals
• Construction (timber)• Products (wood, ‘plastics’)• Fibres (paper, clothing)
• Fun – Recreational/Environmental• Golf courses, horses, walking etc.• Environmental - Water catchments,
Biodiversity, Buffers, Carbon capture, Security
• Pharmaceuticals
Nothing special about crop genomes?
Crop Genome size 2n Ploidy Food
Rice 400 Mb 24 2 3x endosperm
Wheat 17,000 Mbp 42 6 3x endosperm
Maize 950 Mbp 10 4 (palaeo-tetraploid) 3x endosperm
Rapeseed B. napus
1125 Mbp 38 4 Cotyledon oil/protein
Sugar beet 758 Mbp 18 2 Modified root
Cassava 770 Mbp 36 2 Tuber
Soybean 1,100 Mbp 40 4 Seed cotyledon
Oil palm 3,400 Mbp 32 2 Fruit mesocarp
Banana 500 Mbp 33 3 Fruit mesocarp
Heslop-Harrison & Schwarzacher 2012. Genetics and genomics of crop domestication. In Altman & Hasegawa Plant Biotech & Agriculture. 10.1016/B978-0-12-381466-1.00001-8 Tinyurl.com/domest
Lolium Biomass production
Susanne Barth, Ulrike Anhalt, Celine Tomaszewski
Size and location of chromosome regions from radish (Raphanus sativus) carrying the fertility restorer Rfk1 gene and transfer to spring turnip rape (Brassica rapa) Tarja Niemelä, Mervi Seppänen, Farah Badakshi,Veli-Matti Rokka and J.S.(Pat) Heslop-Harrison
Chromosome Research (subject to minor revision Feb 2012)
Chromosome and genome engineeringCell fusionhybrid of two4x tetraploidtobaccospecies
Patel, Badakshi, HH, Davey et al 2011 Annals of Botany
Nicotiana hybrid4x + 4x cell fusions
Each of 4chromosomesets hasdistinctiverepetitiveDNA whenprobed withgenomic DNA
Patel et alAnn Bot 2011
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Exploiting novel germplasmSuperdomestication
• Targeted breeding and transgenic strategies
• Increase in high value niche crops
Click icon to add picture
Market Demand “MORE”
Food production volume– No possibility of market collapse– Only slow market increase– Reduced post-harvest loss– Some crops gain/hit by global trends
Market demand “MORE”Food (people)Feed (animals)
- Major driver of volume
Enormous increase in pigs and poultryIncreases in farmed fish
Smaller changes in cattle
… animals with the same diet as us are increasing
… to feed a person meat means the farmer sells 2½ to 11 times more grain than in the person eats the grain
Inputs
Better genetically– Harvest more– Stress resistant (Disease = biotic
and environment – abiotic)Higher
– Weed control improving for 8000 years
Lower– Production loss less than cost
decrease– Better agronomy (cropping cycles
etc.)
Better stress resistance:– From the genepool– From engineering genes
– Existing crops will be the major food sources
New crops– Some will become important– Many niche crops will make money
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dpTa1pSc119.2Genomic Ae.ventricosa
Inheritance of Chromosome 5DAegilops ventricosa
DDNNABDN
AABBDDNNMarneAABBDD
CWW1176-4
Rendezvous
Piko
VPM1 Dwarf A
96ST61
Virtue
×
×
×
×
Hobbit
× {Kraka × (Huntsman × Fruhgold)}
Triticum persicum Ac.1510AABB
Eyespot (fungus Pseudocercosporella) resistance from Aegilops ventricosa introduced to wheat by chromosome engineering
Many diseases where all varieties are highly susceptible
Alien variation can be found and used7
Host and non-host resistances
Crop standing
Lodging in cereals
Crop fallen
Rules for successful domestication
There aren’t any!
Crops come from anywhereThey might be grown anywherePolyploids and diploids (big
genomes-small genomes, many chromosomes-few chromosomes)
Seeds, stems, tubers, fruits, leaves
55% of the world's protein needs are derived from atmospheric nitrogen fixed by the Haber-Bosch process and its successors.
Global consumption of fertilizer (chemically fixed nitrogen) 80 million tonnes
<<200 million tonnes fixed naturally
What have farmers done?
Over the last 150 years,
1.5% reduction in production costs per year
similar across cereals, fruits, milk, meat … coal, iron
With increased quality and security
Remarkable total of 10-fold reduction in costs
What have farmers done?Over the last 4500 years:Long-term ‘effort’ reduction:4500 years ago, getting food was full-time
job for everyone = 365*12 = 4380 hr/yr/person
(Minimal towns, few wars, few monuments, few records: all these need time-out from farming!)
Now:In Europe and North America, 2% of the
population are farmers = 0.02*8*300 = 48 hr/yr/person spent farming
0.1% per year cumulative reduction
Crop varieties- High yield- High quality and safe- Easy to grow agronomically- Disease resistant- Insect/nematode resistant- Efficient water use- Secure, stable production- Environmentally friendly
- Not invasive
Do we need change?Do we need faster change?
Genomics …
The genepool has the diversity to address these challenges …
New methods to exploit and characterize let use make better and sustainable use of the genepool
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http://blog.ecoagriculture.org/2012/02/29/pacs/
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