Walden University

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

This is to certify that the dissertation by

Ludmila V. Ellis

has been found to be complete and satisfactory in all respects, and that any and all revisions required by the review committee have been made.

Review Committee Dr. Peter Serdyukov, Committee Chairperson, Education Faculty Dr. Mary I. Dereshiwsky, Committee Member, Education Faculty

Dr. Amie A. Beckett, Committee Member, Education Faculty

Chief Academic Officer

Denise DeZolt, Ph.D.

Walden University 2008

ABSTRACT

Writing Instruction and Learning Strategies in a Hybrid EAP Course: A Case Study with College-Bound ESL Students

by

Ludmila Ellis

M.S., SUNY New Paltz, 1998 B.A., Rostov Pedagogical Institute, 1987

Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy in Education Walden University

Walden University July 2008

ABSTRACT

This case study addressed the problem of increasing effectiveness of English for

Academic Purposes (EAP) courses by combining in-class and online writing instruction.

The purpose of this case study was to describe the changes in writing skills, evidence of

self-directedness, and the use of learning strategies in a hybrid learning format. The

research was grounded in the social learning theory perspectives of Vygotsky and

Bandura and pedagogically structured according to Scardamalia and Bereiter’s model of

computer-supported learning environments. Writing assignments, weekly self-

evaluations, and responses to biweekly questionnaires and interviews were obtained from

four participants attending evening and Saturday EAP classes. Changes in writing

performance were described based on organization and language use. Weekly and

biweekly questionnaires and interviews were analyzed for evidence of self-directedness

and use of learning strategies. Cross-case and cross-method synthesis triangulated these

data into overarching conclusions that were then discussed with the participants and

colleagues to ensure credibility. It was found that learners who consistently used the Web

site improved the organization and content of their writing, regulated their learning, and

used more strategies online than in class. The results also showed that lack of motivation

can have a negative effect on overall performance. Overall, the research demonstrated

that, for learners who seek increased engagement and higher academic performance, the

hybrid format offers more effective ways to advance writing and prepare for mainstream

programs. This study advances positive social change by informing adult education of

strategies that target new immigrant communities to develop individuals that are better

prepared for work and citizenship, thus benefiting economic prosperity of the country.

Writing Instruction and Learning Strategies in a Hybrid EAP Course: A Case Study with College-Bound ESL Students

by

Ludmila Ellis

M.S., SUNY New Paltz, 1998 B.A., Rostov Pedagogical Institute, 1987

Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy in Education

Walden University July, 2008

3330384

3330384 2008

Copyright 2008 by Ellis, Ludmila All rights reserved

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am deeply grateful to all the people who have given me practical and emotional

support for the past four years while I was trying to cope with professional, academic,

and health-related challenges. As a PhD student, I had the opportunity to meet many

dedicated professionals whose influence has been truly inspirational.

I had the privilege to complete my doctoral studies under the mentorship of Dr.

Serdyukov, whose guidance helped me grow as a researcher and to whom I owe much of

the success of this project.

I am also indebted to Dr. Dereshiwsky and Dr. Beckett, who guided my research

work as members of my dissertation committee. Their expert advice and attention to all

the aspects of my research ensured the quality of my work.

I thank my friend and colleague Professor Aslanian, who had encouraged me to

start the PhD program at Walden University and provided an expert review of my data

analyses.

I am sincerely grateful to the administration of the English Language Institute at

Westchester Community College, whose involvement as the community partner made it

possible to conduct this study.

I also express my gratitude to the students in my EAP classes, who volunteered to

take part in this project and maintained their commitment to see it completed.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES.................................................................................................................vii LIST OF FIGURES ...............................................................................................................ix CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY.............................................................1 Present-Day Immigrant Education.........................................................................................2 Factors Affecting Academic Success in Community College Programs...............................5 Current Trends in ESL Writing Instruction ...........................................................................9 Problem Statement .................................................................................................................11 Nature of Study......................................................................................................................12 Research Questions ...............................................................................................................13 Purpose of Study....................................................................................................................13 Conceptual Framework..........................................................................................................14 Social Learning Theory..............................................................................................14 Concept of Self-Efficacy............................................................................................15 Language Learning Strategies....................................................................................17 Concept of Computer-Supported Learning Environment..........................................19

Hybrid Learning.....................................................................................................................20 Definitions of Terms ..............................................................................................................25 Scope and Limitations............................................................................................................26 Significance of Study.............................................................................................................28 Implications for Positive Social Change................................................................................28 Transition Statement ..............................................................................................................30 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...............................................................................33 Research on Traditional Writing Instruction .........................................................................34 Characteristics of Technology as Educational Tool ..............................................................40 Research on Web-Based Writing Instruction ........................................................................43 Research on Hybrid Writing Instruction................................................................................50 Comparison of Classroom and Online Writing .....................................................................52 Summary................................................................................................................................53 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY .........................................................................................55 Research Design.....................................................................................................................56 Research Paradigm and Strategy for Investigation....................................................56 Role of the Researcher ...............................................................................................57 Research Questions....................................................................................................59 Context for the Study.............................................................................................................60

Setting and Population ...............................................................................................60 Access to the Participants ..........................................................................................62

Selection Criteria .......................................................................................................64 Sample Size................................................................................................................65 Profiles of the Participants .........................................................................................65 Hybrid Course Design............................................................................................................68

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Data Collection Instruments ..................................................................................................72 Changes in the Writing Skills ....................................................................................72 Intake Questionnaire ..................................................................................................74 Weekly Self-Evaluation Questionnaire......................................................................75 Biweekly Learning Experiences Questionnaire.........................................................75 Online Reading and Writing Skills ............................................................................76 Combining Classroom and Online Experience..........................................................76 Use of Learning Strategies.........................................................................................77 Biweekly In-Person Interview ...................................................................................77 Data Collection Procedures....................................................................................................78 Treatment of the Data ............................................................................................................79 Validity and Reliability..........................................................................................................80 Summary................................................................................................................................82 CHAPTER 4: DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS................................................................83 Collection and Treatment of the Data....................................................................................84 Overview of the Hybrid EAP Course ....................................................................................88 First Impressions........................................................................................................88 Hybrid Course Organization ......................................................................................90 Feedback throughout the Course ...............................................................................92 Summary........................................................................................................94 Case Studies ...........................................................................................................................95 Case 1: Yana “The Team Player” ..........................................................................................95 Hybrid Course through the Eyes of the Team-Player ................................................96 Evidence and Discussion of Changes in Yana’s Writing Skills ................................99

Summary of Changes in Yana’s Writing .......................................................103 Evidence and Discussion of Yana’s Self-Directedness in Learning..........................104 Summary of Yana’s Self-Directedness..........................................................109 Evidence and Discussion of Yana’s Use of Learning Strategies ...............................110 Memory strategies..........................................................................................111

Cognitive Strategies .......................................................................................112 Compensation Strategies................................................................................114

Social Strategies.............................................................................................116 Comparison of Yana’s Use of Learning Strategies....................................................118

Summary of Case 1....................................................................................................119 Case 2: Gio “The Outsider” ...................................................................................................120 Hybrid Course through the Eyes of the Outsider.......................................................122 Evidence and Discussion of Changes in Gio’s Writing Skills...................................124 Summary of Changes in Gio’s Writing .........................................................129 Evidence and Discussion of Gio’s Self-Directedness in Learning ............................130 Summary of Gio’s Self-Directedness ............................................................135 Evidence and Discussion of Gio’s Use of Learning Strategies .................................136 Memory Strategies .........................................................................................137 Cognitive Strategies .......................................................................................138 Compensation Strategies................................................................................140

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Social Strategies.............................................................................................142 Comparison of Gio’s Use of Learning Strategies ......................................................143

Summary of Case 2....................................................................................................144 Case 3: Joe “The Leader” ......................................................................................................145

The Hybrid Course through the Eyes of the Leader ..................................................147 Evidence and Discussion of Changes in Joe’s Writing Skills ...................................150

Summary of Changes in Joe’s Writing ..........................................................155 Evidence and Discussion of Joe’s Self-Directedness in Learning.............................157

Summary of Joe’s Self-Directedness .............................................................162 Evidence and Discussion of Joe’s Use of Learning Strategies ..................................163

Memory Strategies .........................................................................................164 Cognitive Strategies .......................................................................................166 Compensation Strategies................................................................................167 Social Strategies.............................................................................................169

Comparison of Joe’s Use of Learning Strategies.......................................................171 Summary of Case 3....................................................................................................172

Case 4: Jang “The Follower” .................................................................................................173 The Hybrid Course through the Eyes of the Follower...............................................174 Evidence and Discussion of Changes in Jang’s Writing Skills .................................178

Summary of Changes in Jang’s Writing ........................................................184 Evidence and Discussion of Jang’s Self-Directedness in Learning...........................186

Summary of Jang’s Self-Directedness ...........................................................191 Evidence and Discussion of Jang’s Use of Learning Strategies ................................193

Memory Strategies .........................................................................................193 Cognitive Strategies .......................................................................................195 Compensation Strategies................................................................................197 Social Strategies.............................................................................................199

Comparison of Jang’s use of learning strategies........................................................201 Summary of Case 4....................................................................................................203

Cross-Case Examination........................................................................................................205 Research Question 1 ..................................................................................................205

Case 1: Yana “The Team Player” ..................................................................208 Case 2: Gio “The Outsider” ...........................................................................209 Case 3: Joe “The Leader” ..............................................................................210 Case 4: Jang “The Follower” .........................................................................210

Research Question 2 ..................................................................................................211 Case 1: Yana “The Team Player” ..................................................................212 Case 2: Gio “The Outsider” ...........................................................................213 Case 3: Joe “The Leader” ..............................................................................214 Case 4: Jang “The Follower” .........................................................................215

Research Question 3 ..................................................................................................216 Case 1: Yana “The Team Player” ..................................................................217 Case 2: Gio “The Outsider” ...........................................................................218 Case 3: Joe “The Leader” ..............................................................................219 Case 4: Jang “The Follower” .........................................................................219

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Results of Cross-Case Examination.......................................................................................220 Evidence of Quality ...............................................................................................................220 Summary................................................................................................................................222

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION.................................................................................................224 Interpretations of the Findings ...............................................................................................226

Role of the Conceptual Framework ...........................................................................226 Research Questions................................................................................................................229

Changes in the Writing Skills ....................................................................................229 Evidence of Self-Directedness...................................................................................232 Use of Learning Strategies.........................................................................................233 Summary of Findings.................................................................................................236

Limitations of the Study.........................................................................................................236 Implications for Social Change..............................................................................................239 Recommendations for Actions...............................................................................................241 Recommendations for Further Study.....................................................................................244 Reflections on the Teaching and Research Experiences........................................................247

Teaching Experience..................................................................................................247 Research Experience..................................................................................................252

Conclusion .............................................................................................................................256

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................258

APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................267 APPENDIX A: Hybrid Course Documents...........................................................................267 APPENDIX B: Data Collection Tools...................................................................................270 APPENDIX C: Participants’ Writing Samples......................................................................281 APPENDIX D: Samples of Participants’ Weekly Self-Evaluations......................................301 APPENDIX E: Letter of Cooperation from a Community Research Partner........................305 CURRICULUM VITAE........................................................................................................306

vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Comparison of the Use of Technology in Traditional and Web-based Instruction ..............................................................................................................................41 Table 2. Relation of Data Collection Tools to Research Questions ......................................74 Table 3. Comparison of Yana’s Writing in First and Last Quarters......................................100 Table 4. Changes in Yana’s Writing throughout the Course .................................................103 Table 5. Summary of Yana’s Experiences, Self-Evaluation, and Writing Progress..............108 Table 6. Yana’s Bi-Weekly Evaluations of the Use of Memory Strategies ..........................111 Table 7. Yana’s Bi-Weekly Evaluations of the Use of Cognitive Strategies ........................113 Table 8. Yana’s Bi-Weekly Evaluations of the Use of Compensation Strategies .................114 Table 9. Yana’s Bi-Weekly Evaluations of the Use of Social Strategies ..............................116 Table 10. Comparison of Gio’s Writing in First and Last Quarter........................................125 Table 11. Changes in Gio’s Writing throughout the Course .................................................129 Table 12. Summary of Gio’s Experiences, Self-Evaluation, and Writing Progress ..............134 Table 13. Gio’s Bi-Weekly Evaluations of the Use of Memory Strategies...........................137 Table 14. Gio’s Bi-Weekly Evaluations of the Use of Cognitive Strategies.........................139 Table 15. Gio’s Bi-weekly Evaluations of the Use of Compensation Strategies ..................140 Table 16. Gio’s Bi-Weekly Evaluations of the Use of Social Strategies...............................142 Table 17. Comparison of Joe’s Writing in First and Last Quarters .......................................151 Table 18. Changes in Joe’s Writing throughout the Course ..................................................156 Table 19. Summary of Joe’s Experiences, Self-Evaluation, and Writing Progress...............161 Table 20. Joe’s Bi-weekly Evaluations of the Use of Memory Strategies ............................164 Table 21. Joe’s Bi-Weekly Evaluations of the Use of Cognitive Strategies .........................166 Table 22. Joe’s Bi-weekly Evaluations of the Use of Compensation Strategies ...................168

viii

Table 23. Joe’s Bi-Weekly Evaluations of the Use of Social Strategies ...............................170 Table 24. Comparison of Jang’s Writing in First and Last Quarters .....................................179 Table 25. Changes in Jang’s Writing throughout the Course ................................................185 Table 26. Summary of Jang’s Experiences, Self-Evaluation, and Writing Progress.............190 Table 27. Jang’s Bi-weekly Evaluations of the Use of Memory Strategies ..........................194 Table 28. Jang’s Bi-Weekly Evaluations of the Use of Cognitive Strategies .......................196 Table 29. Jang’s Bi-weekly Evaluations of the Use of Compensation Strategies .................198 Table 30. Jang’s Bi-Weekly Evaluations of the Use of Social Strategies .............................200 Table 31. Summary of Changes in the Participants’ Writing at the End of the Semester .....206 Table 32. Summary of the Differences in Average Writing Volume and Grades throughout the Semester ........................................................................................................208 Table 33. Summary of Evidence of Self-Directedness Found in the Hybrid Course ............211 Table 34. Comparison of the Use of Individual Strategies in Class and Online ...................217

ix

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Diagram showing organization of the hybrid EAP course.....................................91 Figure 2. Line graph showing changes in Yana’s weekly self-evaluations during the hybrid course....................................................................................................................107 Figure 3. Bar graph showing changes in Yana’s use of memory strategies in class and online......................................................................................................................................112 Figure 4. Bar graph showing changes in Yana’s use of cognitive strategies in class and online......................................................................................................................................113 Figure 5. Bar graph showing changes in Yana’s use of compensation strategies in class and online...............................................................................................................................115 Figure 6. Bar graph showing changes in Yana’s use of social strategies ..............................117 Figure 7. Bar graph showing differences in Yana’s use of strategies in the hybrid format.....................................................................................................................................118 Figure 8. Line graph showing changes in Gio’s weekly self-evaluations during the hybrid course....................................................................................................................133 Figure 9. Bar graph showing changes in Gio’s use of memory strategies in class and online......................................................................................................................................138 Figure 10. Bar graph showing changes in Gio’s use of cognitive strategies in class and online......................................................................................................................................140 Figure 11. Bar graph showing changes in Gio’s use of compensation strategies in class and online...............................................................................................................................141 Figure 12. Bar graph showing changes in Gio’s use of social strategies in class and online......................................................................................................................................143 Figure 13. Bar graph showing differences in Gio’s use of strategies in the hybrid format.....................................................................................................................................144 Figure 14. Line graph showing changes in Joe’s weekly self-evaluations during the hybrid course....................................................................................................................160 Figure 15. Bar graph showing changes in Joe’s use of memory strategies in class and Online.....................................................................................................................................165 Figure 16. Bar graph showing changes in Joe’s use of cognitive strategies in class and

x

online......................................................................................................................................167 Figure 17. Bar graph showing changes in Joe’s use of compensation strategies in class and online...............................................................................................................................169 Figure 18. Bar graph showing changes in Joe’s use of social strategies in class and online......................................................................................................................................171 Figure 19. Bar graph showing differences in Joe’s use of strategies in the hybrid format.....................................................................................................................................172 Figure 20. Line graph showing changes in Jang’s weekly self-evaluations during the hybrid course....................................................................................................................189 Figure 21. Bar graph showing changes in Jang’s use of memory strategies in class and online......................................................................................................................................195 Figure 22. Bar graph showing changes in Jang’s use of cognitive strategies in class and online......................................................................................................................................197 Figure 23. Bar graph showing changes in Jang’s use of compensation strategies in class and online...............................................................................................................................199 Figure 24. Bar graph showing changes in Jang’s use of social strategies in class and online......................................................................................................................................201 Figure 25. Bar graph showing differences in Jang’s use of strategies in the hybrid format.....................................................................................................................................202 Figure 26. Bar graph showing differences in the average writing volume and grades..........207 Figure 27. Bar graph showing comparison of overall use of strategies by the participants ..216 Figure 28. Diagram of conceptual framework.......................................................................227

CHAPTER 1:

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

Implementing a hybrid course design in English as a Second Language (ESL)

writing instruction was called for by three main factors: the analysis of the present-day

state of immigrant education in the US, the instructional practices and needs analysis of

the adult college-bound learners at Westchester Community College, and the review of

the current literature in the area of writing skills development. All three factors indicate

that preparing students for academic study in American colleges is a laborious task whose

success and failure depend on specific resources and methodology. By giving learners a

chance to receive professional training, success of the ESL programs ultimately benefits

both the learners and the nation.

The issue boils down to the difficulties in writing skills development which are

partially due to the students’ lack of time and experiences allowed by the traditional ESL

instruction. This situation can be amended by the use of educational technology,

particularly Web-based instructional tools which offer ample opportunities for

developing these skills through text-based communication. One of the perspective

paradigms in the technology-based instruction is a combination of the traditional

classroom learning with online components (Dziuban, Hartman, & Moskal, 2004).

Therefore, it was the intention of this study to investigate the hybrid or blended format of

course design which would combine in-class and online writing instruction and increase

the amount of time and writing practice within a regular semester time. Specifically, the

study focused on the features which characterize changes in the writing skills acquired in

2

this format. Other areas of investigation included learners’ positive and negative

experiences, the evidence of self-efficacy, and the use of learning strategies.

Present-Day Immigrant Education

A growing influx of immigrants into the American society constitutes one of the

most urgent social issues. As a social phenomenon, multiculturalism is not simply a

matter of ethnic diversity but a serious cultural and linguistic challenge for educators. The

complexity of social and educational problems associated with immigration is based on

such common traits as lack of general education and vocational training received in the

home country, low work skills, and low income. This problem can be illustrated by the

statistics revealed by the US Census Bureau (2002) for the year of 2000, which show

that, compared to the native population, foreign-born adults of 25 years old and over fell

behind in high school completion by 20%. Likewise, the average poverty rate was six

percent higher among the immigrant families than among native families. With

immigrants accounting for 10% of the nation’s population in the year 2000 (US Census

Bureau, 2002), these figures present a serious cause for concern. Moreover, the

projections of the US Census Bureau indicate that the Hispanic population alone will

increase more than twice by the year 2050 (US Census Bureau, 2004).

As the immigrant population continues to grow, the need for adult English

language and vocational training will inevitably require more social efforts. Given the

large number of second language learners in the country and the projected rapid growth

of immigration in the nearest future, it is important to search for the optimal educational

solutions in order to maintain the nation’s social and economic sustainability. With this

respect, the issue of accelerated English learning and faster assimilation of immigrants

3

into the society is of great importance to successful implementing positive social change

in this country.

At first glance, the decision of adult ESL students to continue education in credit

programs often comes as a result of the need for personal and occupational changes.

However, since education and economy are closely related, there is no doubt that having

a better-trained workforce is of great advantage form the economic point of view.

Statistics shows that low education and work skills cannot provide sufficient income for

the immigrant families; as a result, they increase the number of welfare recipients. Rector

(2006) quotes $89,000 as an average government expense for each immigrant without a

high school diploma. Given that among the poor population 8.7 million were first

generation immigrants, it leaves no doubt that education is in the best economic interests

for the new residents as well as for the country.

Although the challenges of educating immigrants may lie heavily on the country’s

economy, they are greatly outweighed by the long-term social benefits which are

twofold: on the one hand, an educated population can strengthen economic and cultural

assets of local communities (De Baca et al., 2006); on the other, a stronger economy will

raise more capital for developing an educational base. Last but not least, one cannot

underestimate the significance of education for immigrant families. Just as uneducated

immigrant parents are likely to be poor, children in immigrant families are likely to lack

education and live in poverty too. Educating adults will be beneficial for children not

only from the economic perspective but also through parent involvement in their school

and extracurricular activities.

4

Education of immigrant adults often begins with the English language instruction.

At present, a number of schools and government institutions offer ESL classes, which are

focused on a variety of skills. However, most of them are designed for the traditional

classroom instruction and cannot accommodate those working adult students who are

pressed for time in reaching their academic and professional goals due to multiple job and

family responsibilities. This situation is exacerbated by the fact that learning is often

slowed down due to low literacy and general education levels of the students. As a result,

many programs, particularly government-funded ones, limit their educational efforts to

providing basic second language literacy instruction to immigrant adults. For instance,

among the most common programs reviewed at the National Symposium on Adult ESL

Research and Practice initial literacy, functional literacy, media literacy, and social

literacy received the most attention (Condelli & Wrigley, 2001).

However, even the above-mentioned respectable forum admitted that few adult

ESL programs were successful. Not surprisingly though, since focusing on a single aspect

of ESL instruction—literacy—does not meet the growing needs of the adult ESL

learners. Additionally, unlike regular adult basic education classes, ESL instruction is

expected to pursue more than providing literacy skills. Specific needs of ESL students

include both oral and written communication skills, as well as information processing

skills applied in a variety of social contexts. Evidently, the complexity of issues involved

in educating immigrant population requires a search for new and more effective

approaches and methodologies that could increase second language acquisition.

Social factor is another significant barrier that prevents successful second

language acquisition. In the past, education was not only the measure of success in the

5

new land but also the conduit for acculturation. In contrast, nowadays immigrants are

able “to maintain greater linguistic and cultural ties with their countries of origin, and

thus they may not seek assimilation as it historically been understood” (Curry, 2004, p.

51). Minority cultures tend to be socially cohesive, which is evident in the life of many

ethnic communities around the country. The natural tendency to gravitate toward familiar

language, values, and social interactions limits learners’ opportunities for meaningful use

of English. Leaving the classroom, most students find themselves surrounded by their

families and ethnic communities where the English language is not spoken. As a result,

the new skills and knowledge have little use and support in real life.

Since language is fundamental for the development of new concepts and cognitive

skills, such educationally restricted environment is detrimental not only for the English

acquisition but also for learning the new culture and integrating into the American

society. Often, these problems are accompanied by negative attitude towards learning

English which comes as a result of socially constructed belief about the importance of

education. Brittain (2005) points out that although being part of the familiar environment

is safe and accepting, it creates peer pressure to conform to the standards and values of

the majority of co-natives. This involves views on education and academic achievements.

Thus, in addition to being isolated from meaningful interactions with native speakers of

English, immigrants continue to be influenced by their cultural views on education and

fail to achieve significant level of English proficiency and life standards.

Factors Affecting Academic Success in Community College Programs

It would not be an exaggeration to point out the fact that community colleges with

their low-cost continuing education programs and public-oriented services carry a large

6

part of ESL instruction. According to the National Center for Educational Statistics, 9.6%

of student body enrolled in credit classes at two-year colleges in the fall of 2005

consisted of Hispanic, Asian, and other foreign-born minorities (Knapp, Kelly-Reid,

Whitmore, & Miller, 2007). It is necessary to bear in mind that this figure reflects only

the result of transition from skill development classes to degree programs. It is impossible

to estimate the total number of students attending noncredit classes across the country

due to lack of statistical data. However, it has been reported that the annual noncredit

ESL enrollment can vary from a few hundred to a few thousand per college averaging 1.2

million in publicly funded programs nationwide (Chrisman & Crandall, 2007). Only 10-

15% of noncredit enrollees attempt to enter credit programs when they reach sufficient

level of English proficiency (Chrisman & Crandall). Compared with the number of those

students who successfully move on to academic study, noncredit enrollees present a

sizable group. This indicates that noncredit ESL learners require a serious educational

effort.

Trying to tailor to the different needs of the ESL population, community colleges

face a number of challenges. Unlike adult literacy programs, they typically offer ESL

life-skill instruction focused on speaking, listening, reading, and writing in beginning

through advanced levels of proficiency. Although many students progress in the

proficiency level, their actual mastery of the language, particularly written

communication skills and information processing, leaves a reason for concern. Chrisman

and Crandall (2007) point out an alarming fact that low levels present an overwhelming

majority of noncredit enrollees while the proficiency of students who are placed in the

advanced classed is not sufficient either.

7

To remedy this situation, the ESL services are often augmented by a few

specialized academic courses such as English for Academic Purposes (EAP), which help

advanced learners in transition from noncredit to credit programs. However, the fact that

the proportion of students who continue education in credit programs is rather small

indicates that there may be a number of issues hindering their learning progress. One of

them is the number of the semesters spent in the noncredit ESL: most students do not

continue attending classes after the first two semesters. Moreover, there is a serious class

time deficit. As Chrisman and Crandall (2007) report, an average person requires 100

hours of instruction to move to the next level of proficiency and up to 1000 hours to learn

basic communication provided that the native language literacy had been acquired earlier.

Therefore, a typical 12-week course that meets three to six hours per week cannot satisfy

the need for faster language acquisition, particularly in those programs that are designed

to develop academic language skills.

Another issue is the difference in academic standards between ESL and credit

courses. Placed in the ESL writing course, students are evaluated by the progress they

make in grammar, style, and general language use. Although their English language

proficiency may be sufficient to proceed to the highest level in the ESL program, it does

not guarantee success when the students are judged by the mainstream standards. As a

result, students fail and have to return to the ESL programs (Valdes, 1992). Thus,

increasing the number of class hours per semester may prove to be an inadequate measure

without raising the course requirements.

Arguably, lack of English literacy is one of the main factors contributing to

academic failure. However, there are a number of other problems that prevent students

8

from completing the course or making sufficient improvements and being placed in the

mainstream courses. Socioeconomic and affective factors are among the most common

ones. Song (2006, p. 417) points out that these factors intertwined with internal problems

such as “lack of interest, effort or motivation, insufficient target-language use, and

deficient first-language literacy” lead to failure in the course. These issues are further

compounded by lack of support system for ESL students who have to face the language

barrier along with different academic requirements on their own. Following their cultural

expectations of education and teacher-student relationships, they find it difficult to adjust

to the American academic standards which emphasize constructive learning and student

initiative (Rubenstein, 2006).

From the point of view of instructional design, the traditional classroom

instruction has a number of limitations which negatively affect the academic success of

adult learners who have to attend to numerous personal and professional obligations

besides course requirements. In addition to the insufficient class time, there is no

opportunity for self-management and flexibility in the use of material and acquisition of

knowledge. Students are required to be present in class in order to work on their English

skills. Although student-centered instruction and real-life application of skills are

emphasized in some approaches, the process of language acquisition remains slow due to

the class time boundaries and dependence on the instructor and the textbooks. This issue

made some researchers look for new forms of instruction (e.g., accelerated, intensive,

compressed or short-term) where online technologies could be utilized to enhance and

accelerated learning (Serdyukov & Serdyukova, 2006). Moreover, the traditional design

of the ESL instruction is focused on skills rather than learners and does not take into

9

account the most essential principles of adult education learning: self-directedness,

learners’ experiences, the need to learn, and immediate application of knowledge

(Knowles, 1980). Due to the fact that students’ learning experiences are limited to

classroom interactions, it is very difficult to incorporate these aspects into the traditional

instruction.

In addition to a more learner-centered instruction, preparing students for academic

study requires a pedagogy that goes beyond the traditional grammar-oriented activities

and describing personal experiences fit for a regular 3-hour session (Curry, 2004).

Although personal experiences and prior knowledge are undeniably important in using

reading and writing as teaching strategies (Skinner, 1994), they are of little value where

formal language and writing conventions are concerned. Not only these conventions may

be different from those in the students’ native languages (Beckett, Gonzalez, & Schwartz,

2004), they may also be unknown to learners due to insufficient prior education. Thus,

acquiring the use of formal language is not simply a matter of a different content but also

a different social environment which immigrants typically have little exposure to.

Current Trends in ESL Writing Instruction

In more detail, the review of literature is presented in the following chapter.

However, it is necessary to introduce some recent issues and findings which point to the

benefits of using an online component in the traditional instruction. Most of them directly

relate to the challenges of specialized ESL courses in creating the curricula that could

embrace various socio-cultural realia and academic disciplines. According to Curry

(2004), developing academic literacy includes linguistic, content, and cognitive

knowledge. This position is supported by Beckett, Gonzalez, and Schwartz (2004), who

10

place content knowledge, conceptual understanding, and critical thinking skills among

the priorities of ESL writing curriculum design. In order to achieve this goal, these

authors propose to merge the EAP course with one of the credit courses taught in college.

This option appears to be promising even though it is difficult to design due to

organizational differences in continuing education and degree programs. As a

department, the ESL writing is viewed as a remedial discipline and is placed outside the

mainstream courses (Blumenthal, 2002). This creates “ghettoization” of ESL students

which contributes to the difficulties in student preparation for academic study since one

cannot become a better writer without expanding conceptual framework and content

knowledge (Melles, Millar, Morton, & Fegan, 2005).

Although the above-mentioned issue is not directly related to the presented study,

it certainly points to the need for exploring other possibilities of improving academic

ESL courses. Among the approaches to expanding learning opportunities for ESL

students, some researchers propose workplace and industry training, cooperative

programs, and community learning (Kinberg & Serdyukov, 2006; Elwell & Bean, 2001).

Adding an online component which offers reading and discussion in the typically

required college disciplines deserves attention as a better alternative to skills-oriented

ESL classes, which do not provide sufficient support in subject areas and writing skills

development. Some possibilities include adding content material to the topics suggested

by the course textbook; internalizing content-specific vocabulary; utilizing hyperlinks

connections (Chen Wang & Sutton, 2002) and negotiation techniques (De la Fuente,

2003); providing guidance and monitoring learning progress (Salomon, Globerson, &

11

Guterman, 1989); improving computer skills and research strategies which are an asset

for any college student (Goodfellow, 2004).

The nature of the online learning environment promotes language acquisition

through immersion in subject-related context which stimulates language processing and

engages students in a continuous writing discourse. Among the most important features

of online knowledge construction, Serdyukov and Hill (2004, para. 5) mention “academic

depth, length of postings (volume of written products), expressiveness, collaboration,

self-management, retention, and use of resources.” Undoubtedly, using discipline-

oriented approach requires a close collaboration between college faculty and ESL

instructors (Melles, Millar, Morton, & Fegan, 2005). Online environment makes it

possible to bring content and EAP staff together and promote a professional exchange

that can be greatly beneficial to the students.

Problem Statement

The problem of the study originates from the need to raise effectiveness of the

traditional classroom instruction in providing optimal conditions for writing skills

development. The attempts to find the best way to improve writing skills have resulted in

a number of teaching methods which vary from the traditional ones with emphasis on

conceptual knowledge, coding/decoding skills, and knowledge of specific writing and

grammar conventions, to innovative techniques which view writing as the extension of

speaking and are not concerned with grammatical accuracy, spelling, and punctuation

(Jarvis, 2002). However, neither of them seems to be fast and efficient enough to

adequately prepare learners for the challenges of academic study in a reasonably short

time. These models are designed for traditional learners based on the American

12

educational values, which stress learner responsibility and presume that learning

continues outside of classroom.

For adult ESL learners, there are several pitfalls in this design. First of all, many

of them come from cultures with a strong oral tradition. This creates lack of coding and

decoding skills that could be transferred onto the second language. In addition to failing

in reading and writing, there is typically inadequate educational background, which

results in lack of general knowledge and understanding of concepts necessary to create

internal speech and produce it in writing, as well as various learning skills. Embedded in

the problem of writing skills development, there is grammar deficiency which also

complicates learning process. Overall, these issues make writing instruction a strenuous,

time-consuming effort and need constant reinforcement which in-class instruction cannot

provide. Unaccustomed to writing discourse and grammatical system of the language,

learners often require additional resources, support, and a more flexible class schedule.

Failure to achieve affects their motivation and decision to continue education.

Current research on combining traditional and online instruction indicates that a

hybrid course design can be beneficial for the development of writing skills of adult ESL

students (Al-Jarf, 2002; Diamond, 2000). However, success depends on a number of

factors including collaborative knowledge construction (Bender 2003; Serdyukov & Hill,

2003; Milam, 2001); functionality of the software and interface design (Deubel, 2003;

Kitto & Higgins, 2003); and self-directedness of students (Partee, 2002). Most of these

studies investigate effectiveness of computer-mediated communication (CMC) in

educational settings in general. Yet little research has been done concerning hybrid

course design specifically in the area of ESL writing instruction. Specifically, current

13

research literature does not explain the changes in writing skills that may occur as a result

of hybrid learning and students’ needs to adjust their learning and self-directive

strategies.

Nature of the Study

This research project was designed as a semester-long case study with multiple

participants. The choice of a qualitative study design was dictated by the goal of the study

to carry out an in-depth investigation of individual learning experiences in a hybrid

course environment. This tradition best allows for conducting an investigation within a

specific context and applying various research strategies (Yin, 2003). Therefore, it was

chosen as best serving the purpose of studying the changes in the participants’ writing

progress, their self-directedness, and the use of learning strategies in an in-depth manner.

Personal interviews, questionnaires, and writing samples of compositions and online

posts were used to collect the data. Necessary adjustments in the instructional design and

procedures are recommended based on the results of the study.

Research Questions

In order to fulfill the purpose of the study, the investigation was seeking answers

to the following research questions: (a) What features characterize changes in the writing

of ESL students in hybrid courses? (b) What evidence of self-directedness is present in

the hybrid program? (c) Which learning strategies (memory, cognitive, compensation, or

social) do students prefer to use more in this type of environment?

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to investigate individual learning experiences in

hybrid instructional design, which combines classroom and online learning formats. The

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primary goal of the study was to follow the changes in writing skills development and the

overall improvement in composition skills through creating and applying new concepts in

online reading and discussion. The specific nature of the hybrid learning also called for

investigating the growth of self-directedness as a result of offering students the tools for

setting academic goals and performing self-evaluation. Last but not least, the study

compared the use of learning strategies in-class and online. The results of the study

contribute to better understanding of the pedagogical and social factors that contribute to

creating a successful hybrid course, as well as developing new methodological

approaches and instructional means to improve ESL writing skills. The application of the

results of the study in teaching academic ESL courses at community colleges as well as

other schools and environments will hopefully increase learning outcomes.

Conceptual Framework

Social Learning Theory

In order to address the above-mentioned aspects in one study, it is essential to

view writing in its connection with the learner’s conceptual structure, most of which has

been created in a different cultural and linguistic reality and is expressed through

different communication patterns. This requires a theoretical foundation that allows for

approaching writing from social, psychological, and cognitive perspectives. Vygotsky’s

(1962; 1978) social learning theory, particularly its aspect of thought and language

formation, was used as the background for investigating the process of development of

inner speech through acquiring new concepts and its reflection in writing. The main

premise of this theory is that writing requires a highly developed inner speech

representing the person’s thought pattern and level of abstraction. Importantly, according

15

to Vygotsky (1962, p. 51), “thought development is determined by language…and by the

socio-cultural experience.” Thus, success in mastering writing in a second language

depends on the amount of linguistic, cultural, and overall learning experience which

students have been exposed to.

Following this premise, the hybrid writing course was designed to provide

opportunities for expanding general knowledge through supplementary reading and

academic modules along with instruction in specific language forms and writing

conventions. The social aspect of Vygotsky’s theory provided an opportunity to view

writing as a collaborative experience of constructing knowledge through continuing

written exchange which required highly developed skills in processing and producing the

language. This was accomplished by using the blog section of the course Web site, where

reading and writing topics were changed weekly in order to maintain constant peer

interaction. As a form of social software, the blog also allowed for proximal

development, which, according to Vygotsky, refers to observing the use of new models

and learning from more experienced peers. Since interaction and thought expression are

important aspects of online learning, Vygotsky’s theory played a foundational role in the

study.

Concept of Self-Efficacy

Designed as a case study, this research project focused on individual learning

experiences in the hybrid course. In order to receive a complete account of positive and

negative factors of the hybrid model, it was necessary to reflect learners’ needs, goals,

and learning skills in the purpose and design of the course. Therefore, in addition to

studying the process of writing skills development, learners’ self-directedness and the use

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of learning strategies were specifically addressed throughout the investigation. Although

these are important factors in any form of education, they become strongly emphasized in

blended learning due to the amount of time allocated for independent work. This aspect

of research was based on Bandura’s (1986) theory of social cognition—namely its

concept of self-efficacy in determining the course of action—and Oxford’s (1990)

Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL).

Bandura (1986) defined self-efficacy as the human ability to determine the course

of actions based on their convictions, values, and perception of the upcoming experience.

Being able to judge their own abilities and to make decisions based on their self-beliefs,

people create programs of “self-development, adaptation, and change at different stages

of life” (Bandura, Caprara, Barbarnelli, Gerbino, & Pastorelli, 2003, p. 769). This

involves not only self-awareness and realization of one’s potential and limitation, but also

the capacity for self-regulation, which refers to willing to act, knowing how to act, and

having skills and resources to act. Bandura identified three main processes involved in

the self-regulatory mechanism: self-monitoring, self-judging, and self-evaluation. Each

process requires an objective look at one’s own performance and critical analysis of the

action, the situation in which the action takes place, and the result of the action.

As a psychological construct, self-efficacy is not an inborn quality; it develops

throughout lifetime and can be affected by such factors as “performance

accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and psychological states”

(Bandura, 1977, p. 191). Therefore, all mechanisms involved in self-efficacy are products

of learning, whether it is learning from observations or from personal experiences. From

the educational perspective, self-efficacy determines the level of student achievement:

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students who see themselves as high-achievers usually get better results than those who

doubt their abilities (Bandura 1986). This is possible due to the strong connection

between self-efficacy and self-directedness which enables learners to set goals and

estimate the effort and perseverance necessary to perform the task.

Language Learning Strategies

The self-regulatory mechanism implies that learners reflect on their learning

progress and plan their learning activities. According to Oxford (1990), these actions

represent metacognitive strategies—organizing, evaluating, and planning—which allow

learners to exercise control over their learning. Therefore, there is a strong connection

between self-directedness and learning strategies. However, a specific learning

environment may require different practical skills and resources. Thus, in addition to

metacognitive strategies, learners have to resort to strategies that “directly involve the

target language” (Oxford, 1990, p.37) in manipulating the information, processing and

producing new language, making inferences, and interacting. The four groups of

strategies, which were addressed in this study, were borrowed from Oxford’s (1990)

strategy classification system and modified for the given learning format.

1. Cognitive strategies involve learning activities which help internalize new

material through critical thinking skills such as analyzing, summarizing, and

recognizing patterns.

2. Memory strategies allow for the retention of the new material by associating,

reviewing, and using imagery, symbols, and keywords.

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3. Compensation strategies help overcome limitations in understanding the material

by using clues, switching to the native language, and using communication in

order to get help or adjust the message.

4. Social strategies involve direct interaction with peers while pursuing a learning

task and include asking for clarification and correction, cooperating,

communicating, and developing cultural awareness.

Hybrid learning requires a well-developed sense of self-directedness and learning

strategy inventory. Assuming that up to 79% of the study time is spent in the online

environment, these constructs play a decisive role in learners’ academic success. While

the former maintains the vision of the result of the learning task and the motivation to

perform it well, the latter allows for the choice of the tools to accomplish it. One might

argue that these elements apply to face-to-face and hybrid learning alike. However,

studying in the traditional classroom environment, learners are able to see the model of

the performance and receive feedback to their actions immediately; they are required to

follow directions, but they are not responsible for planning their performance. In the

online environment, they function as co-participants of knowledge construction, which

requires self-discipline, time-management skills, and the ability to carry out the task

without the immediate feedback from the instructor. Therefore, it is impossible to make

progress without being in control of one’s own learning and applying the most effective

strategies to approach the assignment. Through its online component, the hybrid learning

format provides opportunities for developing self-directedness and learning strategies by

encouraging learners to become independent and take responsibility for their success.

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Concept of Computer-Supported Learning Environment

Equally important for this study is the place of technology in the acquisition of

writing skills. Since it is impossible to isolate writing from overall language acquisition

and knowledge-building discourse, a modified version of Scardamalia and Bereiter’s

(1994) model of computer-supported intentional learning environment (CSILE) was used

as the framework for the hybrid course design. In this model, the authors emphasize that

learners must be “actively trying to achieve cognitive objectives—as distinct from simply

trying to do well on school tasks and activities” (Scardamalia and Bereiter, para. 4)).

Intentional learning is characterized by utilizing learners’ entire potential, thus leading to

gaining expertise which the authors view as a process rather than an accomplished state.

Both intentional learning and process expertise require the presence of a supportive social

environment; hence, the authors point to the necessity to transform schools into

knowledge-building communities. However, they rightly state that once the initial stage

of adaptation to a new learning situation is over, the progress slows down and individuals

simply follow a routine. A true knowledge-building community should continuously

present new challenges and focus on collective knowledge which comes from

contributions of all members. This is congruent with the idea of social learning which

was implemented in the presented study through the hybrid design allowing for

collaboration and team work in class and online.

The first two components of Scardamalia and Bereiter’s model have a natural fit

with the hybrid course as they require learners’ active involvement in processing and

producing the language which can lead to a higher level of proficiency and writing

expertise. However, since this research project did not involve the entire organization, the

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concept of the knowledge-building community was restricted to the group of students

taking the course. The concept of the hybrid learning format is explained in detail further.

Hybrid Learning

Although the term hybrid (blended) learning or mixed-mode instruction is fairly

new in research literature, this instructional model has been used for a few decades. In

practice, it refers to combining traditional classes with various forms of out-of-class

course delivery (Dziuban, Hartman, & Moskal, 2004). However, it is with the

proliferation of student-centered teaching approach and the online technologies that

hybrid learning was noticed by researchers and classified as a unique educational

phenomenon. Presently, blended learning is known as “a hybrid of traditional face-to-

face and online learning so that instruction occurs both in the classroom and online, and

where the online component becomes a natural extension of traditional classroom

learning” (Rovai & Jordan, 2004, Blended learning section, para. 1). Some researchers

distinguish blended learning from other types of web-enhanced or online instruction by

the proportion of content delivered online. According to Allen, Seaman, and Garrett

(2007), a blended program is one where between 30% and 79% of the program content is

delivered online.

Due to its face-to-face and online characteristics, there is no agreement as to

whether hybrid learning should be viewed as “Web-enhanced classroom instruction or

classroom-enhanced online instruction” (Dziuban, Hartman, & Moskal, 2004, p. 2). Some

researchers reject the very concept of blending applied to instructional format as poorly

conveying what actually takes places from the point of view of pedagogy (Oliver &

Trigwell, 2005). They claim that academic improvements as a result of the hybrid method

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can be explained from the position of the variation theory, according to which “for

learning to occur, variation must be experienced by the learner” (Oliver & Trigwell, p.

22). In other words, it is not the format that makes a difference in students’ learning

progress, but the increase in choice of the learning activities and the novelty of the

experience. Since the hybrid method is still a developing phenomenon in education, it

would be too soon to take sides on this issue. The fact remains that each model—face-to-

face and online—makes a significant addition to the other by providing learning

opportunities which its counterpart cannot offer alone. Specifically, the characteristics of

hybrid learning can be summarized as follows:

1) Convenience and flexibility of delivery

2) Variety of learning experiences

3) Student-centered instruction

4) Reduction of time spent in-class or online when necessary

5) Increased student participation and interaction

6) Increased student learning outcomes

In spite of the great advantages of the hybrid format, it does not come without

challenges. First of all, there is a misconception about the place of blended learning

among academic courses. Some educators erroneously view it as the transitional stage

from the traditional to fully online programs (Allen, Seaman, & Garrett, 2007). This

approach does not allow for a truly creative combination of the face-to-face and online

formats. The second problem involves the school infrastructure since blended learning

requires a technology base and skills in instructional design and online technologies. This

indicates that schools should be prepared to allocate funds and resources to create the

22

necessary conditions and implement hybrid courses successfully. It also places new

requirements on the faculty whose responsibilities will include facilitating learning in and

out of class, as well as meeting the challenge of designing their courses in “active

learning environments” (Dziuban, Hartman, & Moskal, 2004, p. 10). Two things are

critical in the hybrid method: the time necessary to design and maintain the course and

understanding of ways to bring the best of the traditional and online models into one.

Both are impossible without commitment from the faculty. Perhaps this is the reason why

hybrid learning is not growing as fast as fully online course offerings. In fact, Allen,

Seaman, and Garrett (2007) report that the number of blended courses decreased slightly

between 2003 and 2005 while online course offerings grew.

An integral part of the hybrid course design is the type of online communication.

Based on the purpose of the instruction and the technical base of the program, the

electronic discourse can take place synchronously or asynchronously (Sotillo, 2000).

Synchronous interaction allows all participants to collaborate simultaneously in real time.

Some examples are live chats and video conferences. Asynchronous interactions occur in

a delayed manner as, for example, in threaded discussions and Web logs. Each has a

specific effect on learning. Although collaboration and teacher facilitation are present in

both types, asynchronous discussions allow for deeper analyses and integration of

material, which is evident in the length of postings and expressiveness of the language

(Serdyukov & Hill, 2004). This can be explained by the principal differences between the

two types of online interaction. Synchronous discussions require fast responses thus

limiting the time “to search for information, to produce extended explanations, to

evaluate information thoroughly, to ask elaborated questions and so on” (Veerman &

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Veldhuis-Diermanse, n.d.). Therefore, asynchronous mode appears to be more suitable

for the purpose of time management and quality of responses.

One of the most challenging aspects of blended learning is embracing the dialectic

nature of computer-mediated learning community which implies a different role

distribution among students and teachers; a different view on learning as phenomenon

situated in a particular time and space; and a different communication style. In order to

successfully combine online and classroom instruction, hybrid learning requires a

pedagogy that is based on co-construction of knowledge and makes learners equal

participants in the process. Thus, the hybrid model, as a partially online model, limits

teacher-control and emphasizes facilitation rather than direct instruction. Finally, like any

online language-based community, hybrid learning requires a specific form of electronic

or computer-mediated communication (CMC), which has evolved as a result of

technological advances. Although CMC has developed its own features, it should not be

confused with a linguistic phenomenon. Defining CMC, one has to refer to a mode of

communication, either synchronous or asynchronous, used specifically in the online

environment. Examples of CMC are discussion forums, chat room, e-mail

correspondence, Web logs (blogs), etc. In more detail, the use of CMC in the ESL field

will be discussed in chapter 2.

The fact that many educational institutions are cautious about introducing hybrid

learning in their programs indicates that more research is needed in order to explore the

possibilities of its use in education. Currently, its situation appears to be in flux even

though research has shown that blending instructional formats has a great potential in

content delivery and student-centered pedagogy. Therefore, the present study was based

24

on the assumption that the use of hybrid learning in an EAP course would allow for

improvement in students’ writing skills by enhancing conceptual structure and fluency of

written expression achieved through intensive online reading and communication

activities. The hybrid EAP course was designed to offer six hours of traditional class

instruction and unlimited access to the course Web site www.esl-page.com, which

provided additional resources in reading, writing, and grammar, as well as supplementary

materials in content areas used throughout the course. The asynchronous CMC ensured

learner control of the time and resources necessary to internalize the new information.

The most essential part of the hybrid course design is the choice of the

communication software that can allow for ongoing text-based interaction conducted

asynchronously with maximum learner control. Online self-organizing social systems

(OSOSS) appear to best serve these purposes (Wiley & Edwards, n.d.). One of the forms

of OSOSS, blogs, has gained popularity as the form of social software providing easy

access and interaction. It was chosen as the online communication platform for this study.

The infrastructure of the blog was instrumental in facilitating collaborative online

learning. Each week students were required to complete the reading selection and

participate in the blog discussion at least four times during the week, which included

responses to the discussion questions and comments on peers’ posts. The blogging

technique allowed students to become familiar with the topic and collect ideas for the

weekly writing assignments. A second blog site was used to provide access to peer

editing section, where students were required to post their first drafts of compositions for

group review. Thus, the hybrid design of the course created opportunities for social

learning through continuing online communication.

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Definitions of Terms

Asynchronous interaction or asynchronous discussion: an online discussion that

takes place in a delayed manner; it does not require simulatenious interaction of all

participants.

Blended (hybrid) learning: a type of learning that combines both classroom-based

and online instructional components.

Blog: a type of social software which is used for online reading and discussion.

Blogging: text-based online interaction using the blog space and format.

Computer-mediated communication (CMC): text-based communication via

telecommunication networks which can happen synchronously or asynchronously.

Course Web site: online class component which serves as an extension of the in-

class activities and contains additional grammar and writing resources and home

assignments.

Hybrid course: a course in which class intsruction is complemented by an online

component which provides additional content material, a blog discussion forum, and self-

study resources for students’ independent learning and online interactions with the class.

Learning strategies: specific “techniques that [people] employ to solve

“problems” posed by second language input and output” (Brown, 1994, p. 114) which

include memory, cognitive, compensation, or social activities.

Level of English proficiency: a degree of fluency in producing and processing the

language which is based on a combination of practical language skills and understanding

of grammar.

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Online instruction: instructional format which involves Web-based instructor-

students and students-students interactions and uses online resources and communication.

Self-efficacy: the ability to determine the course of actions based on personal

convictions, values, and perception of the upcoming experience which involves self-

awareness, self-realization, and self-regulation (Bandura, 1986).

Self-directedness: the ability to set and achieve goals based on motivation, self-

management, and critical evaluation of one’s own needs and skills in the learning

progress (Knowles, 1984).

Social software: Web-based software used for communication among people

which is characterized by self-organizing infrastructure and open user access.

Synchronous interaction or synchronous discussion: online discussion that takes

place simulateniously among all participants.

Traditional instruction: teaching method which takes place in class and requires

the presence on both the instructor and the students.

Scope and Limitations

The investigation was limited to the target population of college-bound ESL

students attending EAP course at Westchester Community College. Although the scope

of the study involved this particular setting, the results can be applicable to EAP courses

offered at any post-secondary institution due to similarities in ESL instructional

methodology and academic requirements of the mainstream programs.

Central to this study was the investigation of the development of writing skills,

associated learning strategies, and self-directedness in learning. Reading was included as

supporting factor but was not reflected in the results of the study. The study did not

27

pursue the purpose of comparing the whole wide variety of course delivery systems

available at the present time; therefore, a Web site with two blog components for

discussion and first draft demonstration was designed specifically for this study. The

blogs were linked to the Web site from the outside providers www.blogger.com and

www.blog.com.

Other limitations of the study included participants’ cultural inhibitions toward

the use of technology for educational purposes as well as their cultural bias to sharing

thoughts and opinions with a group of peers. Another area where limitations were

expected to occur was prior exposure to academic language and familiarity with the

English grammar.

The participants were selected for this study based on the following criteria:

1. Students had Level 6 or higher of English proficiency based on the Combined

English Language Skills Assessment test (CELSA).

2. Students’ minimal educational background was high school level.

3. Students had at least basic familiarity with computers (elementary keyboarding,

basic Internet searches and navigation skills).

These criteria created the basis for the assumptions of the study regarding the

participants’ skills and general knowledge. It was assumed that Level 6 proficiency

would be sufficient to fulfill communicative and writing requirements of the course. The

vocabulary and reading skills at this level were expected to provide the necessary

foundation for the academic growth. The course assignments were given based on the

assumption that the participants had at least high school education and, therefore, their

general knowledge would allow them to understand the concepts included in the course

28

reading, writing, and discussion assignments. Since the participants were not tested for

computer skills, it was assumed from their responses on the intake questionnaire that they

knew how to perform basic operations on the computer. These included keyboarding

skills and the use of the Internet and e-mail.

Significance of the Study

The study continued the current research on writing instruction while focusing on

the improvement of writing skills of the participants through hybrid learning and

positively affecting their overall ESL learning progress. Guided by the lifelong learning

principle, this study emphasized the importance of knowledge construction through CMC

as a tool of self-directed learning. The significance of the study is enhanced by the fact

that it allows for understanding of learners’ experiences in the hybrid learning format and

learning strategies associated with the use of CMC. From the practical perspective, the

study is beneficial to ESL college-bound students and helpful to the faculty in increasing

the efficiency of instruction through technology applications which promote student-

centered learning. The results of the study will hopefully help interested ESL

professionals to address the issues which adult students typically deal with when entering

academic programs. As an innovative approach to teaching and learning, it offers a valid

contribution to the development of the ESL writing and research methodology and

demonstrates a practical application of the underlying theories of social learning and

thought and language formation.

Implications for Positive Social Change

New immigrants to the United States constitute inalienable part of human capital.

Their education, work skills, and general wellbeing are linked to the economic prosperity

29

of the nation. Higher levels of education allow individuals to become more self-reliant as

employees and members of society. Better professional skills help them become more

competitive in the job market, maintain higher living standards, and contribute more to

social development. As was discussed earlier, the majority of immigrants find themselves

among the poorest strata. Confined to their ethnic communities and low-paid jobs, they

lack many social, cultural, and economic benefits that education has to offer. However,

for the immigrant population, education begins with acquiring the English language

skills. The faster they master the language, the better their chances are at improving their

education and obtaining professional employment. The hybrid format of learning is

designed to provide opportunities for accelerated language learning and, therefore, faster

transition to academic study. The present research deserves additional attention as it

includes a course which targets the development of academic skills which most ESL

courses do not offer.

Besides the economic aspect, positive social change addresses the issue of equal

rights and opportunities for all members of society. This democratic principle must be

maintained in order for the country to function as a multicultural union. Based on this

principle, it is wrong to regard education as the privilege of the elite; it must be accessible

to any willing member who has the potential and the motivation for self-improvement.

Providing educational opportunities to the minorities is the first step to bridging the social

divide. It is also an important act toward ensuring the country’s future since education is

not only necessary for economic stability of individuals but also for their understanding

of true democracy. Given that the ethnic map of the U.S. will continue to grow as a result

of immigration, social processes involving both economic and political aspects will be

30

impossible without educating immigrants. Thus, ESL programs, especially the ones that

lead to academic study, give a tremendous contribution to positive social change.

Transition Statement

The discussion presented in this chapter indicates that the multitude of problems

in educating immigrant adults involves the following spheres:

1. The social problems include cultural cohesiveness; cultural isolation; and beliefs

about the importance of education.

2. The economic problems include low work skills and income among the majority

of immigrants; lack of government funds for adult education; and rapidly

increasing immigrant population requiring welfare and work training.

3. The educational problems include low literacy and general education level among

immigrants; ineffectiveness of government-funded adult literacy programs;

insufficient number of class hours in the ESL programs; and limitations of

traditional classroom instruction.

The first step to resolution of these problems can be made by providing ESL

learners with tools for self-efficacy. This issue suggests the need for more accessible,

flexible, and efficient second language instruction which would enable learners to

continue their academic and professional development. Creating such instruction implies

expanding learning beyond classroom and providing opportunities for meaningful

language use regardless of the community restrictions. From this perspective, the blended

or hybrid method, which allows for a combination of the traditional and online

instruction, deserves close attention due to its capacity to bring ESL instruction to a

higher level. Specifically for college-bound adult ESL students, it offers such important

31

aspects as flexibility in scheduling learning and content delivery, time management, and

environment conducive to social learning. However, it remains largely unexplored at

present, and is, therefore, uncommon in the ESL profession. The problem lies in the lack

of research data that could guide practitioners in their efforts to implement the hybrid

method. Combining face-to-face and online formats raises many questions regarding this

type of learning and its compatibility with the traditional ESL writing methodology. The

questions that were raised at the beginning of the study and became central to this

investigation were as follows:

1. Are writing skills which are acquired throught hybrid learning characterized by

specific features?

2. Is there evidence of self-directedness in the hybrid learning format?

3. Do learners use the same learning strategies in both learning environments?

In order to present a full account of the investigation of these aspects of the hybrid

learning model, the rest of the discussion contains the following sections:

Chapter 2, Literature Review, discusses current research in the area of ESL

writing. Since the current ESL methodology has been based on the traditional format of

instruction, this chapter highlights the differences between ESL writing in class and

online. A special section provides an overview of technological tools that are used in both

learning environments. This chapter also presents the most recent studies investigating

the development of writing skills in the hybrid format and specific forms of CMC used to

facilitate learning.

Chapter 3, Methodology, addresses the methodology of the study. It begins with

an overview of research design which includes the explanation of the choice of

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qualitative paradigm and justification of the case study as a research strategy. The role of

the research and the research questions are also given in this section. The target

population, the program, and the method of selection of the participants and their profiles

are described as part of the context of the study. This chapter also presents the data

collections instruments and procedures involved in collecting and treating the data.

Finally, there is a discussion of the strategies that were used to ensure validity and

reliability of the study.

Chapter 4, Description and Analysis, gives a detailed account of data collection

and treatment. It includes an overview of the hybrid EAP course and presents its design

and organization. The major part of this chapter is given to the discussion of the evidence

obtained in response to the research questions. Each case study is presented individually

and in cross-case analysis. The chapter ends with the conclusions drawn from the

discussion of the data and a shor summary of the chapter.

Chapter 5, Discussion, includes interpretations of the findings pertaining to the

research questions and their practical implications. It also addresses limitations of the

conducted case study and gives recommendations for further research. The reflections on

teaching the hybrid course while conducting research complete the discussion of this case

study.

CHAPTER 2:

LITERATURE REVIEW

This research project was called for by the growing need for developing new

teaching methods in the field of ESL writing instruction that could enhance writing skills

acquisition and prepare learners for the challenges of academic study. Because traditional

classroom ESL instruction does not fully satisfy the growing requirements for essential

academic skills, more and more educators resort to technology in order to augment the

traditional methodology. This situation justified the primary purpose of the present study

to investigate the hybrid design of an EAP course and the changes in writing skills of

students in this learning format. In order to identify the current trends in research on ESL

writing within the chosen conceptual framework and understand the principal differences

between traditional and online writing instruction, it was necessary to address the areas

embracing both learning formats in this literature review. Furthermore, it was important

to follow the transition from separating these instructional formats to blending them in

the form of hybrid instruction. Thus, each section of the literature review shows current

views on writing from different pedagogical perspectives and addresses the areas that are

pertinent to both technology and development of writing skills:

1. Research on traditional writing instruction

2. Characteristics of technology as an educational tool

3. Research on Web-based writing instruction

4. Research on hybrid writing instruction

5. The comparison of classroom and online writing

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Research on Traditional Writing Instruction

Teaching ESL writing varies according to the purpose and the overarching

approach of the instruction. Although a large body of research literature points to the

importance of writing in the second language instruction, there is no unanimous approach

to writing as a mode of language acquisition. Cumming (1990, p. 483) suggests that

“composing might function broadly as a psycholinguistic output condition wherein

learners analyze and consolidate second language knowledge that they have

previously…acquired.” Since writing becomes possible upon acquiring vocabulary and

grammar rules that are sufficent for self-expression and requires utilizing all the language

structures known to the learner, it can be viewed as both a means and a product of

language learning. As such, it allows for distinguishing between two different purposes of

writing instruction: writing as a learning process and writing as a demonstration of the

result of learning. The process-oriented approach regards writing as a socio-cognitive

activity and is, therefore, concerned with psychological and cognitive processes that take

place during writing skills acquisition. The product writing approach targets the

acquisition of language forms and uses writing practice as an instructional tool to achieve

the mastery of the language use.

From the psycholinguistic perspective, writing offers an opportunity to analyze

learners’ language skills and cognitive development. In both cases, writing functions as a

productive learning mode (Williams, 2005). It is important to mention that the success in

writing in the second language is often based on the level of writing skills in the first

language. This notion is part of the broader schema theory, which states that a person’s

knowledge base makes it possible “to relate incoming information to already known

35

information” (Singhal, 1998, Types of schema section, para. 1). However, as Gagnè

(1965, p. 235) rightly points out, “something must first be learned before it can be

transferred.” Since writing requires highly developed cognitive constructs, this implies

far more than writing mechanics. Teich (1987) argues that even advanced writing skills

do not automatically transfer to situations that involve unfamiliar content.

Writing as a cognitive activity involves generating ideas and internal speech

based on familiarity with various content areas. For ESL students, this signifies the

ability to generalize and apply previously acquired knowledge using the forms and

structures of a second language. According to Singhal (1998, Types of schema section,

para. 3), this process requires “formal schemata [which] cover discourse level items [and]

linguistic or language schemata [which] include the decoding features needed to

recognize words and how they fit together in a sentence.” Therefore, when investigating

the process of composing in English, it is necessary to keep in mind that writing skills do

not always transfer in a mirror-reflection manner; they require formal and language

schemata in both languages. Moreover, in situations that involve specific knowledge, the

transfer requires content schemata and higher-order thinking skills.

Referrring to writing as a critical thinking activity, it is important to mention its

connection with reading. As Heaney (2006) points out, critical thinking skills become

first internalized through reading, and are later reflected in writing. This connection sheds

light on the difficulties with academic writing which requires analysis of the problem and

developing argumentation. If the habit of reading was not formed prior to entering a

college program, writing presents a tremendous challenge. This is especially obvious in

case of adult ESL students who come from low-literacy backgrounds. Another important

36

aspect of reading and writing connection is the transfer of one skill onto the other.

Brooks-Harper and Shelton (2003) indicate that writing and reading are two sides of the

same process and, while practicing writing, learners acquire reading skills and vice versa.

Thus, on the one hand, reading gives support to writing by developing conceptual

knowledge and setting standards of writing conventions. On the other, by composing

messages, learners perform a transactional activity involving both reading and writing

and enhance both skills.

The two approaches to writing—process vs. product—have been in the center of a

debate for a number of years. The proponents of product writing see it as another way of

improving grammar skills, which explains their focus on grammar and syntax forms. On

the other hand, process writing is more concerned with the meaning and thought

expression than with the form thus leading “to a more authentic learning experience for

second language learners” (Smith, 2003, p. 3). The aspect of self-analysis mentioned by

Cumming (1990) bears significance for both approaches to writing. Whether applied in

the process of writing or in its revising stage, self-analysis indicates that the learner is

capable of making decisions regarding the correctness of the written text and thus allows

for establishing his or her actual language knowledge. Thus while process writing targets

what is being communicated, product writing is oriented at how the message is presented

in language forms. This suggests that the two approaches are mutually supportive;

therefore, it is more beneficial to use elements of product and process writing together in

order to achieve higher academic standards.

Process-oriented studies appear to dominate the current field of ESL writing

research. Since it promotes learner autonomy and self-expression, process writing is

37

congruent with the student-centered principles of constructive learning (Jones, 2004).

This approach allows for investigating learners’ perspective on their academic process as

well as finding new teaching methodologies. Thus, the view on writing as a process

raised interest in learners’ experiences which revealed that writing follows a recursive

pattern and not a linear one as was traditionally assumed by the product writing approach

(Witte, 1985). Quesada’s (2004) study of revising strategies of ESL writing students

showed that the revision stage does not happen when the essay is completed but

interrupts the writing process as often as learners find necessary. It was also clear that the

focus of revision is selected by the learners according to their understanding of the task

and their perception of writing standards and their own weaknesses as writers. This

aspect of the study is especially important in the field of ESL academic writing since it

suggests that similar language proficiency of students does not guarantee similar levels of

writing skills or awareness of academic demands.

Although writing is mainly an individual enterprise, process writing research

brought evidence that learners achieve better results when writing is accompanied by

conversational interaction which has “the capacity to advance, broaden, and clarify our

understandings” (Strauss & Xiang, 2006, p. 359). The interactions in this study were

conducted in the form of writing conferences where students of an ESL basic writing

course were involved in group analyses of their compositions at the stage of planning,

drafting, and revising. The dialogic format of these conferences resulted in better clarity

of thought expression and essay organization, which allowed the authors to conclude that

verbal interaction in the writing discourse increases understanding of the task and the

steps involved in its completion as well as the ability to locate and solve problems by

38

choosing appropriate strategies. Importantly, this study demonstrates the close

relationship between thoughts expressed in writing and speaking and indicates

that“language is central to the mediation of cognition and thought” (Strauss & Xiang, p.

359).

Interestingly, the same practice is viewed differently from the perspective of

situated learning theory (Lave & Wenger, 1991), which presents second language

acquisition as a matter of social interaction rather than cognitive processes of the mind.

Young and Miller (2004) conducted a similar study to investigate the role of verbal

interaction in writing conferences. Maintaining that learning is “a…co-constructed

process, distributed among participants”, they focused on the changes in participation

itself and the consequent improvement in the language skills (Young & Miller, p. 519). In

this study, the student and the instructor were involved in a series of weekly writing

conferences which resulted in higher interactional and writing competence. Although it is

questionable that verbal discourse took place outside of cognitive structure, the fact that

these researchers achieved similar results to those of Strauss and Xiang’s (2006) shows

that the act of composing becomes more efficient when it is accompanied by discussion.

The tendency to incorporate verbal interaction into writing instruction coincides

with the shift to approaching writing as a process rather than a product. As a teaching

method, process writing provides better opportunities for discovering meaning as

opposed to product writing, which is more concerned with modeling grammar forms and

writing organization (Baroudy, 2007; Smith, 2003). Process writing includes prewriting,

writing, and rewriting. Each of these stages allows for intervention (e.g., peer review)

which promotes student participation, encourages interaction, and develops critical

39

thinking skills (Gousseva, 1998; Jones, 2004). Through oral interaction, students receive

comments that help them find flaws in their writing and thus improve its quality (Daiute,

1985). More deeply, combining writing with interaction, thinking, and analysis develops

self-monitoring skills and should be looked upon as a metacognitive rather than cognitive

or social learning process. According to Wong Mei Ha and Storey (2006), metacognitive

strategies used in peer-editing and other forms of writing conferences include self-

appraisal and self-management which require both knowledge and the ability to translate

knowledge into action. Their study demonstrated that interactive and reflective activities

allowed for a significant improvement in the students’ declarative and procedural

knowledge as well as overall writing performance.

Combining process writing with oral discourse is also viewed as an important step

in acquiring content knowledge. According to Huang (2004), it is especially important

when preparing second language learners to study specific academic disciplines. This

view is based on the premise that verbal expression reflects thinking which is inseparable

from human activities. This allows Huang to argue that teaching any academic discipline

requires integrating it with the language specific for that content area. By using process

writing, this researcher was able to design science instruction through the use of oral and

written language. Throughout the five weeks of the study, the students were involved in a

continuing interaction where writing and discussion served as the basis for knowledge

construction and resulted in improvement of content knowledge as well as argumentation

and analysis skills.

All these approaches to ESL writing instruction have several important

similarities. First of all, they all emphasize the role of conceptual structure represented by

40

schema which allows learners to build the connection between the new linguistic

environment and the previous learning experiences. This is especially significant since

written speech is in essence the verbalization of inner thoughts. Neither process nor

product writing is possible without this factor. As a result, educators attempt to improve

students’ writing by using constructive learning methods such as conferences and peer-

editing. Thus, even though communication skills are not the main goal of instruction in a

writing class, they are conducive to writing skills development.

Educational technology has created opportunities for computer-mediated

communication which requires both reading and writing skills and, therefore, works as a

bridge between the two skills and leads to a more intensive language processing and

production. Importantly, by expanding the reading practice, students acquire background

knowledge which is essential for further learning, critical thinking, and writing skills

development (Karchmer, 2004). The following section discusses the way technology is

used for these purposes.

Characteristics of Technology as an Educational Tool

As an educational tool, technology finds a number of applications in and outside

the classroom. Many researchers (McCrory, 2006; Oliver & Herrington, 2003; Tu, 2005)

observe that the development of online technologies has brought new ways of learning

and teaching. Whereas the traditional use of technology included presenting and storing

information, Web-based learning emphasizes communication and knowledge

construction. The strongest distinction between the two is the linear approach of the

former, which makes learners dependent on the information received from the instructor,

and the recursive approach of the latter, which views learners as co-participants in the

41

learning process (see Table 1). These differences are explained by the fact that the

traditional technologies can only perform the functions they are programmed to do while

the online ones offer a variety of resources and means of communication.

Table 1 Comparison of the Use of Technology in Traditional and Web-based Instruction

Use of technology Traditional Web-based (includes all the traditional

elements)

Information Demonstrating, processing, storing Searching, analyzing, evaluating, decision

making

Text Word-processing, editing, spell-

check

Text-based communication

Learning

Drills, questions/answers,

comprehension check

Social learning, knowledge construction,

problem solving, simulations

Communication none Synchronous & asynchronous discussion,

blogging, e-mail, chat, video-conferencing

Evaluation Demonstrating knowledge through

tests & quizzes

Validating knowledge through group

interaction, teams work, & collaborative

projects

Many features of online technologies make learning a social experience which

agrees with Vygotsky’s (1962) theory. Approaching online learning as a social

phenomenon, Tu (2005, p. 194) emphasizes that “instructional communication does not

occur solely in a classroom.” This researcher points out that integrating emerging

technologies increases possibilities for meaningful learning through the following modes:

Personalization: individualizing content, communication style, and delivery

format.

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Digitization: easier access to information; better quality and higher speed of

information retrieval and presentation; higher efficiency of communication.

Interactivity: two-way communication which allows every participant to

contribute to knowledge construction thus creating a learning community.

These characteristics allow for creating a constructive learning environment

where “students…contribute their knowledge in addition to looking for existing

knowledge” (Tu, 2005, p. 199). The result of such active learning surpasses not only

knowledge acquisition and skill development which take place in the traditional linear

format of learning, but also the sense of community and togetherness which develops

through on-going exchange and negotiation. Tu argues that the concept of online learning

community is too narrow to present the true nature of online collaboration. Although the

term learning community does apply to the social phenomenon which learners create

while interacting online, there is also community learning that takes place among

individual members and involves the entire community.

The shift to interactive learning is also noted by McCrory (2006), who points to

representation, information, transformation, and collaboration as the most important

characteristics of computers and the Internet that help engage students in meaningful

knowledge construction. True, representation of new ideas and concepts can be done

easily using computers due to their ability to carry graphics. Information is another aspect

since access to online data is practically unlimited. Transformation refers to changing the

way students learn in traditional classrooms by adding the elements of exploration and

creativity which employ critical thinking skills. Finally, the most essential factor of

learning with online technologies is collaboration which becomes enhanced with due to

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maintaning constant communication among. Importantly, all these aspects allow learners

to be independent and share responsibilities for their academic progress.

Research on Web-Based Writing Instruction

The above-mentioned characteristics of technology create opportunities for its

effective use in language learning. As a tool of academic study, online technologies can

help ESL students to acquire new language skills and enhance their cognitive potential

through continuous reading and writing discourse. As was mentioned earlier, the two

skills support each other, which makes text-based online communication especially

beneficial for the development of both. However, since ESL writing embraces a large

number of skills, notions, and processes, it is essential to look at it as an inherently

complex phenomenon.

Distance or online form of delivery and the use of social software created a new

learning format which emphasizes the communicative function of writing. At the same

time, there appeared the need for research that would lead to developing instructional

methods appropriate for this learning format. Since written communication replaces oral

communication in the online environment, some researchers find it essential to

understand the specific nature of its communicative function. For instance, Goodfellow

(2004) draws attention to text-as-interaction from the point of view of learners and their

experiences which can be investigated by means of surveys and interviews. This

researcher also points out the importance of analyzing the form of the message in additon

to the content. Comparing writing as composing with writing as an act of communication

reveals that the two modes involve different psycholonguistic processing. According to

Cumming (1990, p. 487), composing is a “self-controlled and mentally situated” process,

44

while writing for communication involves at least two communicators whose information

exchange “can be accounted for by comprehensible input.” This adds another point of

interest to online writing research, namely the extent of internal speech formation,

expression, and monitoring present in text-based interactions.

Thus, writing as an act of interaction may include elements of both composition

and conversation. However, due to the differences between synchronous and

asynchronous interaction, the former may contain more conversational features than the

latter, while the latter has a potential for more content depth and language complexity.

Although writing fits naturally in the context of online learning, it does not appear to be

exclussively an online learning phenomenon. Many researchers find interaction beneficial

for traditional writing practices due to the fact that verbalization of internal speech helps

to internalize new concepts and improve both oral and written language production. This

is reflected in introducing peer editing and writing conferences into ESL writing

instrustion.

Both peer editing in class and text-based interaction online involve a large amount

of reading which further faciliates writing skills development. Research on reading and

writing connection shows that these two processes are interrelated (Smith, 2001;

Esmaeili, 2002; Krashen & Lee, 2004). This relationship is based on such commonalities

as transferring information; interacting with the text; constructing meaning and images;

using multiple language skills and logical thinking; and evaluating the text.

Smith (2001) emphasizes the importance of understanding the parallels between

reading and writing:

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The concept that writing is a multi-step process involving preparation and reflection, and not just the act of putting words down on paper, can be reinforced by learning about the multi-step process of reading, which also involves preparation and reflection and is not simply the act of decoding words and hoping their meaning becomes clear. (p. 2) Thus, improvement in reading leads to improvement in writing. Learners can

apply skills and strategies developed through one modality to the other, which, in turn,

promotes their intellectual development (Krashen & Lee, 2004). The fact that both

modalities are involved in online interaction stresses its benefits for second language

learners.

Broadly, text-based online communication can be referred to as computer-

mediated communication (CMC). Much of the current literature in the field of CMC is

dedicated to the two formats: synchronous and asynchronous. Although researchers agree

that each format has its advantages and disadvantages, they admit that they differ

significantly with regard to course design and instructional tools. Synchronous learning

uses traditional instructional tools, such as lectures, demonstrations, and quizzes, placed

in the Web environment and used in real time. Therefore, the instructor continues to be in

control of the learning process. In contrast, asynchronous learning emphasizes activities

that promote sharing knowledge through text-based interaction and independent learning

(Sankaran, Sankaran, & Bui, 2000). This allows every participant to contribute to

knowledge construction. The slow pace of asynchronous communication promotes

collecting information, reflection, and constructing deeper messages. Research has also

shown that if the online course component merely duplicates the material used in class, it

lowers students’ motivation and interest in the course and negatively affects learning

outcomes (Sankaran, Sankaran, & Bui, 2000). On the other hand, the format that

46

promotes interaction and collaborative learning allows for better achievements (Veerman

& Veldhuis-Diermanse, 2000). Thus, synchronous or asynchronous formats should be

chosen based on the course content, instructional goals, and learning objectives.

One particular form of asynchronous communication, blogging, is becoming a

major area of interest in education. As a type of social software, blogs are highly

interactive and promote reading, writing, thinking, and discussion. The communicative

function of blogs is similar to that of open dialogue journals (Orem, 2001) on the one

hand and personal journals on the other. Their resemblance to the former allows for an

informal exchange of information and ideas, whereas as a traditional journal writing

genre, they promote inner speech production which leads to better written expression (de

Guerrero, 2004). As asynchronous format of communication, they have highly dynamic,

interactive nature and the capacity for personalization of information and ways of

presenting it. Moreover, since blogs are open to everyone in class (and in cyberspace),

they encourage participation.

Blogs are also flexible enough to be adapted to any content area. Ferdig and

Trammell (2004) point out that blogs, unlike other discussion forums, give an opportunity

to create content rather than simply deliver it. Hyperlinks add more content presenting a

powerful tool of scaffolding and establishing relationships between concepts.

Importantly, blogs allow students to use newly acquired concepts and vocabulary

immediately in a social context, which increases their content knowledge and

communicative competence through meaningful exchange of life-related information.

Thus, they are conducive to knowledge construction. Jones (2007) also reports that

47

blogging helped the participants of her case study to improve quality of writing and

facilitated critical thinking skills and meaningful learning.

This review suggests that CMC in education has a distinct purpose of creating a

continuing writing discourse (Al-Jarf, 2002; Black, 2005; Zha, Kelly, Park, & Fitzgerald,

2006) which facilitates constructive learning (Mohd Bee, 2005/2006; Veerman &

Veldhuis-Diermanse, 2000). Other studies indicate that online interaction changes the

roles of the teachers and students as well as the class learning environment (Gousseva,

1998; Cunningham, 2000). Indeed, working online, students function independently and

have more freedom to be in control of their learning, while teachers serve as experts

proving facilitation, organization, and support.

The interactive nature of the online environment opens possibilities for group

projects, peer review, and class discussions. These activities do not match the traditional

teacher-controlled instruction. However, they are congruent with the contemporary

learner-centered and constructive approaches which place a great importance on learner

outcomes among which critical thinking skills occupy a prominent place. Therefore,

facilitation of learning in the Web-based environment should target critical thinking

development (Mohd Bee, 2005/2006). From this perspective, online format presents

challenges to both students and instructors. Gousseva (1998, Electronic interaction

section, para. 4) comes to the conclusion that “teachers…need to be aware that electronic

conferences change the power balance in the classroom.” This statement points to the

importance of embracing the principles of social construction of knowledge in order to

successfully integrate CMC in instructional practices.

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Many researchers are interested in the effect of CMC on second language

acquisition. Writing skills development was central to Al-Jarf’s (2002) study, which

resulted in significantly higher scores for those students who were taught using the hybrid

method compared to those in the traditional class. Similar findings were reported by

Carpenter, Brown, and Hickman (2004) who investigated student outcomes in the online

and traditional mainstream writing courses. The results demonstrated comparable and

higher success rates among the students enrolled in the online course. However, these

researchers discovered that face-to-face instruction ensured better student retention.

Zhang, Gao, Ring, and Zhang (2007) took a broader approach to the hybrid model. Their

study investigated the effects of online discussion on in-class discussion, reading, writing,

grammar, vocabulary, and critical thinking. They found improvements in essay

organization and critical thinking while the students did not show significant gains in

grammar, vocabulary, and reading skills. These researchers admit that the results could

have been affected by a number of external variables which had not been taken into

account during the planning stage. Possibly, the scale of the study was too wide and the

time of the experiment too short to follow each aspect in detail. These findings indicate

that more research is needed in order to explore the benefits of CMC for second language

learning.

In contrast, Chen Wong and Sutton (2002), focused specifically on the effect of

learner control through the use of hyperlinks. Their study showed that the students who

had access to glossary items through hyperlinks had significantly higher vocabulary

scores on the post-test than those who worked with the same material without hyperlinks.

Another study (de la Fuente, 2003) conducted from the interactionist perspective found

49

that CMC was as effective for vocabulary acquisition as face-to-face interaction. The

differences in findings suggest that research in this area is currently in the initial stage

and needs to be continued.

The language of CMC presents a special area of research. Although the

interaction is performed in the written form, it bears the characteristics of both written

and spoken language. Some researchers (Majidi, 2006; Murray, 2000) agree that text-

based communication is developing its own specific features and becoming a new genre.

Similarities with oral communication are evident in the use of simplified speech and

greetings which are typically used in conversations, as well as emoticons and

abbreviations. These features are especially common in synchronous communication

which tends to be less strict about writing conventions and promotes a lively inter-

personal exchange (Sotillo, 2000). On the other hand, asynchronous communication

involves longer, more reflective and syntactically complex passages. Although the

language is distributed among all the participants and is, therefore, socially constructed in

both forms of online interaction, students communicating asynchronously produce a more

formal written discourse than those using the synchronous model. Sotillo (2000, p. 107)

explains this by the fact that asynchronous discussion “encourages [students] to think

critically and post carefully prepared responses to teacher and student queries.” One

aspect, however, should be taken into consideration: the language of CMC is still in the

stage of development and will be changing as technology continues to create new

methods of communication.

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Research on Hybrid Writing Instruction

Distance or online education has firmly established itself over the past decade;

however, its combination with traditional courses in the so-called hybrid or blended

format is only beginning to appear in educational programs. Positive influence of this

learning format on reflective thinking, time management, and student academic

achievements has been noticed by many researchers (Bloch, 2007; Carpenter, Brown, &

Hickman, 2004; Lowe & Williams, 2004; Rovai & Jordan, 2004). Most typically

mentioned among the improvements are creating opportunities for meaningful learning,

involving more students in collaborative activities, and developing a sense of community.

All these features are enhanced by the fact that learners have the benefits of the flexibility

of the online format while receiving regular face-to-face instruction. Thus, the concept of

hybrid learning stands in agreement with the theories of social learning (Vygotsky, 1962;

Bandura, 1986) and knowledge-building community (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1994).

Although research and theory speak in favor of hybrid or blended learning, there

are voices of caution with regard to adding an online component to the conventional

teaching formats. In ESL writing instruction, this integration meets both technical and

professional barriers. According to Ho (2005), the main reason for slow progress in this

area is lack of methodology and teacher training courses that would prepare the ESL

instructors to work with both in-class and online formats. A general concern of most

teachers is adding technological challenges—such as technical failures and students’ lack

of computer literacy—to already existing difficulties of ESL writing. In her study on

teachers’ perspective on hybrid instruction, Ho (2005, p. 3) discovered that teachers are

uncertain “about the effectiveness of [their] instruction.” Basing student work assessment

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on online quizzes and structural essay standards, her participants were not able to realize

all the benefits of this teaching model. Although it is not clear from Ho’s findings what

approach the teachers involved in her study were using, their uncertainty about

effectiveness of their work suggests that the writing instruction was product oriented.

Had they been concerned with writing as a process, they would have evaluated their

hybrid-course experience from the point of view of creating a knowledge-constructing

online learning community rather than focusing on writing assessment.

Other researchers (Carpenter, Brown, & Hickman, 2004; Kannan & Macknish,

2000) found that inadequate motivation, feedback, self-directedness, and knowledge of

computer technology can have negative effect on the students experience in the hybrid

course. Based on their study with Chinese students enrolled in an English writing class,

Kannan and Macknish (2000) recommend offering students computer training and giving

grades for performance to raise motivation; suggesting new learning strategies in addition

to comments concerning writing improvement; consulting students one-on-one to help

develop self-directed learning skills; ensuring technical support and user-friendly

interface design. Aside from the technical issues, the above-mentioned problems can be

found in any type of instruction. However, as any form of technology-based learning, the

online component presents extra challenge from the technological perspective, which

should be taken into account by researchers and practitioners alike.

It is interesting to note that, according to some researchers, students themselves

have generally positive attitude to online interaction. Several studies (Bloch, 2007;

Cunningham, 2000; Lowe & Williams, 2004) demonstrated that students appreciate the

opportunity to collaborate with others and exchange ideas. Overall, 88% of students

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participating in Cunningham’s (2000) study responded that using the computer helped

them improve their writing, and 53% found that technology was easy to use. After a few

initial weeks of adaptation, students realized that online environment was non-threatening

and helpful in their overall learning progress. This perception is especially evident among

students who used blogging as part of their writing experience. From social learning

perspective, blogging reduces anxiety since the fear of performing in public is eliminated

(Lowe & Williams, 2004). Being placed in a social context and engaged in group

construction of knowledge, students develop a stronger sense of community, which

positively affects their decision to continue education. One example of connectedness

among students is Rovai and Jordan’s (2004) study, which compared a hybrid course

with a traditional and a fully online one. These researchers found that the students

enrolled in the hybrid course demonstrated the highest sense of community of the three.

As a result, the learners were able to reduce the typical frustration over technical issues of

the fully online course and personal issues of the traditional course.

Comparison of Classroom and Online Writing

A strong commonality between classroom and online writing instruction can be

found in their social learning elements. In traditional courses, this is especially obvious in

process writing approach, whose positive effects on learning help build stronger

connection between the learners’ linguistic knowledge and writing performance (Wong

Mei Ha & Storey, 2006). From the academic perspective, this leads to better concept

development, improved material retention, and overall language skills improvement. This

is largely achieved by practicing reading for writing which develops new schemata and

writing for reading which demonstrates the response to reading and familiarity with the

53

topic (Hirvela, 2004). Socially, involving students in peer review and writing conferences

allows for creating a learning community based on sharing and knowledge construction

which sets the environment for learning experiences. The question is whether these

principles apply exclusively to the traditional instruction or can be present in Web-based

learning.

Similar to the traditional classroom approach, Web-based instruction is

characterized by the connection between reading and writing; however, the Internet

creates additional challenges to these learning modes. For instance, unlike conventional

reading, online information is presented in a layered format which requires attention to

branching links and navigational skills to retrieve appropriate documents. Additionally,

writing online differs greatly from the traditional step-by-step composing model in that it

is a highly social, interactive process which requires strong negotiation skills but can be

spontaneous and often lacks the recursive pattern of revision which is characteristic of

traditional writing. However, the fact that the interaction is performed through writing

increases clarity of thought expression and internalizing content material.

Summary

This chapter discussed the current trends in ESL writing research. One of the

aspects reflected in the current research literature is the shift from the traditional product-

oriented writing methodology to writing as a process that emphasizes thought expression.

Since the latter promotes critical thinking and generating ideas, it is widely used in

connection with reading and oral discourse. In order to enhance learning, traditional

writing instruction is supported by online technologies which offer a number of

advantages for process writing by engaging students in meaningful social context and

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thus creating opportunities for learning. Some of these opportunities involve sharing

knowledge through reading and writing. Due to the fact that online discussions are

carried out in the written form, many researchers address development of writing skills

entirely in Web-based environment. Such forms of online interaction as blogs and

discussion forums offer a number of possibilities for improving writing skills and general

knowledge. In online learning, interaction facilitates social learning and increases

language production, which helps students become more competent writers and

communicators. Another group of researchers seek ways of combining traditional and

online instruction in the hybrid format. Research on the hybrid or blended method

indicates that this form of instruction has the advantage of using the elements of both

conventional and online education which complement each other allowing learners to

improve a variety of language skills.

The following chapter makes a transition to the case study conducted for the

purpose of investigating hybrid learning as a format of ESL writing instruction. The

chapter discusses all the essential components of the design of the case study and the

hybrid course. The researcher’s role and the brief profiles of the participants are included

in order to complete the presentation of the context of the study. The questions that

guided the research are presented in their relation to the data collection tools. The

procedures of obtaining data and the treatment of data, as well as methods of ensuring

validity and reliability of the study, are also explained in this chapter.

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

The review of research literature in the area of second language writing revealed a

positive effect of blending traditional and online formats of learning. Most of the studies

found a number of benefits for learners who are able to advance their language skills

while being engaged in the process of collaborative online knowledge construction. The

presented research project attempted to continue this trend of investigation by addressing

the problems that are typically present in the traditional classroom instruction. Namely,

the hybrid EAP course used the methodology that provided students with self-study tools

and additional instructor support online; it allowed for exercising time-management and

self-directedness; it extended the opportunities for meaningful acquisition reading and

writing skills, which are required for academic study; finally, it increased the time and

practice needed to develop and internalize new concepts. In order to closely address these

areas, the project utilized the methodology of a case study, which is presented in this

chapter through the following sections:

1. Research design

2. The context for the study

3. Data collection instruments

4. Data collection procedures

5. Treatment of the data

6. Validity and reliability

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Research Design

Research Paradigm and Strategy for Investigation

This case study followed the qualitative research paradigm due to the necessity to

observe the learning behavior of the participants over a long period of time. Although

quantitative investigations, particularly experiments, have the capacity to present

convincing numerical evidence of skill improvement, they do not allow for an

understanding of learners’ perspective on the phenomenon of the investigation. Important

educational factors, such as human behavior, remain outside the context of a quantitative

study. For the present research, students’ perspective on the educational use of social

software, their learning strategies, and their growth of self-directedness in the hybrid

format were as essential as the changes in the writing skills. It was necessary, therefore,

to design this study within the qualitative paradigm.

The need to collect and process comprehensive data acquired in real-life academic

settings determined my choice of a case study as the research strategy. According to Yin

(2003, pp. 13-14), a case study is necessary when research involves “multiple sources of

evidence” and data collection techniques while being performed in a specific context that

is inseparable from the phenomenon of the study. The following conditions of the

investigation prompted a case study design:

1. The study intended to explore a phenomenon taking place at the present time in a

concrete educational institution, WCC.

2. The phenomenon of the hybrid EAP course taught at WCC was the subject of the

investigation.

3. The study involved several sources of evidence and data collection techniques.

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As a result, a case study design was chosen over other research strategies.

Experimental research had to be rejected as more appropriate for studies involving skill

assessment rather than skill development. Compared with a case study, this strategy

would not be able to provide answers to the research questions that target individual

learning progress throughout a semester. It would be impossible to integrate open-ended

data collection instruments, which were required in order to study the participants’ points

of view in hybrid learning. Longitudinal non-experimental panel study was also

considered and declined due to the relatively short period of investigation. The study was

planned for 10 weeks in the Evening EAP and 12 weeks in the Saturday EAP programs

so as to observe the progress students would demonstrate in a typical semester. Thus, the

chosen paradigm and research strategy appeared to be the best fit with the research

questions and the purpose of the study. It allowed for approaching hybrid learning from a

student’s perspective and formed the basis for an in-depth investigation of the changes in

the participants’ writing progress, self-directedness, and learning strategies as a result of

implementing a hybrid course instructional design in an EAP course.

Role of the Researcher

My role in this study involved several capacities, which gave me valuable

experiences in teaching, research work, and instructional design. As an instructor, I was

also a co-participant of the knowledge construction. This capacity required functioning as

a facilitator of weekly learning activities both in class and online, a blog discussion

mediator, and (on many occasions) a source of inspiration for the struggling ESL writers.

Being a researcher, I had to pay attention to numerous details, process and evaluate the

facts which were emerging during my work, and, most importantly, remain organized

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among the flood of data. Blending these two functions was helpful in establishing a close

contact with the participants, which was essential in understanding their experiences as

learners and interpreting their responses to the weekly and biweekly questionnaires. It

also became an important factor in creating the atmosphere of trust during the in-person

interviews so as to encourage the participants to openly share their concerns and

opinions. However, I had to put aside my involvement as a teacher when it was necessary

to evaluate the changes in my participants’ writing skills and learning behavior.

Following their writing progress through in-class, online, and home assignments, I had to

separate my capacity as the course instructor from that of an unbiased observer.

My work as an instructional designer in this course was somewhat overshadowed

for my participants by the other two functions. However, it was an inalienable part of

both of them since it made it possible to create the technical and the pedagogical base for

the study. A year earlier, while planning my research work, I received the permission of

the ELI to launch a trail version of the Web site ESL Writing Extension, which was used

in the study. Based on the need analysis of EAP students, improving reading and writing

skills emerged as the priority; therefore, an online component offering computer-

mediated communication in the form of blogging seemed the most appropriate choice.

The functionality and usefulness of the Web site had been evaluated by EAP students for

three consecutive semesters prior to the study. Such formative evaluation helped me

improve the design and add other components of the site. These improvements, in

addition to updating the reading and communication functions, included augmenting the

Web site with reference sections on grammar, writing, and class handouts. Another

blogging site was added as a section for prewriting and first draft demonstration. Finally,

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having gone through a series of adjustments in content, interface layout, and navigation,

the Web site has grown into a fully functional learning resource and communication tool.

In this capacity, it was used in the study.

Besides technical skills, my work on the Web site required a deep understanding

of the ESL pedagogy in order to integrate it into a traditional EAP course. My main

guiding principle was social construction of knowledge which would allow students to

apply the targeted skills in a variety of situations. For this purpose, the in-class learning

experiences had to find continuity in the online environment. In order to allow for the

expansion of learning, each lesson on the writing style found its practical application in

various online reading, discussion, and writing assignments. Thus, the learning process

was not bound to the class schedule but proceeded in an ongoing manner.

Research Questions

The study was based on the assumption that improvement in writing skills would

depend on enhancing conceptual knowledge of the participants and fluency of written

expression through intensive online reading and communication activities. Specifically,

the investigation sought answers to the following research questions: (a) What features

characterize changes in the writing of ESL students in hybrid courses? (b) What evidence

of self-directedness is present in the hybrid program? (c) Which learning strategies

(memory, cognitive, compensation, or social) do students use more in this type of

environment?

The collected evidence can be used to create a pedagogical rationale for further

application of the hybrid learning format in ESL writing instruction based on the features

that characterize writing in this learning format. The findings in the changes in students’

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self-directedness and the use of learning strategies in this type of learning environment

allow for detecting the most common skills required for a successful transition from one

model to the other and, therefore, for providing guidelines for hybrid ESL course design.

In detail, the procedures and findings are discussed in chapter 4.

Context of the Study

Setting and Population

The English Language Institute (ELI) at Westchester Community College (WCC),

NY, served as the community partner in this study. As one of the largest noncredit

programs in New York State, it pursues the mission of giving adult ESL students

affordable language training and opportunities for further education, as well as personal

and professional improvement. The classes are held on the main campus, which occupies

218 acres in Valhalla, NY, and nine extension sites throughout Westchester County. Due

to its proximity to New York City, Westchester County is a highly populated area, where

Hispanic immigrants are the fastest growing group, and 26.7% of the population is

foreign-born (Westchester County Department of Planning Databook, 2000). This

situation reflects on the enrollment at the ELI. The classes at the ELI are attended on the

average by over 5,000 students per semester. Although they have a variety of cultural and

educational backgrounds, the majority of them are natives of South America. The

demographics determines the primary goal of the ELI to help second language students

develop skills that can lead to academic and social independence and thus sustain the

needs of the growing population and the educational requirements of the community.

However, it also creates many academic problems which are common for other ESL

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institutions. Among them, lack of proper first language schooling and learning skills has

the most negative effect on student success.

At present, the variety of classes offered by the ELI includes integrated-skills,

intensive, and specialized courses. The language proficiency is determined by the

Combined English Language Skills Assessment test (CELSA), which includes 75

multiple-choice grammar questions presented in a story format. Additionally, students

receive a 35-minute writing assignment consisting of three topics of increasing difficulty.

CELSA grades language skills by seven levels of proficiency: from low beginners (Level

0) to advanced (Level 7). More advanced students are encouraged to start taking credit

courses on a part-time basis along with ESL classes when they reach Level 6.

The EAP program serves as the transition stage to the mainstream programs for

both continuing ESL students and new enrollees of Level 6 and above. The classes meet

on a 6-hour and 3-hour a week schedule with a total of 72 and 42 hours of classroom

instruction respectively. The 6-hour schedule is offered in a 12-week course twice a week

in the evening and morning sections; the 3-hour class meets once a week on Saturday for

14 weeks. The average enrollment in each section is about 40 students who are placed in

two levels based on the latest score on the CELSA test and the results of the writing test

which they take on the first day of classes. The EAP classes are taught using traditional

methodology with the focus on grammar, reading, and writing. The main goal is to help

students achieve a passing score in these areas on the college placement test.

In spite of the similar language proficiency, a typical EAP group is far from being

a uniformed community. Learners differ greatly in levels of prior education, motivation,

and social status. It is not uncommon to find people with university degrees from their

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native countries and those who are planning to obtain a GED diploma. Some students feel

an urgent need to confirm their foreign credentials or continue their education in the US;

for others English skills are necessary for vocational training. The differences in learning

needs and goals do not change the general expectation of all students to make the best

progress in the shortest possible time. However, it is not feasible to accomplish this task

within the limits of a typical course for a number of reasons. Namely, student success in

the EAP program at the ELI is affected by the following factors:

1. The number of hours per course is not sufficient to bring the language skills to the

level that could meet the academic requirements of the mainstream programs.

2. Heavy focus on language instruction limits the students’ opportunities to develop

critical thinking skills which are essential in the mastery of writing.

3. Practicing the English language outside academic context creates difficulties in

transition to the content areas.

4. There is no academic support for noncredit ESL students.

All of these conditions made the ELI the most suitable place to implement hybrid

learning format. Even though the investigation targeted adult college-bound students

attending EAP courses at this particular school, the commonalities in the issues among

schools providing ESL services create ground for applying the findings for a wider

audience.

Access to the Participants

My position as the course instructor enabled me to recruit the participants during

the first session of the spring semester. While discussing the course syllabus and the

objectives, I also presented the Web site, explained its purpose as the course component,

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and invited volunteers to participate in my research. In order not to make the students feel

pressured to participate, I explained to them that my research was not a requirement of

the course. I emphasized that it was a noncredit course, and the only benefits they would

gain were better skills and self-efficacy as learners. Trying to avoid possible issues in the

future, I addressed the following important points of our cooperation:

1. I explained to the students that their participation was on a strictly voluntary basis

and that they were not obligated to continue if they felt overwhelmed having to

answer questions in addition to working on the class assignments.

2. I described the procedures and the purpose of the study and pointed to the

importance of learning about their experiences in it.

3. I explained what data collection tools they would have to work with and how the

results of the study would be used.

When the participants signed their letters of cooperation, we worked out a

schedule of submitting weekly and biweekly questionnaires and meeting for in-person

interviews. Some participants preferred to have the hard copies of the questionnaires;

others decided to use electronic format. The biweekly interviews with each participant

were help in private either before or after class. There were no group interviews so as not

to create peer pressure.

On the one hand, my combining multiple roles allowed for a closer investigation

of the participants’ needs and concerns, as well as social, pedagogical, and technical

issues involved in hybrid learning format. On the other, I had to be constantly aware of

the fact that as a researcher I was also responsible for preventing ethical risks that could

appear in the course of the investigation. In order to avoid the division in class, I

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discussed all the issues related to the study in private. I never referred to the results of the

study or the experiences shared by the participants while teaching the class. My

interviews were held in private and all the information I received was kept confidential.

Having worked with adult ESL learners for a number of years, I have become

aware of various barriers that can prevent me as an instructor and researcher from gaining

their trust. The most sensitive issue I could envision in the course of the investigation was

related to the participants’ educational experiences. Therefore, the questions about prior

learning on the intake questionnaire were asked in an indirect way and offered the

students to make their own evaluations of their past achievements. I also avoided

references to their personal and cultural experiences. None of my data collection tools

contained questions of that nature so as not to evoke negative emotions or the feeling of

inferiority. Both the questionnaires and the interviews focused entirely on the current

learning experiences in the hybrid course.

Selection Criteria

The criteria for selection of the participants included the following points:

1. They had to have high intermediate (minimum Level 6) English proficiency. This

level of language skills presumes sufficient amount of vocabulary and

communication skills to understand the assignments and be able to express their

ideas orally and in writing.

2. They had to know how to use a computer at least on a basic level (keyboarding,

Internet searches, and e-mail). Basic computer skills were essential for the

participants in this research as a prerequisite for the online communication.

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3. They had to have minimum high school level of education. This criterion was

necessary because of various academic content areas included in the course

material. Prior education would ensure sufficient level of learning skills and

general knowledge and would allow the students to process the material in an

unfamiliar learning environment.

Since all the students placed in the EAP program were Level 6 or higher, I only

had to make sure that my prospective participants matched the other two criteria and were

willing to commit the time to complete the questionnaire and meet for the interviews.

Sample Size

This investigation was conducted with four participants selected from willing

volunteers. The number of the participants was determined by the intention to conduct an

in-depth investigation which required a large amount of data collected by means of four

various tools. As a case study, this research project intended to maximize the

understanding of experiences (Stake, 1995) which learners may be exposed to in the

hybrid format, as well as the understanding of the benefits and flaws (Merriam, 1988) of

the hybrid format in the EAP programs. For this purpose, the investigation proceeded in

three directions: changes in writing skills, evidence of self-directedness in learning, and

the use of learning strategies. Due to the amount of data, it was not possible to engage a

larger group of participants so as to ensure the depth of inquiry per individual and not to

undermine the practicality of the project.

Profiles of the Participants

The four students I worked with volunteered to take part in the study because they

were genuinely curious about the new format of learning and believed in the benefits of

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being involved in a continuing writing practice. Two of them were enrolled in my

evening EAP class, which met twice a week. The other two students were attending the

Saturday EAP section and receiving classroom instruction once a week. Their responses

on the intake questionnaires allowed for creating the participant profiles, which are

presented in detail in Chapter 4:

Case 1: Yana is a 35-year-old woman from Russia. Due to her husband’s job, the

family has to live in different countries for extended periods of time. Before coming to

the United States last year, Yana and her family lived in England, where she took three

semesters of English. In her native country, she received two college degrees in

completely unrelated areas: early childhood education and law. She is not employed in

either field and is planning to go back to school in order to be trained for a job that is

more in demand. Yana has always been a traditional learner whose primary learning

sources were school, books, and work environment. She has a firm view on the role of

education in a person’s life. Whereas improving a job status and achieving success are

important for her, it is equally important to be a contributing member of society.

Specifically in this program, she assigned an important role to the use of technology as an

effective way of learning more things and managing her study time. She started the

course with a readiness to work hard in order to reach her goals and an understanding of

her strengths and weaknesses.

Case 2: Gio is a 32-year-old single professional woman who has been living in the

US for the past seven years. In her native country, Peru, she was studying to receive a

college degree in media and communication and is now working as a Spanish editor for

one of the local Catholic charities. She needs to improve her English skills in order to

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return to school and re-evaluate her foreign credentials. Gio had earlier completed six

semesters of ESL, but difficulties in writing slowed down her progress. Evaluating her

prior education, Gio did not see it as a significant foundation for learning English.

However, it helped her learn new things in general. Most of her knowledge comes from

school and family, whereas books and other sources of information did not appear to

provide significant learning experiences. Not reading enough, she missed an essential

part of concept development, which can explain her trouble with writing. The priority in

the purpose of her study falls entirely on improving her job, family, and social status. Her

expectations of the online component of this course included opportunities to learn more

effectively at her own pace. Overall, Gio’s intake questionnaire showed her as a person

who understands the importance of working hard on her goals but needs someone to

guide her through the process.

Case 3: Joe is a 39-year-old man from Peru, who has lived in the US for six years.

Although he is married and has two children, his family responsibilities do not stop him

from attending school. He had completed seven semesters of ESL prior to taking the EAP

course. His goal is to be able to use his business training he received in his home country.

Education plays an important role in Joe’s life. He sees formal schooling as the primary

source of his knowledge even though he admits that earlier obtained skills are not

sufficient for his current needs. Education attracts him as a way of becoming a better

person, contributing to the society, and supporting his family. The idea of using

technology in this course appealed to him as an opportunity to learn things independently

and manage his study time.

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Case 4: Jang is the youngest of the participants. She is 24 years old and has lived

in this country for less than a year working as an au pair. A native of Thailand, she

completed a four-year college and plans to continue studying business in the US. As a

traditional learner, Jang received most of her education from school. This experience

helped her to form her own learning style and understand her strengths and weaknesses.

She sees professional success and employment opportunities as the main goals of her

study. While her previous education allowed her to develop strong learning skills, it did

not prepare her to deal with a new culture and acquire a new language, especially writing

and communication skills. She realized that her own effort was the key to her success in

the EAP program. However, she did not find technology a useful tool in accelerating her

learning progress; rather, it was a means of getting more information and working at her

own pace.

Hybrid Course Design

The pedagogy of the hybrid course combined process-oriented ESL writing

methodology, which emphasizes understanding of content, revision, and collaboration,

and the components of the conceptual framework of the study.

Vygotsky’s (1962) theory of social learning, combined with the process writing

approach, allowed for developing online learning activities that involved continuing

interaction, thus creating social presence and opportunities for exchange of ideas and

revision of work. The assignments were organized by themes and given on a weekly

basis. Each week’s theme began with the traditional classroom instruction which included

an introduction to a specific writing style and supporting grammar practice. The work on

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the theme continued in the blog section of the Web site where students read and

discussed the assigned material.

Scardamalia and Bereiter’s (1994) model of computer-supported intentional

learning environment (CSILE) became an inalienable part of the course design due to its

concept of intentional learning, which presumed learners’ active role in the knowledge-

building community. The continuity of the learning process which took place to a large

degree outside of the classroom helped the students experience the sense of community

and be responsible for their own progress as well as others’. From the instructional

perspective, it enabled me to gradually increase the level of difficulty and continue to set

new challenges throughout the course.

Bandura’s (1986) theory of social cognition enforced the methodology with the

concept of self-efficacy, which emphasizes self-reflection, independent thinking, and

search for more effective ways of reaching the goals. It was an essential component of the

study since it offered the students an opportunity to set their own learning goals and

monitor their progress throughout the week, thus exercising self-directedness. This aspect

was evident in student weekly self-evaluation logs and their participation in the online

activities which required independence and self-discipline.

Such metacognitive components of self-directedness as setting goals and

objectives, planning steps in learning, self-monitoring, and self-evaluating refer to

indirect learning strategies (Oxford, 1990). However, in order to address the students’

approach to implementing their learning plans, it was also essential to investigate

strategies which involve direct language activities. Oxford’s (1990) strategy classification

system allowed for complimenting the data collection with memory, cognitive, and

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compensation strategies. Social strategies, which do not require direct manipulation of

the language, were included in the investigation as most applicable in the hybrid learning

environment. These four sets of strategies were modified from the original classification

for the purpose of study.

In order to give students the opportunity to learn independently at their own pace,

face-to-face instruction was supplemented with course information and learning

resources which were provided through the Web site ESL Writing Extension (www.esl-

page.com). The content of the Web site is outlined in Appendix A. The Web site was

hosted by a free Web space provider www.awardspace.com. All of the sections of the

Web site were interlinked for easy access. Designing the Web site, I used Dreamweaver

software and followed the interface guidelines for online educational resources (Deubel,

2003; Serdyukov & Hill, 2003):

1. Simplicity of the information layout and interaction strategies

2. Easy navigation

3. Low cognitive load

4. Relevance of information

5. Unobstructed information display

Besides the sections listed above, the site provided access to the blog and the

Writing Shop, which were added through external links and hosted by www.blogger.com

and www.blog.com. Both providers were chosen due to their easy posting procedures,

commercial-free posting areas, and a variety of administrative tools (template designs,

sidebar options, editing software, etc.). These additions to the Web site were designated

for the online interaction. Both the blog and the Writing Shop operated with the same

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type of social software, RSS feeds, and allowed for creating a database of weekly posts

throughout the course.

The purpose of the blog was to engage students in a continuing discussion based

on the assigned supplementary reading. It was an essential part of the course design

where most of the collaborative learning occurred. The reading was selected in order to

provide the learners with background information for discussion and writing. The links to

the articles and discussion questions were posted in the blog every week. Students were

required to participate in the discussion at least four times during the week. This included

one original post and three comments to other students’ messages. All weekly posts of

the participants were collected and placed chronologically in the discussion log for

further evaluation of language use and familiarity with the content.

The pedagogical function of the blog was based on the conceptual framework.

The blogging technique allowed the students to demonstrate newly acquired concepts in

writing by applying their critical thinking skills in the following learning acts:

1. Analyze the issues presented in reading and relate them to their previous cultural

experiences in writing.

2. Express their opinions and reflections on the given topics by writing comments

and responding to peers’ comments.

3. Synthesize new content material and style by writing well-organized paragraphs.

The weekly reading and discussion topics were further elaborated in writing

assignments included in the instructional plan (see Appendix A). The students were

assigned one composition per week. The Writing Shop was used for the first draft

demonstration and peer editing. The students were required to post their first drafts by the

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middle of each week and exchange comments and ideas about each other’s work. The

next stage included revising and rewriting drafts based on my feedback and the peers’

comments which finally led to the submission of the final drafts at the beginning of each

following week. Collaboration in writing assignments emphasized the concept of social

learning and constructive approach to completing educational tasks. Following the

CSILE model, it allowed for creating opportunities for intentional learning which

continued to increase with each new assignment.

Data Collection Instruments

The case study unitized several types of data collection tools in order to reveal

different aspects of learning experience (Merriam, 1998) in the hybrid environment and

provide answers to the research questions:

1. What features characterize changes in the writing of ESL students in hybrid

courses?

2. What evidence of self-directedness is present in the hybrid program?

3. Which learning strategies (memory, cognitive, compensation, or social) do

students use more in this type of environment?

All the tools had been previously used in the pilot study and modified based on

the pilot study experience. The purpose and the use of each tool in this investigation is

described in the following section.

Changes in the Writing Skills

The main direction of the proposed research is presented in the first research

question: What features characterize changes in the writing of ESL students in a hybrid

EAP course? Since this research question targeted practical writing skills, evidence of

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changes was collected from weekly online posts and writing samples of first and final

drafts which were evaluated for language use and content. It was assumed that the

prewriting stage which included online reading and discussion would ensure a deeper

understanding of the topic and a faster incorporation of the new concepts in the active

language use. Therefore, central to this part of the investigation was the evidence of the

connection between reading and writing which was demonstrated in their compositions as

follows:

1. The controlling idea was clearly stated and focused on throughout the paragraph.

2. Each point was sufficiently developed; appropriate supporting details and

examples were to given to explain reasoning.

3. The language forms were appropriate for the writing topic and style.

4. Writing showed increasing complexity in syntax and vocabulary.

A more detailed analysis of student writing was performed following the criteria

outlined in the ESL composition profile (Jacobs, Hartfiel, Hughey, & Wormuth, 1981),

which is currently used at WCC for essay grading. Grammar precision was not targeted

in this case study since the focus was on the process of acquiring new concepts and

reflecting them in writing through various language means rather than achieving

structural perfection. However, grammar forms associated with a specific writing style

were addressed throughout the semester as part of the instruction. Grammar errors had to

be corrected by the students upon receiving the feedback on their compositions.

The two remaining research questions required specific instruments to address

each point of investigation: (2) What evidence of self-directedness is present in the

hybrid program? (3) Which learning strategies (memory, cognitive, compensation, or

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social) do students use more in this type of environment? All relevant data were collected

by means of biweekly learning experience questionnaire, intake questionnaire, weekly

self-evaluation questionnaire, and biweekly in-person interviews. Table 2 shows the

realationship between the data collection tools and the research questions. The complete

set of data collection instruments is located in Appendix B.

Table 2 Relation of Data Collection Tools to Research Questions

Data Collection Instrument Research Question (RQ)

Table A1: Intake Questionnaire RQ 2: Self-directedness

Table A2: Weekly Self-Evaluation RQ 2: Self-directedness

Table A3: Online Reading and Writing Skills RQ 2: Self-directedness

Table A4: Combining Classroom and Online Experience RQ 2: Self-directedness

Table A5: The Use of Learning Strategies RQ 3: Learning strategies

Table A6: In-Person Interview RQ 2: Self-directedness

RQ 3: Learning strategies

Intake Questionnaire

Initially, the participants completed the intake questionnaire (see Appendix B),

which demonstrated their readiness for academic study and level of self-directedness at

the beginning of the research through questions regarding their educational background

and goals. Thus, this questionnaire addressed research question 2: What evidence of self-

directedness is present in the hybrid program? This instrument utilized the summative

rating scale of 1 (least like me) to 5 (most like me). This technique allowed the

participants to evaluate their previous learning experiences and demonstrate the purpose

they pursue through education. The concept of self-directedness in this questionnaire was

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included in the items referring to the learners’ ability to set their own goals, evaluate their

progress, and study independently.

Weekly Self-Evaluation Questionnaire

More evidence of self-directedness was obtained from the weekly self-evaluation

questionnaire (see Appendix B), the purpose of which was to help the participants set

their goals, critically estimate their own learning progress, and plan steps for

improvement. This questionnaire was divided into two sections. Section 1 was designed

in an open-ended format. It was to be completed by the participants at the beginning of

each week in order to reflect on specific learning needs and plan steps to reach them.

Section 2 had to be completed at the end of the week and demonstrated the learners’ own

perception of their progress and contained an anchored rating scale of four items:

strongly agree, agree, disagree, and strongly disagree. The reduced number of rating

options in this tool was necessary in order to motivate the participants to be more self-

critical of their progress. It also included a place for notes on specific accomplishments

and changes that might be necessary to make improvement. The purpose of self-

evaluation was to encourage the learners to set short-term learning goals, reflect on their

progress, modify learning strategies, and evaluate their outcome. According to Bandura

(1986) these skills are necessary to become self-efficient learners.

Biweekly Learning Experiences Questionnaire

An important part of this study was gaining an understanding of the learners’

perspective on the hybrid learning format and the strategies they use while combining

traditional and online learning. In particular, it was necessary to understand what changes

in their learning behavior were required while switching from the traditional to the online

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environment. Thus, this questionnaire was necessary in order to receive additional

evidence of self-directedness and answer research question 3: Which learning strategies

(memory, cognitive, compensation, or social) do students use more in this type of

environment?

Every two weeks the participants were asked to reflect on their learning

experiences in class and online and the strategies they applied in each format following

the questionnaire items which they had to rate on the scale of 1 (worst) to 5 (best). The

rating provided a precision of choice and allowed for comparison between the two types

of experiences. For convenience, the questionnaire was divided into three sections which

focused specifically on skills, experiences, and strategies. This approach helped to

receive relevant data on the above-mentioned research questions and follow the changes

in the participants’ perception of the hybrid learning format.

Online Reading and Writing Skills

The purpose of this tool was to understand if the students found working in the

online environment helpful in acquiring new material and concepts through reading and

writing (see Appendix B). This part of the questionnaire included eight items, which

specifically addressed their reading and writing experiences. Each item was formulated as

a statement in order to encourage the participants to apply evaluation on the scale of 1

(worst) to 5 (best). The participants’ choice of numerical values showed whether they

found their online experience beneficial for their reading and writing skills.

Combining Classroom and Online Experience

This eight-item section of the questionnaire was created with the purpose of

understanding how different elements of learning were reflected in each format (see

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Appendix B). It opposed the participants’ classroom experiences to those they received

from a combination of learning in class and online. Each of the eight items referred to

learning in both environments but required a separate numerical value. Evaluating each

item on the scale of 1 (worst) to 5 (best), the participants had to place the answers parallel

to each, which helped to compare their choices and demonstrated which environment

provided better learning opportunities.

Use of Learning Strategies

This section of the biweekly questionnaire (see Appendix B) was designed to

collect information on the use of learning strategies in the traditional and Web-based

environment and targeted research question: Which learning strategies (memory,

cognitive, compensation, or social) do students use more in this type of environment? It

was adapted from Oxford’s (1994) Strategy Classification System, which is based on a

six-level taxonomy. However, only those strategies that could be applied in each type of

environment were chosen for this tool: memory, cognitive, compensation, and social.

Each group of strategies contained five items, which required evaluation of their use in

class and online on the scale from 1 (worst) to 5 (best). Unlike previously described data

collection tools, this section of the questionnaire also included the total value of each set

of strategies used in class and online, which allowed the participants to show their overall

usefulness.

Biweekly In-Person Interview

Further investigation of participants’ experiences in the hybrid format of learning

was conducted by means of biweekly personal interviews (see Appendix A) which

included open-ended questions related to the participants’ writing and overall learning

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experience in the hybrid course, as well as practical issues concerning in-class and online

learning. As an essential part of this case study, the interview helped me to build a close

relationship with the participants and understand whether they found the online

component an effective addition to the course by obtaining the information that could not

be received through the questionnaires. All interviews were conducted one-on-one so as

to give the students an opportunity to speak freely. Their answers were recorded with a

voice recorder and later transcribed for analyses.

Data Collection Procedures The participants were recruited during the first session of the semester once the

results of the placement test were received and the groups were formed. Two students

from each class, evening and Saturday, were selected at random from the number of

willing volunteers. The purpose, procedures, and possible benefits of the study were

explained to them before the letter of consent was signed. At the same time, those who

preferred to work with paper copies received the intake questionnaires in the print format;

others chose to have an electronic version and were e-mailed the questionnaire later that

day.

The forms for the weekly self-evaluation and biweekly learning experience and

strategy questionnaires were distributed to the participants in the first week of the study.

The completed forms were collected in the format that was convenient for them: either

electronic or hard copy. This procedure was repeated throughout the study.

The biweekly personal interviews were conducted individually with each

participant. The responses were recorded using a digital voice-recorder and later

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transcribed for analyses. The interviews took place in private and the data were stored in

a secured location.

Writing samples were collected on a weekly basis. They included blog posts and

writing assignments performed in and out of class. Copies of the written work were kept

for the duration of the study. The originals were returned to the participants with

feedback.

Treatment of the Data

The collected data were analyzed within the conceptual framework of the study.

The underlying concept of the hybrid learning was borrowed from Scardamalia and

Bereiter’s (1994) model of computer-supported intentional learning environment

(CSILE), which emphasizes intentional learning in socially supportive environment. This

model was chosen as the most appropriate platform for analyzing learning experiences

which take place in the hybrid course. In particular, it was used to observe the process of

achieving expertise through overcoming challenges in collaborative interactions.

Additionally, it allowed for measuring the volume of online communication and

explaining it from the point of view of knowledge-building discourse. These observations

were used to obtain the evidence of what type of communication (face-to-face or online)

prevails in the hybrid learning format. The findings also contributed to the understanding

of the role of online communication in CSILE.

Vygotsky’s theory of social learning and thought and language formation was

fundamental in interpreting the changes in writing skills development. Since the actual

composition process was preceded by the reading and blog discussion in various

academic areas, this theory helped to establish a connection between the acquisition of

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concepts and their reflection in writing. It also created the basis for observing and

interpreting the mastery of the new models through the use of social learning strategies in

online group collaboration. Writing performance was evaluated based on the ESL

composition profile (Jacobs, Hartfiel, Hughey, & Wormuth, 1981) with the emphasis on

thought reflection, organization, and language complexity. Number grades were assigned

for the purpose of comparison. Holistic evaluation of the written work was used in order

to analyze changes in concepts and acquisition of the new material.

The investigation of learners’ self-directedness was based on Bandura’s (1986)

theory of self-efficacy. As one of its integral components, self-directedness was studied

through learners’ responses to weekly self-evaluation and biweekly learning experiences

questionnaires. Following this theory, the responses to the questionnaire items were

analyzed from the point of view of learners’ ability to set goals, monitor their own

progress, evaluate their performance, and determine steps for improvement.

The rated weekly and biweekly questionnaire items demonstrated the difference

in values participants assigned to specific experiences. Responses to the same items were

compared individually and summated per stem throughout the study in order to see the

changes over the period of 12 weeks which were presented in charts and graphs. The

results of the in-person interview were entered in a log and used for an in-depth analysis

of the participants’ experiences.

Validity and Reliability

Merriam summarizes the issue of validity in qualitative research in the question

“of how one’s findings match reality” (1988, p. 166). In this study, validity was ensured

by the following strategies:

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1. Triangulation: the information was cross-checked using multiple sources of data

pertinent to the same research questions (Yin, 2003; Stake, 2006).

2. Participant feedback: the results of the questionnaires and interviews were

discussed with the participants in order to verify accuracy.

3. Peer review: the participants’ writing samples and the results of the questionnaires

and interviews were discussed with colleagues in order to receive different points

of view and reduce the possibility of researcher’s bias (Stake, 2006).

4. Reflexivity: the assumptions and conclusions concerning the processes and the

results of the study were critically re-examined throughout the study.

Since the case study did not pursue cause-and-effect relationships, reliability can

be defined as the property of the information rather than consistency of test scores

(Merriam, 1988; Stake, 1995; Yin, 2003). In addition to using the above-mentioned

strategies, reliability was strengthened by applying the same questionnaires repeatedly

over a 12-week period of time; selecting the participants with similar level of language

proficiency; matching the questionnaire items with the research objectives; and keeping

accurate records of the research findings (Yin, 2003). These techniques ensured “the

chain of evidence” which served as the basis for analytical generalization in the study

(Yin, 2003, p. 105).

Due to the nature of the case study research, the results were interpreted within

and generalized to the conceptual framework, which was developed prior to conducting

the research. In addition, several criteria of generalization were taken into consideration.

One of them is the length of the study (Stake, 1995). Therefore, in order to establish the

basis for generalization, the study was conducted for a period of 12 weeks (one semester).

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Throughout the length of the study, the participants were involved in repetitive activities,

such as blog discussions, which allowed for observing common trends in learning

behavior and language use. In addition, weekly and biweekly questionnaires and

interviews contained the same questions so as to refine the generalization (Stake).

Summary

This chapter discussed the methodology of the case study, which was conducted

for a period of 12 weeks in order to investigate the features which can be attributed to

changes in the writing of adult ESL students in a hybrid EAP course, as well as their

experiences, self-directedness, and learning strategies. In order to address these aspects of

hybrid learning from the learners’ perspective, the data were collected by means of

weekly and biweekly questionnaires and open-ended interviews. The progress in writing

performance was evaluated based on the weekly writing projects, blog posts, and samples

of in-class writing assignments. The obtained evidence was analyzed within the

conceptual framework, which included Vygotsky’s theory of social learning, Bandura’s

theory of self-efficacy, and Scardamalia and Bereiter’s CSILE model. The issues of

validity and reliability regarding this case study were also addressed in this chapter.

In more detail, the process of collecting and treating the data is described in

chapter 4, which also includes the organization of the hybrid course and discusses the

format of combining classroom and online instruction. The main section of the chapter

describes each of the four cases and provides a detailed account and analysis of the data

pertaining to the research questions. Additionally, the cross-case analysis demonstrates

commonalities and differences in the obtained data. Chapter 4 ends with conclusions

drawn from the collected evidence and a summary of the study.

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CHAPTER 4:

DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS

The purpose of this case study was to investigate the development of writing

skills and self-directed and learning strategies in a hybrid EAP course, which combined

classroom and online learning formats. The investigation was guided by the following

research questions:

1. What features characterize changes in the writing of ESL students in hybrid

courses?

2. What evidence of self-directedness is present in the hybrid program?

3. Which learning strategies (memory, cognitive, compensation, or social) do

students prefer to use more in this type of environment?

This case study was conducted with four EAP students at Westchester

Community College in the spring semester of 2008. The participants were attending the

EAP course on a regular class schedule and using the Web site out of class. The purpose

of the online component was to give the students an opportunity to continue working on

the course material beyond the limits of the class time. Since developing academic skills

is of a special importance for college-bound students, the Web site was designed to

provide practice in reading, discussion, and writing.

The data obtained throughout the investigation is presented in the following

segments:

1. Collection and treatment of the data

2. Overview of the hybrid EAP course

3. Analyses of individual case studies

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4. Cross-case analysis

5. Conclusions

6. Summary of the Chapter

Collection and Treatment of the Data

The data in this study were collected by means of writing samples, questionnaires,

student self-evaluations, and interviews. The evidence received from these sources was

used to create case profiles of the participants and perform an in-depth analysis of

features that represented changes in their writing skills, self-directedness, and learning

strategies used in the hybrid learning format.

The questionnaires included the intake form (see Appendix B), which had to be

completed once at the beginning of the study, and the biweekly learning experiences

questionnaires. The purpose of the intake questionnaire was to obtain evidence of the

students’ prior learning experiences, goals in the EAP course, and self-directed learning

skills. Additional data on self-directedness was gathered from two sections of the

biweekly questionnaire (see Appendix B), which was designed to elicit the students’

feedback on reading and writing online and combining their classroom and online

experiences.

Both tools consisted of closed-ended statements that had to be rated on the scale

of 1 (least like me or worst) to 5 (most like me or best). The responses from the intake

questionnaire were used to describe the participants’ background and the initial level of

self-directedness in the case profiles. The responses from the biweekly questionnaires

were systematized in Excel spreadsheets. The average values for each set of items were

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calculated, charted, analyzed for evidence of changes, and compared with the results

from other data collection tools.

The characteristics of changes in the writing skills were determined by analyzing

the students’ compositions performed in and out of class; their first draft demonstrations

posted in Writing Shop; and their blog discussion posts. Copies of paper submissions

were kept in student files. All online posts in blog and Writing Shop were entered in the

Writing Log, where they were organized chronologically by weekly topics and placed

against each other for comparison of the writing volume, language complexity, and

demonstration of new concepts. The analysis of changes in writing was conducted every

week based on the following guidelines:

1. The controlling idea was clearly stated and focused on throughout the paragraph.

2. Each point was sufficiently developed.

3. Appropriate supporting details and examples were to given to explain reasoning.

4. The language forms were appropriate for the writing topic and style.

5. Writing showed increasing complexity in syntax and vocabulary.

For the purpose of analysis, these criteria were coded as follows:

1. CI – controlling idea

2. D – development

3. LF – language forms

4. WO – word order and syntax

In more detail, each piece of writing was evaluated and graded using the rubric

for ESL composition grading (Jacobs, Hartfiel, Hughey, & Wormuth, 1981). All students

in this course including the participants received feedback on each writing assignment

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twice: on their first draft posted in Writing Shop and on their final draft submitted in

class. The feedback included suggestions for improving the content and the organization

of their paragraphs. Some copies of the participants’ writing samples were also graded by

two colleagues at WCC in order to verify the accuracy of assessment and to confirm the

evidence of changes in the writing. The number grades in this tool were converted to

letter grades (see Appendix B).

For further analysis, an Excel writing progress file was created individually for

each student. The files contained three categories of weekly numerical data: blog word

count, paragraph word count, and grades. These measurements were used to create bar

graphs which illustrated the changes in volume and quality of writing. Additionally, each

category was divided at mid-semester point in order to calculate the average numbers for

the first and the second half of the semester. The obtained values were triangulated with

the results of other data collection instruments. Copies of these files were also sent to the

participants in the middle and at the end of the semester as evidence of their performance.

The self-evaluation questionnaires were designed to obtain the evidence of self-

directedness (see Appendix B). They were performed by the participants on a weekly

basis and consisted of the planning section, which had to be completed at the beginning

of each week, and the evaluation section, which was performed at the end of the week

using four options—strongly agree, agree, disagree, and strongly disagree—representing

scores from 1 (worst) to 4 (best). These values were used to keep records of the students’

responses in the Excel file. Then, average weekly scores were calculated and charted in

order to graphically demonstrate the changes in self-directedness. In addition to

estimating the results of the earlier planned learning tasks, the participants were asked to

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reflect on their weekly performance in order to identify the areas that required additional

attention. The answers to these open-ended items as well as the information from the

planning section were compared and analyzed for elements of self-criticism and the

ability to manage the learning progress independently. All self-evaluation data was

discussed with the participants during the interviews in order to have a better

understanding of their self-evaluation. The evidence of changes in self-directedness was

also analyzed alongside the changes in writing and overall learning progress.

The data on the use of learning strategies throughout the course were obtained

from the biweekly questionnaires (see Appendix B). The students were asked to evaluate

four categories of strategies—memory, cognitive, compensation, and social—in their

application to studying in class and online. Each category included five different

strategies which had to be rated using the scale of 1 (worst) to 5 (best). The participants’

responses were complied in the Excel file, where the collected data were summed up

biweekly. The average biweekly values were used to create bar graphs which

demonstrated the changes in the use of specific strategies throughout the hybrid course in

class and online. This information served as the basis for the analysis of the differences in

the use of learning strategies in the traditional and online formats of learning.

The data received from the questionnaires were further discussed during the in-

person interviews which were performed biweekly. The open-ended questions of the

interview gave the participants the freedom to share their own perspective on their

writing progress, overall learning, and practical issues occurring in the hybrid course.

Their reflections on experiences were compared with the results of the biweekly

questionnaires. The interviews were recorded using a voice recorder and transcribed in

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the personal interview log. This information was essential in creating case study profiles

and gaining an understanding of the hybrid learning from the student point of view.

The data collected for each individual case of the study are further discussed in

this chapter in their application to the research questions.

Overview of the Hybrid EAP Course

First Impressions

For both students and instructors, the beginning of the semester is an exciting time

when the goals and expectations are high, and the reality of heavy workload and course

requirements has not yet affected the enthusiasm. Over the past year, my excitement has

been mixed with the anxiety of introducing my students to a new way of learning. The

hybrid EAP course is unusual in many ways. It requires a good amount of self-discipline

and dedication from the students in order to benefit from it to the fullest. Since part of the

learning takes place online, typing skills and at least basic familiarity with the Internet are

essential. However, the most challenging aspect of the hybrid format is accepting the fact

that learning continues outside of class. For ESL students who are accustomed to seeing

the teacher as the main source of knowledge, the transition to independent study is a

complicated and often painful process. The fear of doing things without direct

supervision makes the first few weeks the hardest time of the semester. Students get

confused in their assignments, due dates, posting procedures, and everything else related

to the use of the class Web site. My e-mail box is flooded with pleas for help even though

all the information is posted online. Then, little by little, the shock wave recedes and the

real work begins.

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As always, my main concern was whether the students would understand the

benefits of the hybrid format of learning and accept it. Success usually depends on what

they want to accomplish in 10-12 weeks and how soon they want to start college.

However, due to the diversity of the ESL population at WCC, it is impossible to predict

what needs motivate the students to enter the EAP program. Although most of them

intend to study in college, their plans do not always include specific time frame.

Preparation for college is not the only reason why students enroll in this program. Au

pairs, for example, usually take English courses as a contract requirement and may not be

interested in starting college in the US. As a result, they may have perfect attendance but

little progress. Some students join the program because they want to practice writing

when in fact they need spelling. Only a few of them try to adjust and finish the course

once they realize they chose the wrong program. Finally, there are those who have taken

the highest ESL level and simply want to learn more. For them, the EAP course is a

“promotion” rather than a concrete need to acquire academic skills. Knowing that I may

have a very diverse mix of needs and interests made me a little apprehensive about

presenting the Web site and the course requirements.

The first week of classes confirmed some of my fears and brought surprises as

well. The range of ages, learning needs, and personal interests was tremendous in both

groups. Regardless of the reasons that brought these students to the program, the common

theme appeared to be the goal of improving English skills. As I introduced them to the

idea of the hybrid learning and demonstrated the Web site, their reaction gradually

changed from curiosity to confusion and ended in total disbelief. This reaction was

understandable and expected. There was a sigh of relief when I reassured them that I

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would be involved in everything they do online, and they could reach me any time they

needed help. Yet some students immediately saw this learning format as an opportunity

to make faster progress. To my surprise, I had no problem finding participants for my

study.

It took a good deal of patience and optimism to go through the first few online

assignments with the students who had never used the Internet for learning before. Even

though the Web site was easy to navigate, there seemed to be an ever-present fear of

technology, especially among the older students. However, the technical aspect was not

as troublesome as the social one. This semester, my classes were especially culturally

diverse. In addition to the wide representation of countries from South and Central

America, there were several students from Eastern Europe, Asia, and Africa. Since

cultural norms affect the way people learn and interact with one another, the first few

weeks were especially challenging in creating an online community of learners. Some

were even trying to avoid using the Web site for fear of doing or saying something

wrong, but soon they realized that it was as much a part of the course as their class work

and joined in the discussion.

Hybrid Course Organization

The hybrid course was organized as a continuing cycle of introducing new

material in class, internalizing it online, reviewing it upon returning to class, and

continuing the work online. Thus, learning occurred in a cycle of initiation/revision

stages, which took place in class, and expansion through reading, discussion, and writing

activities online as shown in Figure 1. Such organization allowed each step of the cycle to

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iterate the material at a higher level by adding new information in order to “increase

learning with each cycle” (Serdyukov & Ryan, 2008, p. 90).

Figure 1. Diagram showing organization of the hybrid EAP course.

The cyclical nature of the hybrid learning made it possible to double the amount

of material and practice activities incorporated into each lesson. For instance, the

initiation stage in Week 5 included presentation of paragraphs of reasons. It was

integrated with the literature module, which was based on The Use of Force by William

Carlos Williams. Following the introduction to this writing style and practice in class, the

students discussed the story online using the questions posted on the class blog (see

Appendix A).

Students in the night program, who had two classes a week, were introduced to

the paragraphs of reasons in their first session of Week 5. They read and discussed the

story online until their second session, when they revised this topic in class. Then they

Expansion Read

Discuss Write

Revision Explain Review Practice

Expansion Read

Discuss Write

Initiation Explain

Demonstrate Practice

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continued working online the rest of the week. The Saturday group, who met only once a

week, had both revision of the previous lesson and introduction of the new one in the

same class. By the middle of the week, both groups were required to post first draft on

the topic “The Reasons for the Conflict between the Characters in the Story The Use of

Force.” When the feedback on their drafts was posted, they proceeded with making

changes and preparing their final drafts to be submitted in the first class of the following

week. An example of a typical weekly assignment can be found in Appendix B.

The primary elements of the expansion stage were blog discussions of the

assigned reading and paragraph demonstrations in Writing Shop. In addition, the students

had access to the online resources which included articles, grammar tutorials and

worksheets, writing tutorials, online dictionaries, and language reference sites.

Feedback throughout the Course

None of the four participants had been familiar with the hybrid learning format

before the study. It was especially interesting for me to see their feedback on the learning

experiences in this course. However, not all steps were easy to make. Besides the

challenge of acquiring online study skills, my participants had to learn self-evaluation

techniques and monitor their own progress. The weekly self-evaluation form, which was

the shortest and the easiest from my point of view, was initially the most difficult one

among the data collection tools the students used independently. There was some

confusion in setting goals and planning steps to reach goals. Some of the first self-

evaluation forms included goals that were too general to be completed in one week (e.g.,

“Improve my English”), and the steps did not relate to the goals. Another issue was

targeting specific skills to improve at the beginning of the week and evaluating the

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improvement when the week was over. Sometimes, these areas also showed unrelated

activities. Evidently, a demonstration was necessary, so I created a sample of a completed

self-evaluation form, e-mailed it to all four students, and thus prevented further

discrepancies.

On the other hand, the students had no difficulties completing the biweekly

learning experiences questionnaires even though they contained more items. Besides a

few questions which had to be clarified, there was no confusion either regarding the

meaning or the assessment. All participants agreed that it was easier for them to choose

the values for the items than to decide for themselves which items to include in the

weekly form and evaluate the results. Evidently, the difference can be explained by

specific skills required by each instrument. Whereas working with the questionnaires they

could approach the items within a concrete learning situation, the self-evaluation form

was based on the principles of self-directedness which presumed a higher level of

abstract and critical thinking skills. Above all, the students had to know their strengths

and weaknesses and choose the paths to achieving better results in the areas that needed

improvement. They had to be able to judge their performance and plan the necessary

changes on their way to success. These metacognitive strategies, which constitute self-

efficacy (Bandura, 1977, 1986; Oxford, 1990), require much more self-awareness than

evaluation of external sources of learning.

Besides the questionnaires, the participants attended in-person interviews, which

gave me the most important insight into their experiences during the course. The

interviews were scheduled individually with each participant with an interval of two

weeks. This allowed the students to accumulate the experiences and share their concerns

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and successes. One of the most significant areas of feedback was their online learning

experience which included communication with peers. Since none of the participants had

ever used CMC for learning before, the common issue during the first few weeks was the

fear of interacting with other students online. However, this fear was not caused by

feeling exposed on the Web but by the awareness of their language problems and the

possibility of being misunderstood. In order to simplify the posting procedure and

maintain privacy, the students were instructed not to create personal profiles. Each post

appeared under the name of the author unlinked to the e-mail address or other personal

information. Another stumbling block was the cultural diversity among their classmates.

They were reluctant to refer to other people’s post or ask questions for fear of

inadvertently upsetting someone’s cultural or religious feelings. This phase passed soon

once the students became more familiar with one another even though some of them

studied in different groups and never met in person.

Summary. While creating this hybrid course, I considered students’ learning

needs, self-discipline, and learning skills as some of the main factors affecting a

successful integration of the online component into traditional instruction. Therefore, I

designed the online activities in this course as a continuation and expansion of the class

instruction with the focus on practical applications of the language skills.

The beginning of a hybrid course was as important as its development and

organization. In this stage, different technical and social issues became inevitable.

Therefore, all procedures had to be explained and demonstrated both in class and online.

It was also essential that the students receive enough support and encouragement during

the first two weeks of instruction.

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The English language skills of the students in an EAP course were another serious

factor of success. On the one hand, their language processing skills, particularly when

dealing with online materials, were not always adequate to ensure successful independent

study. Thus, it became crucial to provide them with clear step-by-step directions for each

assignment. On the other hand, they were not proficient enough to communicate their

ideas fluently in writing, which affected their willingness to interact with their peers

online in the beginning of the course. Since interaction was especially important in

creating a learning community, it was encouraged both in class and online.

Case Studies

Case 1: Yana—“The Team Player”

I find that it is important to learn things besides the language because it gives knowledge. Grammar is not enough to be an educated person. I go to school because I have a goal which I desire to reach, and I really enjoy learning more. The epigraph above, which was taken from one of the interviews with Yana, gives

the most precise idea of her as a person and a learner. She impressed me with her

positive, optimistic outlook on her learning experiences and her upbeat personality. Each

week, I was discovering new characteristics that helped me assemble her portrait and

understand what qualities contributed to her success. Sociable and tolerant to the

mistakes of others, Yana found that the way to reaching her own goals lay through

sharing her knowledge with those who needed support and accepting help from her more

advanced peers. In class and online, she acted as a team player willing to consider

everyone’s opinions and contribute her own.

Yana’s personal journey is intriguing. She grew up in a small town on the Black

Sea coast of Russia. It seems that her career choices had no specific plan. Upon receiving

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a degree in early childhood education, she decided to study law. With another degree in

hand, she moved abroad before she had a chance to practice her newly acquired

profession. Her marriage to a German citizen brought her first to Switzerland, then to

England, and finally to the United States. Among the diverse education she received in

her native country, foreign languages did not play a significant role. In Switzerland,

learning German became her priority. Living in London for two years, she was taking

English courses which helped her acquire some basic communication skills and grammar.

In this country, English continues to be in the center of her attention. She realizes that

neither of her Russian degrees can be used in the US. Yet she is not satisfied with a

career of a homemaker and sees returning to school as only a matter of time.

Hybrid Course through the Eyes of the Team Player

The beginning of the course was a difficult time for Yana. Along with new

language, culture, and academic requirements, she found herself surrounded by people

whose behavior often puzzled her. During her college years in Russia, she became

accustomed to viewing a class of students as a team that shared responsibilities for

everyone’s success. With her background, it was natural to have high expectations of her

classmates. Not being familiar with the typical ESL population in a continuing education

program, she was surprised to find that not all the students were as motivated and willing

to support one another as she was.

Not everybody used the blog over the past two weeks…I don’t know the reason. There wasn’t much interaction. Maybe they don’t know how to do it yet. Yana shared her disappointment with me during our first interview, and although

I could relate to her feelings, I also knew that such situations were not unusual. Making

money often takes priority for immigrant adults, and study time is sacrificed for work and

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family needs. Through my teaching experience, I became well aware of the fears and

difficulties of adult ESL students which more often than not reduce their chances for

success. I listened to Yana and thought how much passion for learning she would need to

resist the influence of the majority.

Along with some frustrations of the first two weeks, there were a few small

victories which she was happy to report. Yana couldn’t hide her excitement when she

talked about her first successful experiences in the hybrid course. It was the first time she

was combining classroom and online learning, and now her overall learning was

beginning to acquire structure and sense. She realized that the Web site continued the

work which started in class and was happy to receive support outside the classroom, “In

class I get the background, and online I can put it in practice.”

Among the difficulties of the first two weeks of hybrid learning, there were also

some personality issues. Yana felt that her blog posts were good enough for others to see.

Her low self-esteem was blocking her progress until she compared her posts with those of

her classmates.

At first, I was embarrassed to post my comments because my English is not very good. I only use it when I go to the store. Then I saw other people’s messages, and sometimes it was hard to understand them because they were poorly written, so I realized that I am not the only one who has a problem. It was interesting to see the change in Yana’s reaction to the hybrid format in later

interviews. Her impression in the first two weeks was that a combination of work in class

and online gave her more opportunities to practice writing, express her thoughts, and

learn new things in general. By the middle of the semester, Yana’s preference was given

to work online rather than work in class.

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In class, we don’t always have a chance to exchange ideas, but online I found that I was encouraged to say more and express more of my own thinking. I had to read more on my own and look for more information. When the anxiety of the first few weeks receded, she took full advantage of

studying in class and using the Web site on her own. She discovered an abundance of

grammar and writing resources which the textbook did not offer and which were much

more convenient to use.

The online resources were more effective for me because they had more information, everything was clear, and I could do practical activities. Although Yana embraced the hybrid format as an opportunity to improve her

language skills and general knowledge, she continued clinging to the traditional views on

interaction in the first part of the semester. She felt that interaction involved face-to-face

situations and found that she had more opportunities for collaboration with others in class

than online where she focused more on writing messages than communicating with

people.

I have no choice when I work in class. Using the blog is interesting and new for me, but I haven’t studied this way before, so I focus more on writing messages than on collaborating with people. At the end of the semester, however, online interaction began to show better

results than interaction in class, where the pace and knowledge sharing could be affected

by various social factors such as mood, fatigue, level of preparation, and other issues

adult students often bring to their learning environment. Online collaboration was free

and open to anyone who wanted to learn together, whereas in class the students have to

collaborate regardless of their personal desire to do so.

I feel that I have more collaboration online than in class at this point. The people come to class tired and don’t want to think. But online I see many ideas from

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many different people. I could see what other people are thinking even though it is not easy for them to say what they want. Compared to the interaction in class, the blog is getting more interesting. In one of the last interviews, Yana added a personal perspective on the course

which brought up the issue of self-esteem again. Being a wife and a stay-at-home mom,

she started to forget what it was like to discuss serious social topics and use academic

language. The hybrid course helped her to quickly restore her learning skills by

immersing her in a constant flow of reading, analyzing, discussing, and writing. Although

she continued learning the language conscientiously, she embraced every topic as an

opportunity to expand her general knowledge, which improved her feeling of self-worth.

For the past few years, I stayed at home with my baby, cooked, cleaned, took care of my husband, but now I am my old self again. I couldn’t speak about complex topics the way I could have in my native language. But now I can. It’s a very good feeling. Even my husband looks at me differently because he sees that I am not only a housewife but also an educated person. The hybrid EAP course became a turning point in Yana’s academic and personal

transformation. In addition to showing a dramatic improvement in her language skills,

she raised her confidence level as a learner and a person. By combining different

resources and modes of learning in the hybrid course, Yana was able to use her full

potential, which made her learning experience truly rewarding.

Evidence and Discussion of Changes in Yana’s Writing Skills

Collecting Yana’s weekly paragraph writing assignments and blog posts, I was

able to see positive changes in many areas. At the beginning of the semester, her writing

was dominated by errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation, and her first paragraphs

lacked structure and focus. Throughout the semester, Yana’s most noticeable

improvement occurred in the paragraph organization, development of ideas, and the use

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of language in general. Whereas in the first week of the course, she was not able to

present her controlling idea clearly in the beginning of her paragraph, her later writing

assignments are properly organized and focused on the development of the items

included in the controlling idea. Along with that, there were positive changes in syntax,

spelling, and grammar. Table 3 summarizes the most common problems at the beginning

of the semester and the changes that took place as a result of the hybrid learning.

Table 3 Comparison of Yana’s Writing in First and Last Quarters

Code Problem First quarter Last quarter

CI Controlling

idea

Wrong placement of CI; unclear CI CI is clear and stated at the beginning of

the composition

D Development D does not follow CI; ideas

disorganized & unfinished

D is thorough & follows CI; D is

supported by details & examples

LF Language

forms

Multiple problems in choice of LF

in short paragraphs; written

language production is limited

Problems in choice of LF continue, but the

paragraphs are much longer & written

language production has increased

Grammar &

spelling

Many errors in the use of articles &

agreement; multiple spelling errors

Considerable improvement in agreement

and spelling but still many errors in the

use of articles

Average grade 77.7 (C+) 95.3 (A-)

The following samples from Yana’s writing illustrate her growth in these areas.

Complete texts of these paragraphs and samples of Yana’s blog posts can be found in

Appendix C.

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Sample 1

In the last few years, in all over world, increase the problem of plagiarism which concern not just creators of any literary, musical or scientific treatise but students and scholars as well. Let try to understand (to investigate) whether is plagiarism a crime. In fact, stealing any ideas or extracts of other people with the object of profit motive definitely classify as a crime because it breaks copyright law. However, whether students how do plagiarize are a crime or they are simply cheater which violate “honor codes based on trust between students and faculty.” In this assignment from Week 1, students were supposed to answer the questions

whether plagiarism is a crime. It is difficult to identify Yana’s main idea. This passage

contains multiple errors in organization and syntax, which obscure the point she is trying

to make. Sometimes, the meaning is not clear because of misspelled or misused words:

treatise (work), object (purpose), how (who). Other major problems include word order

in the sentence and grammar forms. For instance, increase the problem shows a reversed

order and the wrong verb tense. Although these errors reappear in Yana’s later

paragraphs, they are not as frequent and do not interfere with understanding.

Sample 2

Immigration is international phenomenon, and typically for all of well-known countries. There are a number of reasons of immigration, but would like to dwell upon a following main reasons: sociel and economicel problems, economical and business cooperation between countries and an escape from political, race or religious persecutions. This paragraph from Week 4 shows a much better organization than earlier in the

semester. Even though the controlling idea is not effectively introduced, the paragraph is

unified and logically organized. This passage demonstrates that, Yana learned to

formulate a topic sentence. In this case, it is clear that she was focusing on the reasons for

immigration. There is no reversed word order in this sample; however, some sentences

are incomplete. Among grammar errors, there are problems with the use of articles and

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subject-verb agreement. This paragraph also contains many spelling errors, which may be

the result of poor revision. In spite of these problems, Yana was able to explain her points

of view and stay focused on the three factors that cause immigration, which she presented

in the topic sentence. As a result, it is much easier to follow her ideas.

Sample 3

Nowadays, using Internet makes the process of receiving any information about colleges and its courses much easier. If you are interested in some Accounting course, a good point to start is at www.sunywcc.edu/home.htm Web site, which belongs to Westchester Community College (WCC). The process of finding out about an Accounting course on their Web site will not be difficult. You only have to follow a few successive steps.

This passage from Week 7 shows considerable progress in paragraph

development and language use. The introduction and the topic sentence are much better

written than in the other examples. Her controlling idea indicates what process she is

going to describe and how she wants to present it. There is definite improvement in

syntax and spelling.

Along with grammatical and organizational changes, the content of Yana’s

writing and her involvement with the topic have also been improving throughout the

course. Her paragraphs and blog posts reflected her thinking process and analysis of the

information she received from the assigned reading and her own research. Thus, her

writing was constantly reinforced by reading (Smith, 2001). Trying to express her ideas

precisely, Yana did not limit her writing to grammar forms but embraced the new

information applying it to her personal experiences.

Another area of success was the increase in the volume of her online

communication with peers and weekly writing assignments. Throughout the semester,

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Yana was expanding her writing by including numerous supporting details and examples

to explain her reasoning. In Week 9, she was able to develop a complete essay before the

principles of the essay organization had been introduced (the evening EAP class studied

the essay format in Week 10). According to Table 4, the language production both in

blog posts and in paragraphs shows the tendency to increase until the midpoint in the

semester. Yana’s blog activity slowed down in Week 6, when she had to be hospitalized

for a minor surgical procedure, which slightly affected her grade for the writing

assignment. However, the rest of the semester, she worked seriously on all areas. Her

volume of writing remained generally higher than in the first half of the semester, and her

grades continued to improve.

Table 4 Changes in Yana’s Writing throughout the Course

Weeks 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Words/ blog n/a 131 243 216 624 369 679 634 479 815 No post

Words/ paragr. 271 361 370 443 440 590 676 619 850 654 1,442

Grade 64 84 85 78 92 89 90 93 93 96 97

Summary of changes in Yana’s writing. In Yana’s case, the purpose of the hybrid

EAP course to enhance learning became reality. Even though at the beginning of her

journey, she was concerned entirely about her language progress, she used the new

information to develop her mind and improved her language skills by internalizing the

new concepts, which allowed her to acquire the vocabulary and syntax necessary to

express her new knowledge. With increased confidence, she started focusing on the

informational aspect of her writing and increased her language production from a

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paragraph of 271 words in Week 1 to 619 words in Week 8 and a three-page essay in

Week 11. Yana’s grades also show a steady improvement from 64 to 97.

Overall, Yana was able to make a significant progress in the hybrid course.

Blogging was an important part of her success. It encouraged her to read more and

produce more language in order to create meaningful, informative posts. Using the blog,

Yana was expanding her writing experiences through sharing her knowledge with others.

Thus, seeking and contributing knowledge (Tu, 2005), she improved her writing skills by

integrating them with reading and grammar practice.

Based on the analysis of Yana’s written work, the features that characterize

changes in Yana’s writing include improvements in writing style and organization;

grammar, spelling, and punctuation; content; general language use; and volume of

language production.

Evidence and Discussion of Yana’s Self-Directedness in Learning

Yana’s responses on the intake questionnaire, which she completed at the

beginning of the course, helped me form a general idea of Yana’s ability to regulate her

own learning process. One thing became obvious: having graduated from two

universities, Yana started the program with a solid educational background and a vast

learning experience. However, she had received all her education in a different cultural

system where the concept of self-directedness might have been unknown. Yet many of

her answers indicated that she had high expectations of herself and believed in her

abilities to achieve success. Further analysis of Yana’s responses gave me a more positive

impression of her self-efficacy as a learner.

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The summary of the pertinent intake questionnaire items that received the highest

score on the scale of 1 (least like me) to 5 (most like me) includes the flowing items:

1. The primary purpose of my learning is (b) to get a better job; (c) to contribute to

society; and (d) to become successful.

2. The success of my learning in this program depends on (a) my study at school; (b)

my study at home; and (c) my teacher’s work.

3. The most important reason for using technology in this program is that it (a) helps

me effectively accomplish my goals in this class; (d) gives me opportunities to

learn more; and (e) allows me to learn at my own pace.

4. The following sentence describes me as a learner in this program: (b) I can reach

any goal if I work hard; (c) I know my strengths and weaknesses; and (d) I can

make and carry out decisions.

The very purpose of Yana’s returning to school showed that she not only sought

personal benefits from improving her professional status but also saw her success as an

individual an important contribution to society. As a learner, she recognized her strengths

and weaknesses and believed in her abilities to control her own learning progress. This

response explains Yana’s view on the role of technology in the hybrid course as an

effective way of regulating her own learning pace. However, trying to obtain more

knowledge, she placed equal share of responsibility for academic success on herself and

her instructor. Thus, setting a high goal of becoming a productive member of society, she

was not prepared to take all the necessary steps independently. Even though Yana’s

initial level of self-directedness was rather high, she felt it was important to have the

support of an expert in helping her reach her goals.

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Throughout the course, Yana’s weekly self-evaluations allowed me to follow her

steps in identifying the problems that needed to be addressed, planning what needed to be

done to correct the problems, implementing the plan, and evaluating the results using a

four-point scale from 4 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree). Each week, Yana’s

focus was on improving her grammar and writing organization. She was able to recognize

the areas that caused the most obstacles in her learning progress: verb tenses, spelling,

punctuation, sentence structure, and paragraph development. Her plans included a variety

of grammar exercises from different print and online sources as well as reading and

writing online in order to apply her language skills. However, it took about four weeks

for Yana to learn to be realistic about her goals.

In spite of being a generally self-efficient learner, Yana had to acquire some skills

in setting short-term goals and completing them independently. In the first few weeks,

she was not able to complete the activities she planned due to lack of clear goals and time

management skills. It affected her overall satisfaction with her weekly progress which

was reflected in low scores for reaching goals and overcoming problems. Figure 2 shows

that Yana’s self-evaluation in Week 3 averaged 2.25 and returned to the point it reached

in the first week. At that time, her weekly goals were too general to give her a sense of

direction, e.g. participate in the blog discussion, study grammar. Without a clear target,

Yana was not able to plan specific steps and see the result of her learning. The

disorientation regarding what to study and how to do it best marked Yana’s transition

period from following the teacher’s directions to setting her own achievable goals.

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0

1

2

3

4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

weeks

Self

-evalu

ati

on

Figure 2. Line graph showing changes in Yana’s weekly self-evaluations during the hybrid course.

By the middle of the semester, Yana became more focused and organized, and her

self-evaluation started showing better scores in all areas. Her growing ability to regulate

her learning caused a steady rise in self-directedness. There appeared noticeable changes

in goals which became more precisely formulated, e.g. improve knowledge of verb tenses

(Perfect), improve sentence structure. Clearer goals helped her to choose appropriate

activities. By that time, Yana had already explored the Web site self-study resources and

realized they served her learning needs better than the textbook. Knowing her

weaknesses, Yana searched for materials that would help her overcome specific

problems. Thus, using the Web site resources gave her an additional advantage in

managing her study. An example of Yana’s self-evaluation in Week 5 can be found in

Appendix D.

Additional data reflecting Yana’s growth of self-directedness came from her

evaluation of online reading and writing activities and hybrid learning experiences in

general. The novelty of completing reading and writing assignments online without direct

supervision from the instructor did not allow Yana to immediately notice the benefits

either for her skill improvement or for her self-efficiency as a learner. The average

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biweekly scores in both areas began to increase in the second half of the semester, when

her self-directedness rose considerably. At the same time, Yana became more actively

involved in the blog discussions which required more language production and,

consequently, more reading (see Table 5).

Table 5 Summary of Yana’s Experiences, Self-Evaluation, and Writing Progress

Week 2-3 Week 4-5 Week 6-7 Week 8-9 Week 10-11

Online reading 4.5 4.5 4.75 5.0 5.0

Online writing 4.5 3.75 5.0 5.0 5.0

Self-directedness 2.63 2.5 3.38 3.13 3.5

Word count Mid-term average End-of-term average

Blog

Paragraph

317

413

585

848

Grade 82 93.8

These changes were reflected in Yana’s weekly plans regarding her general

learning. Some of the topics she wanted to read about, such as the system of education in

the US, Asian cultures, and environmental problems, were not directly related to the class

assignments but were inspired by the weekly reading and Yana’s curiosity. Thus, each

week Yana was expanding her use of English following her own choice of topics and

activities. This suggests that Yana’s improving ability to manage her own study had a

positive affect on her writing skills development and overall learning. However, due to

the limitations of the study, it was impossible to verify this assumption.

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Yana’s growing ability to learn independently is also demonstrated in her

reflections on her classroom learning experiences and combining them with the online

activities. Some of her earliest responses indicated that she was learning more language

models in class, whereas the items referring to improving language skills, using her

potential, and applying knowledge were rated equally. However, by the middle of the

semester hybrid learning seriously outweighed the traditional format on all accounts.

Yana gave preference to the hybrid learning even in those areas which used to be

inseparable from the traditional ESL instruction, e.g., modeling grammar structures and

learning from both the peers and the teacher. This observation was also confirmed during

her later interviews when she remarked that the online environment gave her more

opportunities to improve her writing skills and practice the structures that were not

included in the class textbook. Thus, owing to the hybrid format of the course, Yana

gradually assumed more responsibility for her learning than she had originally planned.

Summary of Yana’s self-directedness. Yana’s progress in this course shows her

evolution as a learner. The hybrid format forced her to abandon her old views and

develop a new style of learning. In addition to her weekly assignments which she

prepared diligently, she started setting her personal learning goals that were narrow

enough to keep in focus during the week. As she was improving her planning skills and

gaining experience with the hybrid format, she became more aware of her strengths and

weaknesses and started addressing her language problems in a more orderly manner.

Having realized that it was impossible to work on objectives that were not clearly

defined, Yana started focusing on concrete problems and specific learning activities. This

strategy helped her manage her time better as well. Having the convenience of the online

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resources, she was becoming less and less dependent on the word of the instructor. The

fact that the hybrid course offered an unlimited access to online learning resources made

it possible for Yana to explore a wide variety of topics (including grammar and personal

interests) and implement her plans at her own pace. This approach made her incorporate

different learning modes which enhanced her learning in this course and allowed her to

use her full potential.

In summary, the evidence of self-directedness in Yana’s learning includes setting

achievable learning goals; planning and implementing concrete steps to reach her goals

independently; recognizing her strengths and weaknesses by evaluating the result of her

learning; expanding her learning opportunities; and having high expectations of herself as

a learner.

Evidence and Discussion of Yana’s Use of Learning Strategies

The information concerning the use of learning strategies was obtained from

Yana’s biweekly questionnaires, where the four strategies—memory, cognitive,

compensation, and social—had to be compared from the point of view of their use in

class and online on the scale of 1 (worst) to 5 (best). At the beginning of the semester,

Yana was rating most of the strategies equally in class and online. However, by the

middle of the semester her ratings showed a growing use of the four sets of strategies

online, while their use in class either remained unchanged or, in some instances,

decreased. During this investigation, Yana consistently reported doing more writing,

interaction, and overall study online than in the classroom. As she was becoming more

independent in regulating her learning and relying more on the Web site than on class

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work for her learning needs, there appeared a clear tendency to use more strategies in the

online environment.

Memory strategies. Memory strategies were the only group that Yana

immediately started using more online than in class. Table 6 shows the use of each

specific strategy in this category in the traditional and online environment and their

biweekly average.

Table 6 Yana’s Biweekly Evaluations of the Use of Memory Strategies

Weeks 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10

The use of: T O T O T O T O T O

Associating 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 4 3 4

New words in context 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5

Imagery 5 5 2 4 3 4 3 3 3 3

Keywords 4 4 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5

Reviewing 2 5 2 4 3 5 3 5 3 5

Biweekly average 3.6 4.6 3 4.4 3.2 4.6 3.2 4.4 3.2 4.4

Note. The data show evaluations on the scale of 1 (worst) through 5 (best). T = traditional environment; O = online environment. In spite of the differences in the average use of these strategies in class and online,

some of them received equal evaluation at the beginning of the semester. Namely,

associating and using imagery and keywords evidently had identical use in the first two

weeks while Yana was still adjusting to the new learning format. These numbers changed

in her later reports, particularly the use of imagery which decreased in both

environments. In contrast, placing new words in context and reviewing material were

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more applicable to the online learning as indicated by their higher values which remained

stable throughout the semester.

Figure 3 illustrates the differences in Yana’s use of memory strategies. It also

indicates to what extent they were required in class and online. However, this study did

not allow for predicting whether these strategies would be used in the same amount by

other learners due to individual differences in learning styles which were not included in

this study.

0

1

2

3

4

5

1 2 3 4 5

Bi-weekly

Avera

ge

Class

Online

Figure 3. Bar graph showing Yana’s use of memory strategies in class and online.

Cognitive strategies. In the first two weeks, there was no difference in the use of

cognitive strategies in class and online. At that time, Yana was still expecting direct

instruction and was only beginning to discover the benefits of having the class Web site.

When the initiation stage was over, the situation began to change dramatically. Yana’s

responses showed that she was applying cognitive strategies online to a much greater

extent than in class, where their use was gradually decreasing. Based on the data in Table

7, the middle of the semester was the point when all the cognitive strategies started

receiving the highest score. At the same time, the same strategies in class were either

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rated lower or maintained the same value. However, none of them matched their online

counterparts.

Table 7 Yana’s Biweekly Evaluations of the Use of Cognitive Strategies

Weeks 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10

The use of: T O T O T O T O T O

Repeating 4 2 3 4 2 5 2 5 3 5

Recognizing 4 3 4 4 4 5 3 5 3 5

Adding resources 3 3 2 5 3 5 3 5 3 5

Analyzing 3 5 3 4 3 5 3 5 4 5

Summarizing 4 4 4 5 3 5 3 5 3 5

Biweekly average 3.6 3.4 3.2 4.4 3 5 2.8 5 3.2 5

Note. The data show evaluations on the scale of 1 (worst) through 5 (best). T = traditional environment; O = online environment.

The middle of the semester coincided with the changes in Yana’s self-

directedness which helped her discover a number of advantages in the hybrid format. No

longer limiting her learning to class, she started using the learning opportunities provided

by the Web site and had to apply more cognitive strategies online (see Figure 4).

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1 2 3 4 5

Bi-weekly

Avera

ge

Class

Online

Figure 4. Bar graph showing Yana’s use of cognitive strategies in class and online.

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Compensation strategies. Just as cognitive strategies, compensation strategies had

a pattern of increasing online and decreasing in class. There was a small difference in

their use until Yana’s third evaluation, when compensation strategies reached their

highest level online and began to slide in class. However, their use in the two

environments did not differ as greatly as the use of memory and cognitive strategies, and

the individual values in this category did not change as dramatically within the same

environment as in the other two sets of strategies (see Table 8).

Table 8 Yana’s Biweekly Evaluations of the Use of Compensation Strategies

Weeks 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10

The use of: T O T O T O T O T O

Language clues 4 3 5 5 4 5 3 4 3 4

Native language 3 4 1 2 3 4 3 4 3 4

Help from experts 5 5 5 5 3 4 3 4 4 4

Communication 3 3 3 4 4 4 3 5 4 5

Message adjustment 3 4 4 4 3 4 3 4 3 4

Average 3.6 3.8 3.6 4 3.4 4.2 3 4.2 3.4 4.2

Note. The data show evaluations on the scale of 1 (worst) through 5 (best). T = traditional environment; O = online environment. A few observations can be made based on these data. The use of language clues

first grew and then decreased in both environments, while the use of the native language

showed the opposite pattern. In the last two reports, both of these strategies received

identical scores in class and online. My interviews with Yana helped to clarify this

fluctuation. Reading online required serious work with vocabulary. Initially, she was

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using her English-Russian dictionary to translate only those words that caused the most

difficulty understanding the text. At that time, using language clues was sufficient for

general understanding of the material. As complexity of the reading was increasing, this

strategy could not satisfy her needs. She started using dictionaries in both electronic and

paper formats in order to understand the reading in detail. This change was reflected in

her evaluation of the two strategies.

Another strategy that decreased over time is getting help from experts. In this

case, an expert was considered either the instructor or the peer who knew more about the

subject. The high scores in class and online in the first two reports were evidently

affected by the excitement of studying in the new environment and meeting new people.

During that time, Yana was still uncomfortable using English to communicate with

others. She felt that she did not know as much as her classmates, and everyone who had

more confidence seemed to be an expert. The situation changed when she became more

objective and confident in her abilities, which reflected in a relative stability in the use of

compensation strategies in class and online (see Figure 5).

0

1

2

3

4

5

1 2 3 4 5

Bi-weekly

Avera

ge

Class

Series2

Figure 5. Bar graph showing Yana’s use of compensation strategies in class and online.

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Although this study did not pursue the purpose of establishing the factors

affecting different variables, it is appropriate to mention that these results might also stem

from the versatile nature of this category. Unlike memory and cognitive strategies that

require specific learning conditions, compensation strategies are commonly used in any

situation where human interaction is involved. In Yana’s case, interaction online,

especially in the second half of the semester, was obviously slightly above her interaction

in class.

Social strategies. This set of strategies showed the most diverse pattern among the

four. Both environments received identical average scores in the first two reports even

though some specific strategies were evaluated differently. Moreover, there was a

simultaneous decrease in their use in class and online in the second evaluation, following

which there was a sudden increase online, while the situation in class remained

unchanged until the last two weeks of the course (see Table 9).

Table 9 Yana’s Biweekly Evaluations of the Use of Social Strategies

Weeks 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10

The use of: T O T O T O T O T O

Asking to clarify 4 4 3 3 2 4 2 4 3 3

Asking to correct 3 4 2 4 2 3 2 5 4 5

Cooperating 3 1 3 2 3 5 2 3 3 3

Communicating with more proficient speakers 3 3 3 2 4 5 4 4 4 4

Developing cultural understanding 2 3 3 3 2 4 4 5 4 5

Average 3 3 2.8 2.8 2.6 4.2 2.8 4.2 3.6 4

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Note. The data show evaluations on the scale of 1 (worst) through 5 (best). T = traditional environment; O = online environment.

The overall use of social strategies online increased in the course of the study. In

particular, asking for clarification showed a big change from being equally used in class

and online to being mostly used online. It occurred in the second half of the semester,

when Yana expanded her online activity. Her rates for asking for corrections online,

however, remained consistently higher throughout the course as a result of being engaged

in the blog discussions. This observation agrees with Yana’s learning philosophy, which

implies learning from her peers among other sources of knowledge. On the other hand,

cooperating online showed a slow progress from the start. It took time for Yana to

develop a sense of belonging to the online community. There were times when she did

not feel much enthusiasm for learning on the part of her classmates. As she admitted in

one of the interviews, she did not want to impose on people who did not share her

interests. A team player herself, she did not always find the team’s support.

0

1

2

3

4

5

1 2 3 4 5

Bi-weekly

Avera

ge

Class

Online

Figure 6. Bar graph showing changes in Yana’s use of social strategies in class and online.

Figure 6 illustrates that Yana’s use of social strategies maintained a low level in

class until the end of the semester. Mainly, this increase came as a result of higher scores

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for clarification, correction, and cooperation in the last report. Due to the limitations of

the study, it was impossible to analyze the factors that might have contributed to this

change. However, one possibility should be mentioned here. According to Yana’s

interviews, social interaction online was generally freer and less restrictive, thus creating

a platform for an open discussion. In this environment, it was easier to forget the natural

fears and intimidations of a second language learner. During this time, she increased the

use of social strategies online, which helped her gain confidence in face-to-face

situations. This confidence eventually transferred to her learning in class, where she was

able to apply more social strategies as well.

Comparison of Yana’s Use of Learning Strategies

The data indicate that all four learning strategies found more application in the

online environment than in the traditional one. Figure 7 allows for comparison of the

overall use of these learning strategies by showing the average numbers of the biweekly

sums of values in each set of strategies used in class and online. In addition, there is a

total number representing the use of each strategy in both environments.

0

20

40

60

Class

Online

Both

Class 16.2 15.8 17 14.8

Online 22.4 22.8 20.4 18.2

Both 38.6 38.6 37.4 33

memory cognitive compens social

Figure 7. Bar graph showing the differences in Yana’s use of strategies in the hybrid format.

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According to these data, Yana most frequently relied on memory, cognitive, and

compensation strategies. The first two categories were especially prominent in the online

environment but had the same total of the use in class and online. Social strategies

occupied the last place; however, they should not be disregarded in this case. Given that

Yana’s level of English proficiency, especially her communication skills, was lower than

other students’, it was more effective and convenient for her to work on her English using

memory and cognitive skills. The earlier analysis mentions the increase in the use of

social strategies online which provided a safe forum for someone with limited verbal

means. However, since online communication occurred in the written form, it required

sufficient knowledge of grammar and syntax which would not have been developed

without memory and cognitive strategies.

Summary of Case 1

Yana’s experience in the hybrid course gave much evidence of personal and

academic success. The online component of the course not only increased her study time

but also provided her with the tools and information that were not included in the

syllabus. The continuing cycles of classroom and online learning activities enhanced

every aspect of her experience as a student and produced the results that exceeded even

her own expectation. For Yana, the hybrid format was the most powerful learning

mechanism in her long-time educational experience.

My collaboration with Yana allowed me to collect the data that have direct

bearing on the research questions of the study.

What features characterize changes in Yana’s writing in the hybrid EAP course?

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The most obvious feature indicating the change in Yana’s writing was style and

organization. There was also a noticeable improvement in writing mechanics –grammar,

spelling, and punctuation – and general language use. The content of her writing became

better developed and the volume of writing increased.

What evidence of Yana’s self-directedness was present in the hybrid program?

Yana’s self-directedness in this course was found in her improved ability to

regulate her learning process. The first changes occurred in setting achievable learning

goals and concrete steps to reaching them. These organizational strategies helped her

develop and carry out her plans independently. Having high expectations of herself as a

learner, she was critical in her evaluation of the results of her learning activities and

worked hard on her weaknesses. As Yana was gaining experience managing her time and

study, she began expanding her learning opportunities by seeking additional information

and resources on topics of her own choice.

Which learning strategies (memory, cognitive, compensation, or social) did Yana

prefer to use more in this type of environment?

Yana used all four groups of strategies; however, due to her low communication

skills, she relied more on memory, cognitive, and compensation strategies and less on

social ones.

Case 2: Gio— “The Outsider”

It is interesting to read what other people post. Sometimes I see different opinions and experiences. But I would rather work on what I think I have missed before: grammar and punctuation. I just don’t see how online interaction can help me with that.

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Just as many South American immigrants, Gio came to the US seven years ago

thinking that “the land of opportunities” will have something for her too. In her country,

Peru, she was studying communication systems at the university. Not seeing many

possibilities for employment at home, she opted for the American dream. Here, however,

the reality was much harder than she imagined. Not having proper language skills, she

tried many manual jobs until she found her current employment at the Catholic charity

organization, where she works as a Spanish editor. Her use of the language outside of

class is limited to some oral communication at work. This explains the fact that even after

six semesters of ESL, she has very poor knowledge of grammar.

At first, I could not understand Gio’s personality and her approach to learning.

She seemed to be evenly pleasant and friendly with everyone, but her friendliness would

stop when learning was involved. Working in a group, she would isolate herself and not

contribute to the task. It was as if there was an invisible wall between her and her

classmates. Because she had serious gaps in the English grammar, she wanted more

attention from me in class than other students (I wonder if this was the reason why she

volunteered to participate in the study). Her questions were often unrelated to the topic of

the lesson, which would put me in a difficult position since the class time was precious.

Online, her blog posts were brief, with no reference to reading or connection with her life

experiences. This position of non-involvement either in class or online interactions made

me think of her as an outsider.

Then one day, working on her in-class writing assignment to contrast the changes

in lifestyle before and after moving to the US, Gio wrote that as a child she used to be

treated like a princess. Her hardworking parents made sure that she never had to do

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anything for herself. In her paragraph she lamented the need to take care of herself and go

to school at the same time. Whether it was the result of her upbringing or some other

reason, Gio’s exaggerated feeling of self-worth made her self-centered and uncooperative

both in class and online. However, in her position of an outsider, she excluded herself

from many learning opportunities that could come from free exchange of ideas and

collaboration.

Hybrid Course through the Eyes of the Outsider

For Gio, like for everyone else in class, combining class and online study was a

new format of learning. The first few weeks were an important period of adjusting and

developing a routine of following the weekly assignments online. I was not concerned

when I did not find many blog comments from Gio during that time. However, in spite of

the challenge of the experience, Gio had no problems understanding the organization of

the course.

We are doing things in steps, which is unusual for me. We start with reading and discussion, and then write the 1st draft and get your comments for corrections. Then we also get some corrections with the final draft.

One of the difficulties for Gio was recognizing her own weaknesses. Having

completed six semesters of ESL, she believed that she could handle the precollege

English course. The first unpleasant discovery was that speaking English fast does not

guarantee good writing.

When I started this course, I felt like I was not catching up. There were so many things to learn and review. I suddenly had to worry about grammar and writing. It’s frustrating to know that I have missed so much before and now I have to do all of it at once.

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However, Gio’s main difficulty was to accept the Web site in the capacity it was

designed for: writing extension. She realized that it was impossible to master the writing

conventions without a strong grammar foundation, “In writing I have to use all the

grammar that I normally don’t notice when I speak.” Yet it took me almost the entire

semester to convince her to start using the self-study resources where she could find all

the topics she needed. In her interview in Week 8-9, when she became frustrated with

lack of progress, she finally reported that she used the online grammar section, and (yes!)

it was helpful.

With just as much reluctance she was participating in the blog discussions.

Instead of the required four posts per week, there was usually one in which she would

briefly touch upon the discussion questions. She never addressed anyone online or

commented on someone else’s posts. Her typical explanations were having problems with

the posting procedure, which was far from reality. When I kept insisting that she send her

posts directly to me, she admitted that she simply did not know how to communicate with

other students.

I didn’t participate much because I just don’t know what to add to the discussion. When I prepare my piece, I see that most people have already answered all the questions and are discussing something else, and I don’t know how to fit in. Generally, it is easier for me to work by myself.

Although Gio herself did not participate much, she appreciated having access to

the bank of ideas where she could find something new and include it in her writing

assignment. Yet, overall, not fitting in affected much of Gio’s learning experience. Her

writing skills did not receive enough support in the limited class time, so she developed

her own approach to the blog assignments. While the intention of the blog was to give an

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opportunity for learning through interaction and acquiring new information along with

practicing writing, for Gio it became a form of writing a rough draft, “When I answer all

the discussion questions in writing, I feel better prepared to write my assignment.”

Throughout the course, Gio remained true to her philosophy of an outsider.

Although she realized that the Web site gave her more opportunities for learning, she

used only a small part of them because to do otherwise would require deep changing in

her views and learning style. In comparison with Yana, for whom hybrid learning was

exciting and joyful mainly due to the interactions with others, for Gio this experience was

alien and insignificant.

I can’t say that collaborating is really my style of learning. I have always studied by myself and for myself. I don’t know what I can get from interaction because I don’t know what to expect from other people.

Not surprisingly, in Gio’s case, the hybrid course did not yield much progress in

writing skills. Limiting her interactions with other students, she also restricted her

language production and missed the essential part of learning that comes from

collaborative construction of knowledge.

Evidence and Discussion of Changes in Gio’s Writing Skills

Gio’s writing skills were developing slowly and did not show much improvement.

Her writing assignments completed in and out of class, which I collected throughout the

semester, were full of errors that often interfered with clarity of her ideas. At the

beginning of the course, I noticed that her grammar and syntax were at the level of a

Level 3-4 student, whereas the EAP program requires minimum Level 5-6 of language

proficiency. It posed a serious problem in spite of the fact that she had sufficient

vocabulary and verbal communication skill. This course did not deal specifically with the

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English grammar. Aside from a few grammar review sections that were given as support

to certain types of paragraphs (e.g., comparative adjectives for paragraphs of comparison

and contrast), the course textbook was focused on the organizational aspect of writing. It

was obvious that Gio would have to be willing to spend many hours learning what she

had missed before. Some positive changes did take place, but at the end of the course Gio

was far from feeling victorious. Table 10 compares the features in Gio’s writing in the

first and the last quarters (see Appendix C for samples of Gio’s writing).

Table 10 Comparison of Gio’s Writing in First and Last Quarter

Code Problem First quarter Last quarter

CI Controlling

idea

CI is poorly formulated CI is generally clear but may be affected by

syntax errors

D Development D is insufficient to support CI &

lacks logical sequence

D follows CI most of the time but needs

more supporting details & examples; better

organization & logical sequence

LF Language

forms

Confusion in LF; written

language production is limited

Problems in choice of LF continue

WO Syntax Multiple problems in

punctuation & clauses; confusing

WO & sentence structure

No significant improvement in punctuation;

some improvement in sentence structure

Grammar &

spelling

Many errors in tenses,

prepositions & agreement;

multiple spelling errors

No significant improvement in grammar, but

some improvement in spelling

Average grade 65 (D) 75 (C)

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The only noticeable change in Gio’s writing was paragraph organization. At the

beginning of the course, her controlling idea was difficult to identify because of the

confusing sentence structure. Staying focused on the controlling idea and organizing the

supporting details was another problematic area. These aspects of writing improved

throughout the course. However, several problems remained. Among them, grammar and

syntax were the most serious obstacles to good writing. Many of her mistakes in the use

of tenses and punctuation were fossilized and required a strenuous effort to relearn. More

work was also needed on paragraph development. Although Gio understood the

principles of organization and learned to follow her controlling idea, her writing tended to

include too little information to provide sufficient support to the point she was making.

The following samples of Gio’s writing show some of the problems mentioned above.

Sample 1

I considered Plagiarism a crime for two reasons, one because people are not honest and two plagiarism people gain their degree with low acknowledge of their career. Students not honest are going to pass their graded with out effort. Plagiarism is a bad habit and it does help the students to be a good professional in their future. You all know classes are hard, but you need to be creative and honest with our teachers. You can always make research in the internet, but copy some job done, is be not sincere with your self and with your teacher. If you are a plagiarism in your class will show when you finish your career and be a bad professional. Also is going to be hard to work and don't have a good skills.

Sample 1 presents the entire paragraph written in Week 1. Gio’s topic sentence is

written poorly and the rest of the paragraph is difficult to follow because there is no

logical connection between sentences or conclusion. The paragraph is full of errors of all

sorts, and the meaning is obscured in some parts: to pass their graded (to pass their

courses); copy some job done, is be not sincere (copying other people’s job means not

being sincere). The grammatical mistakes are intermixed with wrong choice of words:

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plagiarism people (people who plagiarize); finish your career (finish your degree or

study). There are also multiple errors in punctuation and sentence structure. Most of these

problems remained in Gio’s writing throughout the course even though her organization

improved.

Sample 2

As an immigrant of U.S. and base in my own experience I can name three cause of immigration, political persecution, economic reasons, and lack of opportunities for professionals in our native countries. The first reason why people left their country is political persecution, in case of my country, Peru, a decade ago many people desided to run away from there because, the terrorist issue. Many families got kill, bussineses were destroyed and universities were invade for these groups. People have to move on and find other places to live, a lot of them found political asylum in united State. The second cause is economic problems, and this is one of the most important issues in my country, people don’t make enoght money to paid rent, buy their food and buy clothes, so if somebody has the chance to came here, they will definily do it. The excerpt from Gio’s paragraph in Week 4 shows improvement in presenting

the controlling idea and developing it step-by-step. Compared with the previous example,

it is easier to follow Gio’s ideas in this paragraph. However, there are still many errors,

particularly in verb forms, spelling, and punctuation. She has the tendency of overusing

commas, which sometimes makes it hard to recognize her thought pattern. In this sense,

Gio is a typical representative of South American learners. The use of prepositions is also

borrowed from her native language: base in my experience (based on my experience);

were invade for these groups (were invaded by these groups). Therefore, improvement in

the organization was only a small step compared to the overall quality of her writing.

Sample 3

Going to college is never late; if you never have the opportunity to be a traditional student you can still be a nontraditional student. Here are some differences and few similarities you need to know. Age, social and family status, experiences, and

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schedule are the differences. And the similarities are, the reason for study, previous education, and academic needs. Traditional students are 17 to 25 years old; they usually go to college when they finish high school. While, nontraditional students are older than 25 years. A lot of traditional students, have a very active social life, a lot of friends and parties. On the other hand, nontraditional students are busy working and some of them have family, wife and children, they don’t have time to socialized. Traditional students don’t have much experience about life, while nontraditional do. Sample 3, which is taken from Week 8 writing assignment, shows one of the

better examples of Gio’s writing. The controlling idea is clear from the beginning even

though it is presented in three choppy sentences. Throughout the paragraph, Gio

maintains focus on similarities and differences between two categories of students. All

her discussion points are also clear but need more supporting details. There are still many

errors in punctuation which were impossible to eliminate in one semester. However, this

paragraph differs from the ones written in the previous weeks. Gio tried to change her

way of expressing her thoughts. Instead of the usual crowded sentences, she used simple

structures and transition words to connect her ideas. Her new approach helped her

achieve a better result and eliminate some of the confusion due to poor syntax.

Unlike Gio’s paragraph writing, her blog posts did not show any improvement.

Gio herself did not consider this aspect of the course an important part of her learning

experience. My attempts to convince her otherwise were met with passive resistance. All

her responses were posted at once, carelessly written, and based mostly on her personal

opinions instead of the required reading. Without the important link between reading and

writing, her acquisition of the new concepts, vocabulary, and general language use was

slow.

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Not having sufficient practice in processing and producing the language, Gio did

not increase the volume of her writing over time, as can be seen in Table 11. Her

paragraphs were written in a skeleton-like manner, providing barely enough information

to support the controlling idea. Even her assignment for Week 11, which was the first

essay of the course, was the size of her average paragraph. This tendency to limit her

language production indicates that her writing performance suffered not only from

grammar and syntax problems but also from lack of general knowledge.

Table 11 Changes in Gio’s Writing throughout the Course

Weeks 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Words/ blog n/a 175 240 191 169 n/a 420 194 308 114 317

Words/ paragr. 133 206 255 312 286 320 230 216 485 270 280

Grade 65 65 65 70 68 64 69 74 78 76 69

Summary of changes in Gio’s writing. Gio approached writing as a drill that could

help her pass the test rather than an important part of learning the language. By isolating

writing from reading, she eliminated the foundation for thought development and limited

her exposure to proper language models. She also avoided using it for communication,

which would have helped her make an easier transition to using the new concepts,

vocabulary, and grammar forms in her own language production. Thus, the most

problematic areas, grammar and syntax, remained at the same level throughout the

course. Gio’s approach to learning did not allow her to make better progress either in

writing or in overall language acquisition.

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There were some positive changes in Gio’s writing which were noticed in better

paragraph organization, sentence structure, and spelling. These improvements, however,

were outweighed by the fossilized errors in grammar, punctuation, and general language

use. Overall, the changes in Gio’s writing in the hybrid course can be characterized by

better presentation of controlling idea and paragraph organization; better sentence

structure; and better spelling.

Evidence and Discussion of Gio’s Self-Directedness in Learning

My first impression of Gio’s level of self-directedness was received from her

intake questionnaire. I was surprised to see the discrepancy between the highest values

given to the purpose of learning and rather modest evaluation of the factors of academic

success and the reason for using technology. It occurred to me that Gio’s goals did not

match her understanding how to reach them. Analyzing her evaluation of self as a learner,

which directly relates to self-directedness, I noticed that all item except the one referring

to working hard were evaluated rather low. I began to realize that Gio may not have a

clear vision of her learning needs and ways of regulating her learning process.

The following items on Gio’s intake questionnaire, which received the highest

score on the scale of 1 (least like me) to 5 (most like me), referred to the purpose of

learning:

1. The primary purpose of my learning is (b) to get a better job; (c) to contribute to

society; (d) to become successful; and (e) to support my family.

2. The success of my learning in this program depends on (b) my study at home.

3. The most important reason for using technology in this program is that it (a) helps

me learn things faster; (b) helps me effectively accomplish my goals in this class;

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(c) allows me to do my assignments independently; (d) gives me opportunities to

learn more; and (e) allows me to learn at my own pace.

4. The following sentence describes me as a learner in this program: (b) I can reach

any goal if I work hard.

According to Gio’s intake questionnaire, she saw learning as an important aspect

of her professional, social, and family life and understood the necessity of studying on

her own in order to achieve success. Technology seemed to be a very useful tool in her

overall learning experiences. However, there was also an indication of lack of self-

efficacy. Gio did not believe that she could be successful learning new things

independently. Making and carrying out decisions, as well as planning and evaluating her

own learning progress, did not apply to her as a learner to a great extent. Least of all, she

was able to identify her own strengths and weaknesses. Thus, at the beginning of the

semester, Gio was not prepared to regulate her learning and was facing an additional

challenge of mastering the skill of analyzing her own performance.

As a participant in this study, Gio was completing weekly self-evaluations (see

Appendix D), which helped me observe not only her learning progress but also the way

she was dealing with the difficulties. Planning appeared to be the main part where Gio

failed as a self-directed learner. While it was easy enough for her to see the end result of

her weekly activities, choosing the appropriate direction and steps to reach it was largely

misunderstood. In fact, her goals and steps were redundant most of the time and did not

show what exactly she wanted to achieve during the week or which direction she wanted

to pursue. Having noticed her trouble planning her weekly goals and objectives, I tried to

correct the situation by giving Gio (and other participants) a sample of a completed self-

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evaluation form, but it had no effect. Her planning sections reflected only her immediate

problems (most often her grammar), which made me believe that Gio did not have a

broad perspective of her learning.

Comparing Gio’s self-evaluations with the actual performance, I also noticed the

tendency to exaggerate the results. For instance, in Week 6, she was planning to improve

her online interaction skills and reported a slight progress in this area (see Appendix D).

However, there was only one blog post from her that week and no interaction with any of

her classmates. Perhaps the very fact that she did answer some discussion questions

seemed as an accomplishment to her. Yet there is a clear indication that Gio initially did

not know what she wanted to achieve each week and, therefore, was unable to set the

goals that would allow her to make a steady progress. Since she was only spending about

five hours working online, so there was no significant outcome to analyze. It is also

possible that she did not see the importance of planning and analyzing her learning; as a

result, the first section of her self-evaluation form was always vague, and the second one

was not given much thought to. The pattern of Gio’s self-evaluations does not show a

significant progress in her independent study (see Figure 8). Even in her most successful

weeks, it does not reach the highest point which indicates lack of effort and motivation to

do better. Another observation in this case is that it demonstrates a series of rises and

falls. Each time the level of satisfaction went up, a sharp slide followed. In other words,

every time Gio made some progress, she took a break from learning until she noticed the

decrease in her grades, which motivated her to start working harder again.

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2.2

2.4

2.6

2.8

3

3.2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

weeks

Self

-evalu

ati

on

Series1

Figure 8. Line graph showing changes in Gio’s weekly self-evaluations during the hybrid course.

The same pattern can be seen in her biweekly evaluations of her learning

experiences (see Table 12). The inconsistency of Gio’s learning activities can explain the

recurrent problems in grammar and writing she was facing throughout the course. These

problems are also reflected in her self-evaluations, but with little effort to make

improvement. For instance, early in the semester, she realized that she did not have a

strong grammar background. Her most troublesome area was the use of past participles of

both regular and irregular verbs in Past Simple and the Passive Voice. Almost every

planning section mentioned these forms as the problems she wanted to overcome and

every time her self-evaluation was unsatisfactory. The reason was also frequently

indicated among the things she would do differently next week: make time for

homework, spend more time practicing, organize my time better, etc. Thus, in addition to

lack of clear goals, there was a time management issue, which hindered her learning

progress.

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Table 12 Summary of Gio’s Experiences, Self-Evaluation, and Writing Progress

Week 2-3 Week 4-5 Week 6-7 Week 8-9 Week 10-11

Online reading 4.25 3.0 4.5 4.0 3.0

Online writing 4.0 2.5 3.5 3.0 2.5

Self-directedness 2.75 2.75 2.5 2.75 2.62

Word count Mid-term average End-of-term average

Blog

Paragraph

194

252

271

296

Grade 66 73.6

Gio’s biweekly learning experiences questionnaires did not improve my

impression of her ability to regulate her learning. Although most of the time, she

indicated that combining traditional and online learning gave her more learning

opportunities, some of the items referring to being self-directed in this process were

marked low in both environments. In particular, she did not see the way of using her full

potential as a learner either in class or online. Based on Gio’s performance in this course

she was neither using her full potential not regulating her learning, which resulted in her

slow progress in this course as can be seen in Table 12.

The biweekly average scores in Table 12 do not show significant progress in any

of the given areas which confirms that even though Gio preferred the hybrid format to the

traditional one, her online practice did not gain improvements in her language skills since

it was done aimlessly. In her interviews, Gio confirmed that writing was a challenge for

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me, but as a learner she would rather get direct help from the instructor than choose her

own path of dealing with the problem.

Summary of Gio’s self-directedness. Gio’s progress in this course was not a

steady climb to the summit. This includes her development as a self-directed learner as

well as her performance in all areas. Some indication of poor self-efficacy was given in

her intake questionnaire. Gio’s low scores for describing herself as a learner suggested

that she did not have a high opinion of her abilities to be successful academically and,

therefore, did not have high expectations of her performance in this program from the

beginning. This assumption was later confirmed by her self-evaluations and reflections

on her biweekly learning experiences.

I had to look at Gio’s experiences from a different point of view and explain her

choice of the outsider’s position as an attempt to hide her insecurities and learning

problems. Gio’s situation is typical more many students who realize that changes are

necessary but are afraid to disrupt their comfort zone. Regardless of the abundance of

self-study resources and reading and writing opportunities, very little of her planning

involved these experiences. There were also no additional topics that would show Gio’s

personal interests in some areas. In fact, this part of the planning section mentioned

writing as things she wanted to learn in general. Unlike some of her classmates who read

more than the assignment required and shared their personal discoveries in the blog

discussions, Gio never made such contributions let alone planned them out of pure

curiosity.

Thus, in Gio’s case, there was no indication that she knew how to set her learning

goals, determine the objectives, plan steps to reaching her goal, or critically analyze her

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performance. There could be a number of reasons that prevented Gio from exploring her

learning potential such as fear of making mistakes, fear of sharing, poor study skills and

critical thinking skills, lack of experience analyzing her own performance, etc. However,

due to the limitation of this study, it was impossible to produce evidence as to what

caused Gio’s learning problems. One thing is clear: her position of an outsider was

detrimental to her as a person and a learner, which is obvious from comparing her

progress with that of the students who were consistently using the Web site for

communication and learning (Al-Jarf, 2002).

In summary, there was negative evidence of Gio’s self-directedness which

included inability to visualize the ultimate learning goal; plan skills to set immediate

goals and reach them independently; recognize her strengths and weaknesses; and

critically evaluate the result of her learning. Her lack of learning skills and interest in

learning beyond the given task also hindered her learning progress.

Evidence and Discussion of Gio’s Use of Learning Strategies

Gio’s biweekly evaluation of her use of memory, cognitive, compensation, and

social strategies completed my understanding of her learning difficulties. First of all, very

few items in these groups of strategies received the highest value of 5 (on the scale of 1 to

5), which indicated that Gio was not applying all her effort either in class or online.

Second, there were periods of improvement, which coincided with her higher learning

activity in general and were followed with a decrease on all points. This pattern of her

learning strategies matched the data on other research questions. Some of Gio’s choices

identified her preference to use these strategies either in traditional or online format of

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learning. Overall, there was a slight increase in the use of strategies online; however, the

difference was rather small.

Memory strategies. The data on memory strategies show that Gio used more of

them in class than online. Based on the biweekly average values, the use of memory

strategies online decreased in the second half of the semester, when Gio’s online activity

slowed down. Some items in this set of strategies reflect Gio’s learning skills in general.

Associating and placing new words in context stayed at almost the same level in both

environments throughout the course, which suggests that neither of them was used much

to memorize new words and structures (see Table 13). On the other hand, reviewing was

evaluated slightly higher online in the first three periods, when Gio did more independent

work, and decreased toward the end of the course along with the rest of the values.

Table 13 Gio’s Biweekly Use of Memory Strategies

Weeks 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10

The use of: T O T O T O T O T O

Associating 3 4 3 4 3 3 4 3 4 3

New words in context 4 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3

Imagery 3 1 5 3 3 2 2 2 5 3

Keywords 4 3 4 2 3 4 2 2 4 2

Reviewing 3 4 3 4 3 4 5 3 3 3

Biweekly average 3.4 3 3.6 3.2 2.8 3.2 3.2 2.6 3.8 2.8

Note. The biweekly evaluations of memory strategies were performed on the scale of 1 (worst) to 5 (best). T = traditional environment; O = online environment.

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Figure 9 illustrates the differences in Gio’s use of memory strategies in class and

online on the biweekly basis. Evidently, the peak of her independent work online falls in

the middle of the semester, when her weekly plans included reading and working with

vocabulary. The rest of the semester, she practiced mostly grammar online, and memory

strategies clearly prevailed in class, where the instruction involved all items in this set.

0

1

2

3

4

1 2 3 4 5

Bi-weekly

Avera

ge

Class

Online

Figure 9. Bar graph showing changes in Gio’s use of memory strategies in class and online.

Cognitive strategies. Cognitive strategies showed the most stable pattern of online

application of all the four sets. The only exception was the first two weeks of the

semester, when Gio was adjusting to learning in the new format. Although her online

study was not as intensive as other students’, it clearly required more concentration and

critical thinking than her study in class. As a result, her biweekly average values online

exceeded those in class, as shown in Table 14.

Based on these values, repeating appears to have more use in class than online,

which indicates that Gio did not do much reviewing on her own. Recognizing, on the

other hand, received equal evaluation in both environments in three out of five biweekly

periods. The low values for this item may be explained by the fact that most of the

material in this course was new to Gio. However, it is unlikely, given that she had taken

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six semesters of ESL before this course. Another possibility is that she could not

recognize the language forms visually like many people who learned English through

verbal communication. These assumptions, however, were not included in the

investigation. Among the last three items in this set, only adding resources and

summarizing were given higher values for the use online. These strategies relate to

practicing grammar online and preparing blog posts.

Table 14 Gio’s Biweekly Evaluations of the Use of Cognitive Strategies

Weeks 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10

The use of: T O T O T O T O T O

Repeating 4 3 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 3

Recognizing 3 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 3 3

Adding resources 4 2 4 5 2 3 2 4 4 5

Analyzing 3 3 2 3 3 4 3 3 2 3

Summarizing 2 4 3 4 2 3 3 4 3 4

Biweekly average 3.2 2.8 3.2 3.6 2.4 3.2 2.6 3.4 3.2 3.6

Note. The biweekly evaluations of memory strategies were performed on the scale of 1 (worst) to 5 (best). T = traditional environment; O = online environment. As shown in Figure 10, Gio used more cognitive strategies online than in class.

However, it is also obvious that the use of these strategies increased in the second period

and decreased in the third one in both environments. This pattern suggests that either the

difficulty of the material required more effort or Gio herself exercised more self-

discipline to complete her assignments.

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0

1

2

3

4

1 2 3 4 5

Bi-weekly

Avera

ge

Class

Online

Figure 10. Bar graph showing changes in Gio’s use of cognitive strategies in class and online. Compensation strategies. Compensation strategies were used equally in both

environments in most biweekly periods. However, on two occasions, their stability was

disrupted by a sudden increase online. This rise coincided with the introduction of the

material that required clear understanding. This is obvious in Weeks 3-4 and 9-10, when

the class worked on writing descriptive paragraphs and analyzing causes (see Table 15).

Table 15 Gio’s Biweekly Evaluations of the Use of Compensation Strategies

Weeks 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10

The use of: T O T O T O T O T O

Language clues 3 3 3 4 2 3 3 4 3 4

Native language 1 1 3 4 2 3 2 2 3 3

Help from experts 5 5 4 3 4 4 3 4 4 3

Communication 4 3 3 3 4 3 4 3 3 3

Message adjustment 3 4 2 3 4 3 3 2 2 3

Average 3.2 3.2 3 3.4 3.2 3.2 3 3 3 3.2

Note. The biweekly evaluations of memory strategies were performed on the scale of 1 (worst) to 5 (best). T = traditional environment; O = online environment.

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According to these data, Gio had to do more translating into her native language

in order to understand the online reading in Weeks 3-4 and 9-10. Most of the strategies,

however, remained unchanged throughout the course or even decreased in use. For

example, communicating with peers and adjusting messages had slightly less values

toward the end of the semester. Another feature that stands out among these items is the

decrease in the use of help from the experts (either the instructor or more advanced

peers). Although Gio was regularly receiving feedback from me, she never contacted me

with her questions online, so her values for this strategy indicate not asking for help

rather than not getting help.

The changes in the use of compensation strategies are shown in Figure 11. The

spikes in the online activity in the second and the fifth biweekly periods were due to

switching to the native language. The fourth period, which corresponds to Weeks 7-8,

shows the lowest level since not many of these strategies were needed to work on the

lesson. It should also be noted that many compensation strategies involve

communication. Since Gio was avoiding interacting with peers both in class and online,

most of them were evaluated equally in both environments.

2.8

2.9

3

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

1 2 3 4 5

Bi-weekly

Avera

ge

Class

Online

Figure 11. Bar graph showing changes in Gio’s use of compensation strategies in class and online.

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Social strategies. Analyzing Gio’s use of social strategies, I was expecting to find

more of them in the traditional environment. It was true in most cases, but they were used

more online twice during the semester (see Table 16). Based on Gio’s first interview and

evaluation of her use of social strategies, she immediately noticed the advantages of the

online communication. The first two weeks of the course brought many new experiences,

most of which occurred in the class blog, where the students were introducing themselves

and sharing their future plans. The first blog discussion showed that the same concept

(e.g., plagiarism) can find many personal and cultural points of view. It also revealed

different levels of writing skills. As a result, Gio gave higher values to the last three items

in this set: cooperating, communicating, and developing cultural understanding.

However, she did not feel comfortable asking for clarification online, which explains the

higher value for this item in class.

Table 16 Gio’s Biweekly Evaluations of the Use of Social Strategies

Weeks 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10

The use of: T O T O T O T O T O

Asking to clarify 5 4 4 3 2 4 4 2 4 3

Asking to correct 4 4 3 3 3 4 4 2 4 3

Cooperating 3 4 3 3 3 4 5 2 3 3

Communicating with more proficient speakers 3 4 3 3 4 4 2 2 3 3

Developing cultural understanding 2 4 4 3 4 4 2 2 3 3

Average 3.4 4 3.4 3 3.2 4 3.4 2 3.4 3

Note. The biweekly evaluations of memory strategies were performed on the scale of 1 (worst) to 5 (best). T = traditional environment; O = online environment.

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Another increase in the use of social strategies online took place in the middle of

the semester, when Gio’s overall learning was at its best. During that time, the planning

sections in her weekly self-evaluations included overcoming the fear of communicating

and increasing online interaction. It reflected on the increase of social strategies online.

There were also some improvements in her writing and confidence in her abilities.

However, having reached a slightly higher level in her performance, Gio did not continue

to improve her skills; instead, she reduced her effort which resulted in another slide.

The data for the second half of the semester show a noticeable decrease in the use

of social strategies online, which coincided with the decrease in her online activity and

general performance in all areas. The situation improved in the following period but did

not reach the level of the mid-term or the first week of classes (see Figure 12).

0

1

2

3

4

5

1 2 3 4 5

Bi-weekly

Avera

ge

Class

Online

Figure 12. Bar graph showing changes in Gio’s use of social strategies in class and online. Comparison of Gio’s Use of Learning Strategies

Based on the average sum of values in each set of strategies, it was determined

that memory and social strategies prevailed in traditional learning, while cognitive and

compensations strategies took a slight priority online. All four sets of strategies were used

almost equally in a combination of both environments (see Figure 13).

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0

10

20

30

40

Class

Online

Both

Class 16.8 14.6 15.4 16.8

Online 14.8 16.6 16 16

Both 31.6 31.2 31.6 32.8

memory cognitive compens social

Figure 13. Bar graph showing differences in Gio’s use of strategies in the hybrid format.

Among the four sets, the combined use of social strategies in class and online was

the highest. However, there are no significant differences in values to indicate a clear

preference of one set of strategies over the others.

Summary of Case 2

For Gio, the hybrid course did not bring significant improvement in her language

skills. She was not prepared academically and psychologically to take on the challenges

of independent study that come with e-learning environment. Much of her progress was

affected by the inconsistency of her effort as a student and possibly her low motivation to

study. Although she saw the opportunities for enhancing her language skills and general

knowledge that the course offered, she did not take advantage of them. However, as she

admitted in her later interviews, she would take a hybrid course rather than a traditional

one if she were given a choice.

Based on the collected data, the research questions concerning Gio’s case can be

answered as follows:

What features characterize changes in Gio’s writing in the hybrid EAP course?

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The features that underwent changes in Gio’s writing included better presentation

of the controlling idea and sequencing of the supporting details and a small improvement

in spelling and sentence structure.

What evidence of Gio’s self-directedness was present in the hybrid program?

The data showed that Gio was not able to regulate her learning process due to

inability to set her own goals and objectives, critically evaluate the results of her learning

and make the necessary changes, and poor time management skills.

Which learning strategies (memory, cognitive, compensation, or social) did Gio

prefer to use more in this type of environment?

Gio used all strategies almost equally in a combination of both environments with

a slight preference given to the social ones. In class, memory strategies were used the

most, and cognitive strategies were used the least. However, these two sets were used in

the reversed order online: cognitive strategies were used the most and memory strategies

were used the least.

Case 3: Joe—“The Leader”

I am the kind of person that likes to share what I know. I just never had many opportunities to do it until this course. The experience in this course is very important for me because it gave me the confidence in myself. I know what I have to contribute and how to do it.

Joe’s experience in this course stands out among the others. The dream of

learning and reaching the higher levels of knowledge has always been part of his life, and

there always have been obstacles to making it come true. My first impression of him as a

person who seeks self-improvement through learning was confirmed many times

throughout the course. Whether working in class or online, on a group assignment or

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alone, Joe had to be completely satisfied with the result. In class interactions, he was

always polite and soft-spoken but firm in maintaining his criteria of good work. Perhaps

because he was a little older than most students in his Saturday EAP group, he often

acted as a mentor to those who needed help. Not surprisingly, he soon received a

nickname “Professor.” True, Joe had many qualities of an in-born teacher, but he was

also a good organizer, communicator, and decision maker, which made me think of him

as a leader.

At the age of 39, Joe is an example of a family man who sees himself as a

provider and the head of his household. He has other relatives in the US, and all of them

turn to him for help and advice knowing that they will find both. Between his own work

and study, he coaches a children’s soccer team and finds time to attend his son’s sports

activities and his daughter’s concerts. Joe, like most immigrant parents, is extremely

proud of his children’s success at school and wants to instill the value of education upon

them so that his own dream of learning could materialize in his children.

For Joe, the importance of learning comes from his love of sharing. He was able

to complete only two years of college education in his native country, Peru. However, he

never really stopped learning or abandoned his dream of returning to school. His curiosity

about life and the world made him read and reflect on things he discovered through

reading. In the US, Joe did not escape the drama of many immigrants. Lack of language

skills put him in a low-paid job and limited his educational opportunities, but it did not

change his ideals of personal growth which brought him to WCC. Joe is one of the few

students I met who took consecutively all levels of ESL from 0 to 7. The EAP class was

another step in his learning journey, and there are more to come.

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The Hybrid Course through the Eyes of the Leader

In order to understand Joe’s experiences in this course, it is necessary to point out

two important traits of his character: his motivation to educate himself and his sense of

responsibility for doing it. His desire for self-improvement was the driving force that kept

him looking for more learning opportunities. Having placed himself ahead of the class, he

felt responsible for learning more so that he could be an example to others. Yet in setting

high standards, he was often too inflexible to accept the possibility that errors are a

natural part of the learning process. The contradiction created difficulties at the beginning

of the course. The result of Joe’s first writing assignment was disappointing, which

caused a “writer’s block” in the following week.

I didn’t do much discussion in week 2 because I had a block. I thought that the comments should be written as paragraphs and wanted to be perfect, but it didn’t happen. But in Week 1, I liked using the blog. When you don’t know who is going to read your comment, you feel more responsible for what you write.

The trouble in the first two weeks did not discourage Joe from continuing his

writing effort. Expressing his thoughts both orally and in writing was extremely

important for him both as a way of learning and building self-confidence. He soon

realized that the blog was the place where he could share what he had learned before and

where he would not be judged for occasional imperfections.

Expressing myself orally in class makes me feel that someone might criticize me. I always have to think of the audience that is listening to me. I don’t feel this restriction online. For my learning, it is important for me to express myself freely.

The connection between his inner world and the world around found its

expression through communicating his thoughts online. For Joe, the blog became the

channel for self-expression. The fear of making mistakes was overcome by his natural

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desire to be heard, to be recognized as an individual whose contribution to the

community should be noted and respected. In his interviews, he consistently emphasized

the importance of being seen as a person above all other social roles. The blog helped

him establish this position. Once, Joe created a motto that best summarized his need for

writing: you are what you write.

Expressing myself is extremely important for me. I never had a chance to express all the things I had on my mind before. Doing it, I feel better about myself as a person.

Since his writer’s block in the beginning of the course, Joe went through a big

personal transformation. As the course continued, he found more and more benefits in

blogging. This form of learning from sharing encouraged him to do more reading which

increased his general knowledge. Not limiting his sources to the required reading, he

often searched for additional information which he looked at from his personal

perspective and applied to his life experiences. By doing this, he was able to continue his

leadership online and stir the blog discussion by raising his own questions.

Expressing my thoughts online has become my favorite thing to do. I would like to continue using the blog when the course is over.

Self-confidence was Joe’s main theme while reflecting on his overall learning in

the course and writing progress. Although he completed the highest level of ESL

instruction, he never really used writing as a way of constructing knowledge. Things he

had learned from reading needed a connection with reality in order to acquire form and

meaning. Joe’s initial writing attempts were chaotic and lacked logical sequence. By

constantly translating his thoughts into writing, he was able to improve his writing skills.

Last night I felt so proud of myself. When I started this class, I wasn’t sure I could do what I did yesterday. I can see my progress now. The difficult part was

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selecting and organizing information. I have a lot to say and many ideas to share, but choosing the right things to say is hard. Improving the organization was not the only learning objective for Joe. As every

ESL student, he had to deal with some grammar and punctuation problems, which he

approached vigorously. He was one of the first people in class to use the online self-study

resources and quickly appreciated their convenience and variety.

I still use the textbook. But the online resources are handier and more useful. They give better examples.

Aside from giving Joe his most liberating experiences and satisfaction with his

progress, the blog was also an occasional source of disappointment. The main issue was

not being followed in the discussion. For Joe, sharing his knowledge was necessary not

only as a way of clarifying his own thoughts but also as a way of attracting attention of

his peers. Although he was trying to be compassionate to their challenges, he often

mentioned that would like to see more reaction from his classmates to what he wrote.

I see that I am trying harder than other people and it bothers me that they are indifferent. But those who post on the blog help me think more.

There were also times when the reaction was not what he had wanted to see. In

his self-imposed leadership position, it was difficult for Joe to accept criticism from his

peers. A message of disagreement would show that someone else had a better knowledge

of the subject and, therefore, was seen as a threat to undermine his authority. However,

the conflict in this case was between Joe’s high expectations of himself and the evidence

of being imperfect.

The negative message from Yana bothered me because she didn’t agree with me and it seemed to be a little rude. It was the way she wrote it. There could be a more flexible way of putting. I was trying to find something in her writing to criticize her about, but I couldn’t find anything this week.

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Joe’s sensitivity to other people’s opinions was obvious in class as well as online.

He felt better when he heard positive remarks about his work and suffered when he did

not find support. Striving to be an example to others, he nevertheless remained a typical

ESL student with all the insecurities and vulnerabilities that are caused by the new

cultural and language dimensions. Yet looking at Joe’s progress in this course, I cannot

help but admiring his effort. The most important thing is that Joe himself felt the

transformational power of the hybrid learning experience which gave him the freedom to

play the role that he defined for himself.

Evidence and Discussion of Changes in Joe’s Writing Skills

Writing was an important aspect of learning English for Joe. He worked seriously

on every assignment trying to incorporate the new information he received from reading

and connect it with his personal experiences. This was his first course that focused

specifically on organizing and developing writing. The ESL classes he had attended

helped him acquire a good grammar foundation but did not provide him with skills of

expressing his ideas in a fluent and grammatically correct composition. As a result, at the

beginning of the course, he encountered the difficulty of choosing the right information

for the given task and placing it in a logical sequence. Due to his expansive reading, he

had many things he wanted to share but did not know how to organize them correctly.

Thus, principles of organization in writing immediately became Joe’s priority.

Another challenge was to match the complexity of his Spanish syntax with the

English word order. It was obvious from his manner of speaking and developing

sentences in writing that Joe was accustomed to using long complex sentences in his

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native language. However, his knowledge of the English syntax and vocabulary was

insufficient to accommodate this style. As a result, Joe’s typical writing problems

included sentence structure, punctuation, and choice of vocabulary. These errors were

much harder to deal with than the organizational ones. A more detailed overview of his

problems in writing and the changes that occurred is given in Table 17.

Table 17 Comparison of Joe’s Writing in First and Last Quarters

Code Problem First quarter Last quarter

CI Controlling idea CI is not clear and the paragraph

lacks focus

CI is clear and serves as the focus of the

composition

D Development D does not follow CI;

disorganized, insufficient details

D is thorough & almost always follows CI;

D includes supporting details & examples

LF Language forms LF are wrong for the context Some problems in choice of LF remain

WO Syntax Complex sentences contain many

errors in WO and punctuation

Significant improvement in WO; fewer

errors in punctuation

Grammar &

spelling

Some errors in the use of

prepositions and articles

Some errors in the use of prepositions and

articles remain

Average grade 85.5 (B) 91 (A-)

Joe’s immediate success in writing was the change in paragraph organization. His

first assignment was disorganized and did not follow any specific order. His controlling

idea was vague, so it was difficult for him to stay focused on the point he was trying to

make. However, positive changes could be noticed in the following assignment. He

considered his previous errors and significantly improved his controlling idea and the

way it was developed in the paragraph. This aspect of writing continued to improve

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throughout the semester. Joe learned to plan his writing by preparing an outline which

helped him stay focused and avoid irrelevant information.

Some other problematic areas included syntax and punctuation. He made some

improvements in both but did not completely eradicate these errors. One of the most

persistent problems was the use of prepositions and articles which is the most difficult

part for a second language learner to master. However, his overall understanding of

grammar was better than other students’ in his class, and it allowed him to pay more

attention to the content and organization of his writing. It explains his above average

grades at the beginning of the semester.

The writing samples below demonstrate the changes in Joe’s writing skills. The

complete texts of these paragraphs and Joe’s blog posts can be found in Appendix B.

Sample 1

People from Peru will always remember 22 November 2000 as the day of freedom from a corrupted, massive human violator, and abusive of power government. Peruvian president Alberto Fujimori after more than a decade of government, resigns by long distance, sending a letter to the Peruvian Congress from Tokyo (Japan) where he sought for political Asylum. Fujimori actually is on trial for his dictatorial government in Peru. Back in September 2000, Peruvian television released a video-tape where Vladimiro Montesinos (Fujimori’s secrete police chief) considered the power behind the throne, is showing bribing to an opposition legislator handing him US $ 15,000, in return for his agreement to switch his allegiance to the ruling party’s parliamentary bloc. The video proved the corruption inside the government already known, and besides others events which follow up, this minimum one was mainly the cause of Fujimori’s fall. This sample is taken from Joe’s first writing assignment which required that

students describe a historical event in their country in a narrative paragraph. Instead of

focusing on a specific event and showing its significance in the Peruvian history, Joe

described Fujimori himself as a person and a politician, which makes this paragraph

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descriptive rather than narrative. The biggest error he made was not formulating a clear

controlling idea. As a result, he had no direction to follow in this paragraph. He also

included too much information which was irrelevant to the topic. His first paragraph was

informative but not successful.

Joe’s blog posts in this week were detailed and engaging. The class was working

on the History Module, which included reading about the Puritans. He was not

intimidated by the new learning environment. Unlike other students who simply read the

article and posted their answers, Joe added his own interpretation of the events and

connected them with the present-day situation. He also tried to find parallels between the

past of the US and its modern history. In fact, he posted some rather controversial

statements trying to stimulate the discussion. Both his blog and paragraph writing showed

that his main purpose was to share his knowledge and opinion with others.

Sample 2

Different nation’s conditions have been the cause of immigration to the United States of America throughout its history. Peru in South America is not an exception. A good number of Peruvian people have immigrated to the United States due to security, economic stability, and looking for a better children’s future. Security is one of the reasons of immigration for them. In order to plan their future; safety for their families is primordial. The last two decades Peru had suffered a social and political instability, due to terrorist movements, and the brutal contra insurgency of a dictatorial government. Thousands of innocent workers’, peasants, and students were prosecuted, tortured, and murdered. Consequently, thousand of Peruvians were forced to immigrate. This passage from Week 4 shows a much better paragraph organization than in

the first week. The assignment was to analyze the reasons for immigration which is clear

from Joe’s topic sentence. His discussion points were included in the controlling idea and

developed in a logical sequence following from general to specific information. Although

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this paragraph was shorter than the first one, it was much better organized. Most of the

errors in this paragraph were in the use of punctuation and vocabulary. Apostrophes and

semicolons were some of the punctuation marks that Joe had to work on throughout the

semester. Using words that do not belong in the context (e.g., primordial) remained one

of the most typical features of Joe’s writing in this course. It was especially difficult to

improve his understanding of vocabulary use without an in-depth study of the language.

There were also occasional errors in parallelism which disappeared in his further

assignments when this aspect of grammar was studied.

Unlike Joe’s paragraph, his blog writing in Week 4 increased in volume. The

topic of immigration was obviously of interest to him. He was leading the discussion by

posting additional questions for his peers to consider. Although some of his ideas were

rather controversial, his posts showed his confidence in his abilities to express his points

of view.

Sample 3

Do you know that girls’ cerebral volume development is faster than in boys? Can you believe it? Well, researchers from the National Institute of Health found that total cerebral volume peak at 10.5 years in girls, four years earlier than in boys. Yes, scan of boys’ and girls’ brain over time show they develop differently. Furthermore, they present others physical and psychological differences. Are there only differences in their characteristics of development? No, social skills development is one similar characteristic they have. The fact that boys don’t hear as well as girls is one of the physical differences that exists between them, which means that an instructor needs to speak louder in order for the boys in the room to hear her/him; it could be one reason for affecting boys on their attention and in their language skills development. On the other hand, girls’ better hear make them more attentive, which is one of the reasons of their language skills earlier development. Sample 3 shows an excerpt written in Week 9, when Joe became comfortable

enough with the paragraph organization to experiment with different ways of introducing

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the controlling idea. In this paragraph, he compared and contrasted the development of

boys and girls. He used an unusual introduction, yet his controlling idea is clear: different

brain development and similar social skills. Each point of comparison and contrast was

sufficiently developed with supporting details and examples. There were some errors in

punctuation and the use of the transition words; however, there were no significant

grammar errors. The volume of his writing at this point in the semester also increased.

Joe’s blog posts in Week 9 contributed many interesting points to the discussion.

As a parent, he included some of his experiences as well as information from additional

reading. His messages were well-thought, informative, and clearly written. There were no

significant grammar errors to obscure him meaning. The volume of his blog writing

increased again compared with the previous weeks.

Each week, Joe demonstrated improvements in his writing skills which allowed

him to become more confident in his abilities. Along with the changes in the paragraph

organization, there was an increase in the volume of writing particularly in his blog posts.

Importantly, Joe approached each assignment as a personal challenge and an opportunity

to take a stand on the discussion issues. This approach required new information as well

as language means. Therefore, Joe added his own research to each topic and thus

increased his volume of processing and producing the language. The combination of

reading and writing encouraged him to work seriously on his vocabulary and helped him

to acquire more language and general knowledge.

Summary of changes in Joe’s writing. The hybrid course was beneficial for Joe’s

writing skills and overall language acquisition due to the extensive reading and online

communication with peers. Since he was receiving only three hours a week of traditional

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instruction, the Web site became an essential part of his learning experience. Joe’s desire

to share with others motivated him to use the blog as a forum for his ideas. He used the

online grammar resources independently in order to find answers to many of his

questions. My feedback in Writing Shop helped him make improvements in organization,

content, and development. As a result of combining learning in class and online, Joe was

able to increase the volume of his writing and improve his grades (see Table 18).

Table 18 Changes in Joe’s Writing throughout the Course

Weeks 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Words/ blog 451 216 751 166 815 628 533 815 677 410 598

Words/ paragr. 394 276 292 331 315 339 386 383 353 720 552

Grade 71 86 92 93 90 92 90 91 91 89 93

The classes in the Saturday program started one week later than in the night

program; therefore, Joe’s first blog post and paragraph were written in Week 2. Although

he was a newcomer to the blog, his posts were some of most thoughtful ones. As can be

seen in Table 18, the volume of his blog posts fluctuated throughout the semester. This

can be explained by his busy lifestyle and the pressure from work and family

responsibilities. However, the volume of his paragraphs had been showing a small but

steady growth until Week 11, when the class started working on essay writing. Since an

essay required more information, Joe’s assignment in Week 11 had a sharp increase in

volume.

Joe’s grades improved significantly in the first part of the semester but did not rise

above 93. His paragraph in Week 2 had multiple problems in the organization. He took

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this experience into account in the following week. Instead of writing more, he focused

on developing his controlling idea. As a result, his Week 3 paragraph was smaller in

volume, but his grade was higher. The rest of the semester, the quality of his writing was

affected by some fossilized mistakes in punctuation and the use of prepositions and

articles. In general, his content and organization of writing had higher scores than his

syntax and mechanics. Thus, even though progress was made in all areas, some aspects of

his writing improved more than others. To summarize, features that characterize changes

in Joe’s writing include improvements writing style and organization; content; volume of

language production; punctuation; and vocabulary and general language use.

Evidence and Discussion of Joe’s Self-Directedness in Learning

Joe’s successes in this course were largely the result of his motivation, while his

failures related to his lack of skills to regulate his learning process. My first impression of

his self-directedness came from his intake questionnaire. Some of his responses indicated

that he was a disciplined person who had high expectations of himself. Interestingly,

none of the items regarding his prior education was estimated highly even though his

primary source of learning was school. On the other hand, Joe used rather high scores

describing himself as a learner. This indicated that Joe achieved more learning by himself

than from his school experience. Importantly, his prior education did not provide him

with skills to set his own goals and assess his progress, yet he believed that he was able to

learn many things on his own with determination and hard work.

The highest scores on the scale of 1 (least like me) to 5 (most like me) were given

to the following items:

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1. The primary purpose of my learning is (a) to become a better person; (c) to

contribute to society; and (e) to support my family.

The choice of these items indicates a high level of self-respect and a strong sense

of responsibility for the wellbeing of his family. Learning for Joe is not simply a step up

on the social ladder but a means of self-improvement which can lead to giving more to

the society and his family.

2. The success of my learning in this program depends on (b) my study at home; and

(e) my family support.

All other items in this section including study at school and teacher’s work

received the score of four. This shows that Joe saw himself responsible for his learning

progress and realized that no one but him could make him successful. His family was also

an important factor since he had to divide his time between his study and the needs of his

children.

3. The most important reason for using technology in this program is that it (c)

allows me to do my assignments independently; and (e) allows me to learn at my

own pace.

Independence in learning is stressed in his choice of these items. As a person with

many responsibilities besides learning, Joe also found it important that the course allowed

for flexibility in time management.

4. The following sentence describes me as a learner in this program: (a) I am able to

learn many things on my own; and (b) I can reach any goal if I work hard.

By giving these items the highest scores, Joe indicated that he believed in his

abilities and knew that success was a matter of persistence and hard work.

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Although Joe’s intake questionnaire portrayed him as a person with good

potential to be self-efficient, it was not clear whether he actually had the practical skills to

regulate his learning. For instance, such items as planning, making decisions, and

understanding his strengths and weaknesses were not evaluated highly. The weekly self-

evaluations which Joe completed throughout the course demonstrated that he had to

acquire some skills to make improvements in these areas. In particular, while doing his

first few self-evaluations, Joe noticed that his weakest point was his trying to be perfect

and overdoing. The feedback he received from me on his writing helped him realize that

the amount of information included in the paragraph does not necessarily improve the

quality of writing. Based on his Week 4 self-evaluation, his first step in overcoming this

problem was a more careful selection of information and focus on controlling idea. Two

weeks later, Joe added paragraph planning as a step to improving his focus in writing.

The most serious obstacle in Joe’s learning progress in this course was his time

management skills. Leading a busy life, he found it difficult to have enough time to

study, yet sitting at the computer, he was tempted to surf the Web for fun rather than do

his homework. In his interviews, he admitted that some of his time was wasted on

irrelevant searches. It was also reflected in his first seven self-evaluations, where he

pointed out that it conflicted with his sense of responsibility and caused him stress.

Finally, he developed a study schedule that included working on his homework a few

times during the week and sharing the computer with his two children. Starting from

Week 7, his weekly plans were focused more on specific grammar and writing problems

he wanted to overcome and did not mention not having enough time on study. However,

Joe’s high expectations of himself made him feel dissatisfied with his own performance

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most of the time. He never chose the highest score to evaluate his weekly learning

activities. As a result, his average weekly scores demonstrate a zigzagging pattern in

Figure 14.

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Weeks

Self

-evalu

ati

on

Series1

Figure 14. Line graph showing changes in Joe’s weekly self-evaluations during the hybrid course.

According to the data in Figure 14, the middle of the semester was the only period

of stability in Joe’s progress. It was the time when he was able to make adjustments in his

schedule. The rise that followed this period shows that Joe could manage his time more

successfully and changed his focus of attention from matters of discipline to his writing

needs. His Week 8 report (see Appendix D) indicated that he was satisfied with his

progress. However, the rest of the semester he had to handle more responsibilities at

work, and it interfered with his study time and affected his satisfaction with his

performance once again.

Comparing Joe’s self-evaluations with his biweekly experiences reports, I noticed

an interesting tendency. As shown in Table 19, his evaluation of online reading and

writing experiences which also related to self-directed learning grew steadily in the first

half of the semester and reached the highest score at mid-term. There was also a definite

increase in the volume of writing and in the grades. However, his average biweekly

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scores for his own learning performance began to decrease at that time. It suggests that by

the middle of the semester Joe fully appreciated the function of the online component of

the course in providing him with tools and opportunities for improving his English skills;

however, he also realized that having completed the highest level of ESL, he still had

many weak points to work on and was not happy with the results of his writing. It also

indicates that he was capable of analyzing his work critically. However, due to Joe’s high

expectations of himself, he was not objective in his self-evaluations.

Table 19 Summary of Joe’s Experiences, Self-Evaluation, and Writing Progress

Weeks 2-3 4-5 6-7 8-9 10-11 12

Online reading 4.25 4.25 4.75 5.0 5.0 5.0

Online writing 4.25 4.5 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

Self-directedness 2.38 3.0 2.25 2.63 2.38 2.5

Word count Mid-term average End-of-term average

Blog

Paragraph

480

322

610

456

Grade 86.4 91

An observation should be made regarding Joe’s weekly learning plans. Although

his blog posts frequently demonstrated that he did additional research on the topics of

discussion, he never planned to read about subjects of his personal interest. Everything he

wanted to learn and improve referred to writing skills and English in general. Thus, his

non-required reading was done spontaneously, which allowed him to incorporate the new

information into his blog posts but not into his writing assignments. It is necessary to note

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that all weekly assignments for the entire semester were posted on the Web site at the

beginning of the course. Thus, all students had an opportunity to preview the topics in

advance and plan their study time according to the difficulty of the material. The fact that

Joe did not plan ahead indicates a weakness in his self-directedness.

Summary of Joe’s self-directedness. Comparing all the data I obtained from Joe’s

self-evaluations, learning experience questionnaires, and in-person interviews, I realize

that his progress in this course was complicated by the conflict between his actual

abilities and the level of performance he wanted to achieve. Although his ambitious

desire to reach the summit is commendable, it made him sensitive to his failures (or what

he perceived as such) and overly critical of his work. The do-not-fail policy did not serve

him well in regulating his learning process. Instead of focusing on the broader

understanding of the language use, he stayed within the limits of perfecting his writing

skills. This strategy was faulty since better writing is inseparable from better knowledge

of the language. However, in Joe’s case, it demonstrates an inadequate perception of his

abilities rather than actual language practice. Setting his bar high, Joe was also unwilling

to ask for help or accept help from others for fear of showing his weaknesses. From the

perspective of self-directed learning, this shows that he was not flexible enough to try

different methods in order to make better progress.

On the positive side, Joe’s motivation stayed high throughout the course. He spent

many hours studying independently and indeed improved some of his weak points. I was

impressed with his persistence in trying to use some of the troublesome forms correctly.

Sometimes, it took several weeks for him to see the improvement, but he continued

practicing relentlessly. His motivation was also an important factor in using technology

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for learning since he wanted to see better results fast. The contradiction, however, is that

being motivated he still was unable to manage his study time. Thus, Joe’s self-

directedness in this course consisted of a series of ups and downs, just like the zigzagging

line which represents it. To sum up, the evidence of his self-directedness in the hybrid

course includes perception of himself as an achiever; high motivation to succeed; critical

evaluation of his performance; and persistence in pursuing his objectives. The areas that

require further development include adequate assessment of his abilities; coordination of

self-monitoring and planning further learning; and time management.

Evidence and Discussion of Joe’s Use of Learning Strategies

Due to his high motivation, Joe was actively involved in class work in both

environments; however, as he noted in one of his interviews, 75% of his learning took

place online. Not surprisingly, three strategies out of four—memory, cognitive, and

compensation—were used more online than in class at the start of the course. Social

strategies leaned toward e-learning in the third biweekly period. Joe became an active

blogger from the very first week; however, due to his peers’ inertness, he felt that social

strategies were better used in the traditional settings. Aside from his social strategies, all

others show a pattern of increasing in both environments in the first half of the semester

and slightly decreasing simultaneously in the second half. Joe’ personal explanation was

that he saw his study online as the continuation of his study in class and vice versa.

Therefore, using more strategies in one environment led to using more in the other. At the

end of the course, however, the use of all strategies online remained high while their use

in class decreased. According to his observation, many of his classmates were tired by the

end of the course and lost their motivation, so the class interaction was not as enthusiastic

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as before. On the other hand, the blog continued to attract the people who were genuinely

interested in learning. In more details, these strategies will be discussed further.

Memory strategies. The obtained data indicate that, while studying online, Joe

relied more on the memory strategies than studying in class. Even though his scores for

the use of memory strategies in class grew in the first half of the semester, they never

reached the level of their online counterparts. In fact, the difference between the biweekly

averages in these environments increased considerably with each evaluation. Once the

online strategies reached the highest score at mid-term, the in-class strategies began to

slightly lose value (see Table 20).

Table 20 Joe’s Biweekly Evaluations of the Use of Memory Strategies

Weeks 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-12

The use of: T O T O T O T O T O T O

Associating 3 4 3 5 4 5 4 5 3 5 4 5

New words in context 3 4 3 4 4 5 4 5 3 5 3 5

Imagery 1 1 4 5 4 5 3 5 4 4 4 5

Keywords 3 4 1 4 4 5 3 5 3 4 3 5

Reviewing 3 4 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5

Biweekly average 2.6 3.4 2.8 4.6 3.8 5 3.4 5 3.2 4.6 3.4 5

Note. The biweekly evaluations of memory strategies were performed on the scale of 1 (worst) to 5 (best). T = traditional environment; O = online environment.

Analyzing Joe’s use of memory strategies, it is easy to notice that all items in this

set were more required in the online environment than in the traditional one (see Figure

15). Online learning involved a variety of activities (reading, writing, practicing

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grammar, memorizing vocabulary, etc.) which had to be done independently and,

therefore, needed various memory strategies. The fact that the use of memory strategies

immediately began to prevail in the online environment indicates that Joe worked

independently from the first week of the course. Some aspects were evidently new to

him. For example, the use of imagery received the lowest score in his first evaluation. As

he explained it during the interview, he did not know how to relate to the pictures

illustrating some vocabulary items in the text online. However, the later reports showed

much higher values for this item.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1 2 3 4 5 6

Bi-weekly

Avera

ge

Class

Online

Figure 15. Bar graph showing change in Joe’s use of memory strategies in class and online.

Another important factor accounting for the difference between using memory

strategies in class and online is the time spent in each environment. Since Joe’s program

offered only three hours a week of face-to-face instruction, he spent much more time

studying online, where he had to use more memory strategies. The rising pattern of the

memory strategies in class in the first half of the semester signifies the periods when

learning in this environment required memorizing a large amount of new information. In

the fourth and fifth biweekly periods, when the class continued working on paragraph

organization, using memory was not as important. However, Joe’s last evaluation shows

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a slight increase in the use of memory strategies in class. It coincided with the

introduction of the essay format which evidently had to be associated with the previously

studied material and required the use of memory strategies again.

Cognitive strategies. As shown in Table 21, all cognitive strategies were used to a

much greater extent online than in class. Similar to memory strategies, the use of

cognitive strategies in class was growing alongside their use online in the first half of the

semester and started to decrease after the mid-term. The online environment, however,

continued to receive the highest scores on all points until the end of the semester.

Table 21 Joe’s Biweekly Evaluations of the Use of Cognitive Strategies

Weeks 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-12

The use of: T O T O T O T O T O T O

Repeating 3 4 3 4 4 5 3 5 4 5 3 5

Recognizing 2 3 3 5 4 5 4 5 3 5 3 5

Adding resources 3 4 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5

Analyzing 3 4 3 4 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5

Summarizing 3 4 3 4 3 5 3 4 3 5 3 5

Biweekly average 2.8 3.8 3 4.4 3.4 5 3.2 4.8 3.2 5 3 5

Note. The biweekly evaluations of memory strategies were performed on the scale of 1 (worst) to 5 (best). T = traditional environment; O = online environment.

There is a strong similarity in the way Joe used memory and cognitive strategies:

both were growing in the first half of the semester; then their use decreased in class but

stayed high online (see Figure 16). Ever since the first week of the course, he started

supplementing his study in class once a week with working online, which made him rely

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more on his own learning skills rather than direct instruction. Both of these sets of

strategies were essential in his processing and manipulating the online material and,

therefore, did not measure up to their use in class where the material was organized and

explained for him. Only recognizing and repeating gained value in the first half of the

semester since the class work included review of the previously studied topics. The items

representing critical thinking skills (analyzing and summarizing) were used consistently

at a higher rate in the online environment and never reached a score above three in class.

Adding resources was also evaluated much lower in class than online, where Joe could

choose from a large number of various self-study materials.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1 2 3 4 5 6

Bi-weekly

Avera

ge

Class

Online

Figure 16. Bar graph showing changes in Joe’s use of cognitive strategies in class and online.

Compensation strategies. Joe’s biweekly evaluation of the use of compensation

strategies suggests that he was using them at a higher rate online than in class. Once

again, it indicates that he had to utilize a variety of skills and strategies while working

with the Web site. Whereas their use in class depended on the organization of the lesson

and the complexity of the material, online he needed all the strategies in this set in order

to better understand the content. These data also point to the communicative functions of

the Web site and explain why Joe’s opinion of communication online was almost always

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higher than communication in class. He evaluated this item equally high only once during

the course which suggests that his perception of communication was not based on the

type of the environment but on the activities it involved.

Table 22 shows that the biweekly average scores for the use of compensation

strategies in class fluctuated throughout the semester indicating that Joe did not apply

these strategies consistently while studying in the traditional setting. Online, however, he

was using them more frequently than in class. The average scores for the online use grew

to the highest point in the first half of the semester and stayed high until the end of the

course.

Table 22 Joe’s Biweekly Evaluations of the Use of Compensation Strategies

Weeks 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-12

The use of: T O T O T O T O T O T O

Language clues 2 3 4 4 3 5 3 5 4 5 3 5

Native language 4 4 5 5 4 5 3 5 4 5 3 5

Help from experts 5 5 5 4 5 5 4 5 5 5 4 4

Communication 3 4 5 5 4 5 3 5 4 5 3 5

Message adjustment 3 4 4 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5

Average 3.4 4 4.6 4.6 3.8 5 3.2 5 4 5 3.2 4.8

Note. The biweekly evaluations of memory strategies were performed on the scale of 1 (worst) to 5 (best). T = traditional environment; O = online environment. Figure 17 illustrates the changes in the use of compensation strategies particularly

in the second half of the semester, when Joe’s study online required a more detailed

comprehension of the material. Compared with learning online, learning in class involved

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more explanations from the instructor and did not force him to compensate for the gaps in

understanding as much as online.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1 2 3 4 5 6

Bi-weekly

Avera

ge

Online

Online

Figure 17. Bar graph showing changes in Joe’s use of compensation strategies in class and online.

Social strategies. Joe’s use of social strategies both in class and online was

encouraged by his desire to share his knowledge and his classmates’ willingness to

collaborate with him. Social strategies immediately received equal average scores even

though there was a difference in per item evaluation (see Table 23). Aside from the

second biweekly period, when social strategies were used more in the traditional

environment, their use online was greater than in class. The last two biweekly evaluations

of online strategies show a slight decrease in the average scores.

Table 23 also shows which strategies helped Joe establish better communication

with other students in each biweekly period. Based on the average figures for the use of

social strategies in class and online, Joe did not need much time to adjust to the online

environment and used them equally in both formats in the first two weeks of the course.

However, his second evaluation showed more social strategies used in the traditional

environment due to the higher values assigned for asking for clarifications and

corrections. It indicates that Joe acted as a student who was accustomed to the traditional

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format of learning. When he gained more experience studying online, his scores for these

and other items started showing his preference toward the online environment.

Cooperating is the only strategy that was equally evaluated in both formats for two

consecutive periods. Once it increased at mid-term, it retained its higher position online

compared with cooperating in class.

Table 23 Joe’s Biweekly Evaluations of the Use of Social Strategies

Weeks 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-12

The use of: T O T O T O T O T O T O

Asking to clarify 5 4 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5

Asking to correct 4 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 5 4 5 5

Cooperating 4 4 4 4 4 5 3 5 4 5 3 4

Communicating with more proficient

speakers

5 4 5 4 4 5 3 5 4 5 3 4

Developing cultural understanding 4 5 4 4 5 5 3 5 3 5 3 5

Average 4.4 4.4 4.6 3.8 4.4 5 3.8 5 4.2 4.6 3.8 4.6

Note. The biweekly evaluations of memory strategies were performed on the scale of 1 (worst) to 5 (best). T = traditional environment; O = online environment.

Explaining his choice, Joe emphasized the lack of time for really productive

cooperation during the class. Online, however, he felt that cooperation was a natural part

of learning due to the ongoing discussion and free exchange of ideas. Being constantly

involved in communication online, he was also more exposed to different writing skills

and cultural views on the discussion topics. Thus, he was able to share and increase his

knowledge more through his social interactions online than in class. As a result, his

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overall use of social strategies online increased in the second half of the semester (see

Figure 18).

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1 2 3 4 5 6

Bi-weekly

Avera

ge

Class

Online

Figure 18. Bar graph showing changes in Joe’s use of social strategies in class and online.

Comparison of Joe’s Use of Learning Strategies

The most important observation regarding Joe’s use of learning strategies is that

all sets of strategies including social had a higher rate of application in the online

environment than in the traditional one. This indicates that Joe spent more time studying

independently online and used more different resources than in class. Expanding his

learning activities, he had to use a variety of skills and strategies to internalize the

material.

Figure 19 allows for the comparison of the use of strategies in each type of

environment. Based on the average of the total biweekly scores, social strategies were

used the most in class and the least online. Compensation strategies were used the most

online, and memory strategies were used the least in class. The combined use of

strategies in both environments place social strategies ahead of all others while cognitive

strategies occupy the last place. However, the fact that cognitive strategies received a

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very high score online and the lowest score in class indicates that online format provided

a more challenging learning environment.

0

20

40

60

Class

Online

Both

Class 16 15.5 18.5 21

Online 23 23.3 23.7 22.8

Both 39 38.8 42.2 43.8

Memory Cognitive Compens Social

Figure 19. Bar graph showing differences in Joe’s use of strategies in the hybrid format.

Summary of Case 3

The hybrid course helped Joe discover his learning potential and raise his level of

self-esteem. All the courses he had taken previously did not encourage him to learn

English through sharing and exploring. Having the tools and the format for independent

study, he used writing as a way of reaching out to others and expressing his inner world.

Writing made him realize that his thoughts have form and are meaningful not only to

himself but also to his readers. This personal revelation helped him grow more confident

in his knowledge as well as in his abilities to deliver it to others.

As an ambitious person, he tried to be perfect in all his writing assignments.

However, this approach made him too focused on details. As a result, he could not

combine writing with other language skills, which stopped him from making a more

noticeable progress. Also, his work and family responsibilities frequently interfered with

his study. In spite of that, learning in the hybrid format was highly beneficial for Joe both

personally and academically.

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What features characterize changes in Joe’s writing in the hybrid EAP course?

Joe’s writing throughout the course produced evidence of positive changes in the

organization and content of writing, increase in the volume of writing, and better use of

punctuation and vocabulary.

What evidence of Joe’s self-directedness was present in the hybrid program?

The collected data indicate that Joe had a high perception of himself as an

achiever and motivation to succeed. These qualities allowed him to perform critical

evaluation of his performance and remain persistent in pursuing his learning objectives.

However, he was not able to adequately assess his abilities and manage his time in order

to complete his learning plans.

Which learning strategies (memory, cognitive, compensation, or social) did Joe

prefer to use more in this type of environment?

Joe used all four sets of strategies to a greater extent in his online learning

experience than in class. Among them, compensation strategies were used the most and

memory strategies were used the least online. Social strategies prevailed in a combination

of both learning formats, while memory strategies were used least of all. In class, social

and compensation strategies were used the most.

Case 4: Jang— “The Follower”

Sometimes I feel if somebody did not do the blog or writing or any homework or any practicing, so why I have to do it? If they did not do any work and they are still welcome in class, I can do like them. I know it's such a bad, bad thought. My first impression of Jang was that of a quiet, polite, and hard-working student.

However, as weeks were going by and our collaboration was becoming closer, I found

new features of her character that did not surface in typical class interactions. Our

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discussions of her experiences in this course helped me realize that Jang was a highly

suggestible student for whom the behavior of the majority dictated the choice of actions.

Born and raised in Thailand, she grew accustomed to weighing her personal decisions

against those of the people around her. The presence of community was one of the things

Jang missed the most living in America. Comparing her life back home and in the US,

she could not hide the feeling of frustration from lack of the hierarchical structure which

would allow her to see her place in the social order.

Her EAP class, which met only once a week, was too different from the Thai

school environment. Instead of the familiar mono-ethnic classroom, she found herself

among other ESL students whose cultural, educational, and social status she could not

relate to, and whose model of learning behavior she could not follow. Although Jang was

one of the youngest students in her group, she had already completed her Bachelor’s

degree and was planning to continue her studies in the US to receive a Master’s degree in

Tourism and Hospitality. Learning more English was the first step in that direction. She

signed a contract with an au pair agency and came to New York to work as a nanny. Her

contract required attending English classes, which brought her to WCC, where, in

addition to EAP, she started taking a pronunciation course twice a week. She had studied

English in Thailand, but the instruction was focused mostly on grammar. Therefore, in

addition to cultural and academic differences, communication and writing were the two

areas that caused the most challenges in her new learning experiences.

The Hybrid Course through the Eyes of the Follower

Of all the challenges that came with adjusting to the new learning environment,

cultural aspect was the most important one. On the one hand, there was too much

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freedom in the American classroom, which for Jang meant more chaos rather than more

learning opportunities. On the other hand, the mix of cultures represented different

leaning styles and behaviors some of which she perceived as strange.

I am afraid to get more confused interacting with people. We all are from different cultures and we have different ways of saying things. In class I don’t speak at all unless I want to answer your question. In Thailand it is rude to speak up because you may interrupt someone. Clinging to her own cultural norms, Jang found herself torn between the necessity

to interact and the fear of offending someone while doing it. This situation caused an

inner conflict which was enhanced by the awareness of right (what she was taught to do

in her culture) and wrong (what she saw others do). Once, wiping away her tears, she

confessed that she felt lonely in her struggle to do the right thing.

I feel comfortable in class because I am used to studying this way. I like to have people around me. But when the other students are not prepared for class, I get annoyed because I don’t want to come here and waste my time listening to them complain or ask questions which were already discussed before. I have no patience with that. In an effort to find the proper role model, Jang started giving more attention to

blog discussion where she could avoid unpleasant social situations and feel encouraged

by other people’s writing. Unlike in class, where she deliberately stayed away from

communication with others, online she was open and sociable even though her rigid rules

of etiquette somewhat restrained her creativity.

In general, my online experience is getting better. Now I am more comfortable and I am not afraid to post what I think. I often see wrong spelling and incorrect sentences. I know a better way, but I never mention it because the people will be offended. Social aspects of learning were not the only difficulty Jang had to cope with. Her

problems also came from a different approach to learning due to which she could no

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longer follow the habitual pattern: read, memorize, and recite. Instead, she was required

to think, analyze, associate, and evaluate.

In Thailand, we don’t study this way. We just memorize the information from the books and tell in class what we remember. I am not used to analyzing things or making connections. I just don’t know how to do it. It is difficult for me to change.

Being accustomed to rote memorization, Jang had not acquired either sufficient

critical thinking skills or concepts which she could rely on while processing the new

material. As a result, her language production was also affected. She had problems

developing her paragraphs and explaining the problem presented in the blog discussion

questions.

Many times I just don’t know what to say even when I read all the material. I just don’t know what to do with all of that. The discussion questions do not follow the text, so I have to come up with some of my own ideas and it is hard for me for some reason. Her study online was the first step toward changing her social and learning styles.

Thanks to the blog, she discovered that there were many students like her who sincerely

wanted to become better at writing. Their posts contained new ideas and points of view

which she considered in her writing assignments and which she could not have generated

by herself. This form of interactions not only created the presence of a community but

also helped her improve her writing skills.

I feel satisfied with how much I express myself. It keeps me learning. It helps with writing too. When other people put their posts, I see new ideas and use them in my writing as well. Jang’s perception of the hybrid learning was changing throughout the course.

Having been a traditional learner all her life, she first expected to have the same teacher-

centered instruction as she had back in Thailand. When the classroom environment did

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not meet her expectations, she started taking advantage of the online component. By the

middle of the semester, she could see the difference between learning in class and online.

I think it worked well both ways, but online it was better. Online you can explain where and when and how without restrictions. Jang also realized that the organization of the course was based on the continuing

cycle of introducing and expanding the information. Although this form of learning was

new to her, she quickly developed a sense of structure which allowed her to maintain

focus as she proceeded from one lesson to another.

I think I learned more both ways because the writing styles were introduced in class, but most of the work on the topics was done online. Her next discovery was that the textbook did not include all the topics she wanted

to review. Once again, the Web site came to the rescue. This was a new form of

practicing grammar for Jang, but, as it turned out, at was more convenient than the

traditional print materials.

Sometimes I couldn’t find what I wanted in the textbook. The handouts online are very concise, all the points are clear, and they are convenient to use. I find that it is easier for me to use the online materials. In the book the information is scattered on different pages, so I sometimes lose the connection between the explanations and the practice part. But online I see everything on one page and I don’t have to flip pages. Overall, the hybrid format for Jang was a difficult transition to becoming an

independent learner. There were such undeniable advantages in this experience as

developing the sense of belonging to a community, following a better example of

learning, and having the tools to supplement the textbook. However, there were also

some obstacles Jang could not overcome due to cultural boundaries. For instance, it was

hard to abandon the rote way of learning. Accustomed to being obedient, she did not

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know how to behave in the environment that welcomed a free exchange of ideas. Worst

of all was losing the feeling of security that she used to have from knowing her place and

following a good example.

Evidence and Discussion of Changes in Jang’s Writing Skills

Jang started this course with multiple problems in writing. Although she studied

much grammar in Thailand, the practice included mostly form recognition. Now she had

to use the forms she studied to produce her own language, and it was a difficult task,

especially in the first few weeks. There was an obvious confusion in verb tenses,

punctuation, and sentence structure. However, the most serious problem was lack of unity

and focus on the main idea in her writing. In part, it was due to her traditional way of

learning by memorizing the information.

In this course, students were required to present and develop their points of view

in a logical and coherent way. Jang had no skills either to analyze the material or to

establish the association between different pieces of information. As a result, it was easier

for her to work with factual information than with the assignments that involved analysis

of the material. Throughout the course, critical thinking remained the most difficult

aspect of her writing experience. Considering the fact that this was the first English

course she was taking outside Thailand, it is not surprising that her progress was slow.

The changes in her writing skills are summarized in Table 24.

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Table 24 Comparison of Jang’s Writing in First and Last Quarters

Code Problem First quarter Last quarter

CI Controlling idea CI is not clear; there is no topic sentence; the

paragraph lacks focus and unity

CI is clear; the paragraph is

unified

D Development D lacks supporting details; poor transitions;

disconnected details

D follows CI & includes

more supporting details

LF Language forms Confusion in the use of LF, especially

infinitives & gerunds, adjectives & adverbs

Some problems in choice of

LF remain

WO Syntax Short, choppy sentences; punctuation errors Complex sentences; fewer

errors in punctuation

Grammar &

spelling

Many errors in the use of participles,

prepositions, articles, and voices

Some errors of the earlier

errors remain

Average grade 84.5 (B) 86 (B)

However, in spite of the difficulties expressing herself in English, Jang was very

successful in some areas. Above all, the changes in her skills were obvious in paragraph

organization. She quickly understood the rules of unity in writing. Compared with her

first paragraph, her second paragraph had a considerable improvement in presenting and

following the controlling idea even though the development was not always thorough

enough and lacked analysis. Jang’s average grade in the first and the last quarters does

not do justice to the effort she put into writing. The following samples of Jang’s writing

show the changes in her skills.

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Sample 1

The slave system is the problem for developing country, for example; social , political especially , economic. It was stopped by King Chakri V. Thailand had slavery for a hundred year, ago. Since Ayuttaya Dynasty to Rattanagosin Dynasty till mid of Chakri Dynasty. At that time, we did not have a democratic government, yet and third of people were slave. The slaves were treated by their own boss ( rich people ). When rich people lend poor people money but they cannot pay back, they will give their children to be a slave instead of money. When babies were born from slave’s parents they were slave, also. If they want to have freedom, they might have enough money but it was extremely impossible because they got a little salary. King Junlajomkrow or King Chakri V of Thailand had stopped the slave system by peaceful way, since 1874. The excerpt above was taken from Jang’s first paragraph written about a historical

event in her country in Week 2. This was supposed to be a narrative paragraph; however,

Jang failed to write a clear topic sentence and present the importance of abolishing

slavery in Thailand. Her first sentence points to social, political, and economic problems

as a result of slavery, but they do not relate to the writing topic. For the most part, her

paragraph described slavery as a social phenomenon, but the event itself remained

obscure. No information was given about what exactly was done and how it changed the

Thai society. There were also many errors in the use of tenses, punctuation, and sentence

structure. In some places, there was an obvious lack of vocabulary: their own boss

(owner). Jang received the worst grade for this paragraph.

Jang’s blog post in Week 2 contained very short answers to the discussion

questions. At that time, the class was working on the history module, which was based on

the reading about the early period of the Puritan colonies in the U.S. Having come from a

different cultural and religious background, Jang could not relate to this part of history. A

more serious concern, however, was her inability to analyze the relationship between the

historical and modern facts which was not based on cultural understanding. For instance,

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one of the questions required an interpretation of George Elliot’s saying “the happiest

nations have no history.” Even though Jang attempted to answer this question, she looked

at it superficially and did not develop her ideas logically.

Sample 2

There can be many causes of immigration. Some of the causes are employment, finding a better life and escaping from wars. One of the reasons is employment. Immigrants want a job that can support their life and the place where they move is easier to get a job. The countries where they move have better variety jobs and they are willing to do it. Some people move because they get an advance position of their career. They can earn a higher step and profit. Another reason is finding a better life. They want to leave from poverty. They need money to make their life more comfortable. If they have money they can get the proper consumer goods and the appliances. Also, they can have a good education. They receive an opportunity to choose the proper school. The most important reason is escaping from wars. Immigrants need a place where they can have a peaceful and safety for them and their family. Nobody needs to live in a high rate of risk and dangerous. Some immigrants escape from political war because they cannot accept the pressure. Many harmful will happen if they are still in their country. So, there are some reasons, which make people emigrate from their own country.

Sample 2 demonstrates the entire paragraph written in Week 4 to analyze the

reasons for immigration. Although the volume of writing is less than in the previous

sample, the organization is clear and easy to follow. Her controlling idea is stated at the

beginning of the paragraph. Each point (employment, better life, and escape from wars) is

discussed in the body of the paragraph. Thus, there is a noticeable improvement in the

organization. However, the paragraph is not informative, and it does not engage the

reader in Jang’s thinking process. This sample serves as another example of Jang’s poor

critical thinking skills and lack of general knowledge. The writing assignment was

preceded by reading about the history of immigration in the US, which contained

information about the reasons that forced people to leave their homeland. Jang selected

appropriate discussion points but was unable to support them with reading. It is also

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important to note that she used short simple sentences throughout the paragraph which

made it choppy and disconnected. There are no transition words that could help her create

a more coherent piece of writing. This was a simplistic way to avoid using punctuation

and organizing complex sentence structures. Jang maintained this style until the last

quarter of the semester, when she began to feel more confident about her writing.

Jang’s blog posts in Week 4 were written in the same manner as her paragraph:

with short choppy sentences which affected the fluency of her writing. The similarity is

also in the content of writing. The blog discussion helped her to choose some points to

include in her paragraph, but she was unable to develop either of them with essential

details and examples. Although she increased the volume of her writing in the blog and

attempted to form her own opinions about immigration issues, she seemed to be unsure of

her answers. Instead of analyzing the assigned reading or additional sources, she was

simply speculating. In some cases, her responses were influenced by the opinions of other

students. For example, when she found “in Rome do as Romans do” in someone’s post,

she changed her previous idea about the need to assimilate into the main culture. On the

positive side, her blog posts showed an effort to reflect on the new material, which is an

important aspect of a meaningful language use.

Sample 3

Students have their own learning style; however, they not recognize what kinds are they belong. Learning style of students can be divided into two categories. First category is students who are talkative. They like to listen, speak, and interact with other. Their performances are outstanding in classrooms. They like to listen to their teachers or classmates and share the ideas with speaking and interacting … When they express with talking, it helps them understand the subject matters easier. The careers, which should be suitable for these students are receptionist, tour guide, secretary, flight attendant, or concierge. The students, who belong to this category, can do these kinds of jobs because they have to deal with many

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people by using participation or interaction, which they already had that skills. Second category is students who are reticent. They like to think, read, and write. When they are alone, they have widespread thoughts and inspirations. They prefer a quiet time and no rush … By recognize which learning style are they, they will understand and improve their quality of learning.

The sample above is taken from the classification paragraph written by Jang in

Week 10. Jang’s division of learning styles into two categories is clear but questionable.

The introductory sentence in this paragraph is somewhat disconnected from the

controlling idea; however, the conclusion helps to see her reasoning. Each learning style

is sufficiently described. It is obvious that Jang prepared a plan and followed it

characterizing each category. There are some grammar errors, but they are minor and do

not obscure the meaning. The sentence structure has clearly improved compared with the

first two samples. In this paragraph, Jang tried to use complex sentences and transition

words which created a better flow in her paragraph. There are still some punctuation

problems, but overall there are many positive changes in her writing.

Unlike her paragraphs, which she seriously worked on, her blog posts did not

show much progress. For the most part, they remained short and superficial. In week 10,

she also had problems with the Internet connection, which affected the volume of her

posts. However, Jang’s blog communication style changed. Instead of trying to answer all

the discussion questions, she started focusing more on those that involved practical

assignments. This allowed her to share her experiences with the class and bring her

personal voice to the online discussion. Even though she still had difficulties

understanding and analyzing the material, her participation in the discussion became

more interactive than in the previous weeks. Expressing her thoughts, she would also

admit whether she understand the topic or not. Some of her messages contained requests

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for help from anyone who was available; others addressed her classmates directly. In

other words, Jang used blogging as a substitute for face-to-face communication which

she continued to avoid in class. This was the most noticeable change in her blog writing.

Summary of changes in Jang’s writing. At the beginning of the course, Jang’s

writing was compounded with limited general knowledge and lack of abilities to analyze

the reading which could serve as a springboard for her academic study. She found that

rote memorization, which was the style she grew accustomed to in Thailand, was useless

in the US, but she could not change fast enough to keep up with her classmates who had

other educational backgrounds. This course helped her to become familiar with the

requirements and the communication style she would have to face as a graduate student

in this country. The hybrid format with its emphasis on connecting reading, discussion,

and writing immersed her in the English language and forced her to use more of her

learning potential. Although her attempts to participate in the academic discussions

online and follow the standards of the American college writing did not produce a

noticeable improvement in her critical thinking skills, they were the first steps to a

gradual change in her approach to learning.

The most significant changes in Jang’s writing included organization,

development of the controlling idea, and syntax. There was also some improvement in

grammar and general language use. However, some persistent problems in these areas

could not have been solved due to her overall low level of language acquisition. This can

be illustrated by the data in Table 25, according to which Jang’s grades reached a plateau

by the middle of the semester and did not progress beyond the score of 87. In fact, her

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grades slightly decreased in Weeks 11 and 12, when Jang had to write her first essays and

deal with more information.

Table 25 Changes in Jang’s Writing throughout the Course

Weeks 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Words/ blog 160 321 283 589 457 287 531 405 180 282 280

Words/ paragr. 247 360 209 295 262 250 277 270 258 479 504

Grade 75 91 87 85 86 87 85 87 87 85 85

There was also no significant gain in the volume of her paragraphs except in the

last two weeks of the semester. However, given that the writing assignments at that time

had expanded from a paragraph to an essay, Jang’s amount of writing was still

insufficient. In this case, the most serious problems included limited content information

and development of ideas, which once again stemmed from lack of general knowledge

and insufficient reading.

Some changes occurred in Jang’s blog writing. Throughout the course, she

developed a personal style of online communication which was informal and

conversational. Although the content of her blog posts did not contain significant

information to contribute to other people’s learning, it was useful for her to participate in

the online discussions where she could see better examples of writing and more

information for her own assignments. In this sense, CMC was a positive factor in Jang’s

learning experience. However, the volume of her blog writing fluctuated depending on

the topic of the discussion and the Internet access and did not show a steady increase.

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Thus, based on the data reflecting Jang’s writing performance in this course, the

features that characterize positive changes in this area include better organization and

unity; clear controlling idea and focus of writing; and better use of syntax and

punctuation.

Evidence and Discussion of Jang’s Self-Directedness in Learning

In many respects, the hybrid course helped Jang discover new ways of learning

and look at her experiences as a student from a different angle. For Jang, whose prior

education was strictly teacher centered, the very term “self-directed’ was a discovery. Her

Thai schools did not require either becoming independent or understanding her own

learning potential. All her life, she was expected to be obedient and study hard for fear of

being punished. The concept of punishment for not doing her best was deeply rooted in

Jang’s consciousness. When she could not get the desired result, she felt like punishing

herself by practicing for hours. Although her persistence was admirable, she failed to see

the real reason for her difficulties and wasted her time correcting the most obvious

grammar errors instead of expanding her understanding of the language use through

reading and writing. The positive side of her background was that it allowed her to

develop a sense of discipline and responsibility for completing her assignments. Thus,

while having difficulties deciding her own course of actions, Jang was diligent and hard-

working when given directions.

The initial evidence of Jang’s self-directedness was obtained from her intake

questionnaire, where the responses had to be evaluated on the scale of 1 (least like me) to

5 (most like me). Based on her responses, Jang started the course understanding her

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abilities but not knowing how to regulate her own learning. The following items received

the highest scores:

1. The primary purpose of my learning is (d) to become successful; and (b) to get a

better job.

The choice of these items indicates that Jang saw higher education as a way of

improving her income and career options. Such items as improving herself, contributing

to society, or supporting her family did not receive much attention in this section.

Although evaluating the learning motivation was not the purpose of this study, it appears

that Jang’s responses point to the importance of material aspects in her life.

2. The success of my learning in this program depends on (a) my study at school;

and (b) my study at home.

Jang rated studying at school the highest, thus indicating her preference for

traditional learning. This choice is understandable since she had no prior exposure to

other learning formats. Studying at home was also highly evaluated since the assigned

homework would continue the work in class. However, she did not include other sources

of learning, which suggests that she was expected to succeed by following the teacher’s

directions rather than applying English meaningfully outside the class.

3. The most important reason for using technology in this program is that it (e)

allows me to learn at my own pace; and (d) gives me opportunities to learn more.

This section shows Jang’s choice of priorities. Evidently, she realized that online

technologies could give access to more information and, therefore, could provide her with

more learning opportunities. However, it was important for her to be able to learn at her

own pace because, as an au pair, she did not have a fixed work schedule. Thus,

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opportunities for choosing her own study time and online resources attracted her to using

technology the most. The speed of learning was irrelevant and received the least score.

4. The following sentence describes me as a learner in this program: (e) I can plan

and evaluate my learning progress; and (c) I know my strengths and weaknesses.

Jang’s giving high scores to these items shows that she felt confident in her

abilities to learn independently. However, she rated making and carrying out decisions

the lowest. It is possible that at the beginning of the course she saw what areas she had to

work on (e.g. strengths and weaknesses) but did not know how to approach them. As for

planning her weekly learning, it was mostly limited to the surface errors during the

semester.

Reviewing Jang’s weekly self-evaluations, I noticed that she was realistic in her

perception of herself as a learner and good at evaluating her progress. However, she had

difficulties making decisions regarding her learning and depended on the teacher’s input.

Most of her weekly goals reflected the grammar topics studied in class during that time:

improve the use of time clauses, adjective clauses, past participles, etc. A few times, she

included the goals to overcome her personal inhibitions: to start the blog discussion, to

challenge my writing experience with new information. This happened following my

suggestions to change her planning pattern. None of Jang’s weekly plans included

learning about topics of general interest or posed a challenge to improve skills other than

grammar and writing which might be required in her academic study. Her level of self-

directedness was not high enough to take advantage of the multiple opportunities for

learning beyond the syllabus.

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However, other items of Jang’s intake questionnaire and weekly self-evaluations

at the beginning of the course indicated that she had some potential to become a self-

directed learner. One example is the fact that she saw technology as an opportunity to

learn at her own pace, which required strong discipline and time management skills.

Choosing her own study schedule gave her control over the amount of work she could do

and the time she needed to spend. On an average week, Jang added about 30 hours of

online study to her classroom instruction most of which were spent preparing writing

assignments, practicing grammar, and blogging. She could also evaluate her performance

by comparing her weekly plans with the results she achieved even though she avoided

analyzing the positive and negative parts of her experience.

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

weeks

self

-evalu

ati

on

Series1

Figure 20. Line graph showing changes in Jang’s weekly self-evaluations during the hybrid course.

The average scores of Jang’s self-evaluation show that Jang’s satisfaction with

her performance was growing until Week 7 (see Figure 20). However, the following

week coincided with the school spring break, and she could not complete her plans being

busy with the children in her care (see Appendix D). The rest of the semester, most of her

weekly goals included review of the previous material, which was easier to accomplish

than exploring new topics, and her self-evaluation started rising again.

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In Jang’s case, her satisfaction with her performance never reached the highest

point. Although she spent a significant amount of time practicing online, she approached

grammar and writing as drills following her customary rote learning style and did not

focus on reading and analyzing the material. Since her language practice was taken out of

context, her progress in all areas was slow. It can be confirmed by the data obtained from

Jang’s biweekly evaluations of her online learning activities.

Table 26 Summary of Jang’s Experiences, Self-Evaluation, and Writing Progress

Weeks 2-3 4-5 6-7 8-9 10-11 12

Online reading 3.5 3.5 2.5 3.5 3.5 3.5

Online writing 3.5 3.5 2.5 3.5 3.5 3.5

Self-directedness 2.25 2.5 2.63 2.25 2.88 2.75

Word count Mid-term average End-of-term average

Blog

Paragraph

350

270

336

358

Grade 85.1 85.8

As shown in Table 26, the average biweekly scores for online reading and writing

remained the same throughout the course and did not grow beyond 3.5. The volume of

her writing and the average grades in the first and the second half of the semester also did

not change significantly. However, according to her self-evaluations, she was able to

overcome some of her problems and improve specific skills, which increased her average

biweekly scores.

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The stability of Jang’s evaluations of her online reading and writing experiences

serves evidence of her limitations in self-directed learning. She was only able to see the

problems related to her most common surface errors in grammar and vocabulary, which

prevented her from learning the language through knowledge construction. The reading

she completed in this course had little effect on her writing skills development because

she saw it as the source of new vocabulary and left out the analysis of information. Her

blog posts did not include the new ideas or reflections on the reading. Thus, the new

vocabulary remained out of context and did not become an active part of her language

production either orally or in writing. As a result, her satisfaction with the progress in

these areas did not increase either.

Summary of Jang’s self-directedness. Although Jang’s growth of self-directedness

was held back by her dependence on direct instruction and rote memorization, she made

some progress in regulating her learning by exercising time management and self-

discipline. These two factors were indispensable in her overall experience in this course

and allowed her to stay focused on the problems she wanted to overcome and the

assignments she had to complete. With an amazing dedication, she spent many hours

working on her English, which allowed her to make some improvement in her writing

skills. Initially, she relied mostly on the textbook, but later on she expanded her practice

with the online grammar resources and the online course handouts. Finally, she started

using only the online materials when she realized that they offered a better choice and

convenience. Thus, managing study time and resources was a step toward becoming self-

directed.

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Jang’s sense of responsibility was the motivational force behind her study out of

class, which included her participation in the online discussions as well. Although her

own posts were short and uninformative, being involved in this interactive discourse she

had an opportunity to learn from others. She was able to see posts that were better written

and contained more ideas than hers. From the point of view of self-directedness, this

experience allowed her to better understand her strengths and weaknesses as a learner.

She admitted in her interviews that she really admired the blog posts from some of her

classmates but found others poorly written. Comparing different pieces of writing, she

determined for herself what example she wanted to follow and tried to reach that

standard. However, her goals of improving writing were limited to pursuing the correct

forms, such as mechanics and organization, whereas the depth of written self-expression

was too difficult to achieve in one semester since it placed a great emphasis on the

familiarity with the content.

Although self-discipline is an important part of self-directedness, it was not

enough for Jang to become a truly self-directed learner. Her previous school experience

taught her to follow directions. Therefore, one of the most challenging aspects of the

hybrid format was making decisions concerning what and how to study. The English

courses she had taken before emphasized grammar, vocabulary, and product-oriented

writing. Naturally, Jang focused on these areas. Since drills were the most familiar forms

of the language practice, she continued using them throughout the course. This approach

was initially flawed since the course was designed to develop writing in a close

connection with reading, concept development, and social knowledge construction. Not

only the format of learning but also its underlying philosophy was new to Jang. Thus,

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Jang’s decision to expand her language practice through the Web site self-study resources

was the best one she could make at that time. Given the fact that she had never studied

outside her native country before, her limitations are understandable.

In sum, the evidence of Jang’s self-directedness in the hybrid course includes time

management; self-discipline; motivation to study; use of additional resources; and

evaluating her own strengths and weaknesses. The areas that need improvement include

setting higher her learning goals; expanding her areas of general interest; and making

decisions regarding her plan of study.

Evidence and Discussion of Jang’s Use of Learning Strategies

The data obtained from Jang’s biweekly learning experiences questionnaires

clearly showed that she used all sets of strategies to a much greater extent online than in

class. Partially, it happened as a result of Jang’s extensive online practice for which she

dedicated approximately 30 hours a week. However, the changes that occurred in the use

of strategies in both environments indicate that Jang’s experiences learning online and in

class were becoming more interconnected. Comparing the patterns outlined in Figures

21-24, I noticed the tendency of most strategies to decrease in-class and increase online

in the first few weeks. Then the online rates would continue to rise until they reached the

highest point; their in-class counterparts would also begin to increase but never as high as

online. The analyses of these data are given in the following discussion.

Memory strategies. The use of memory strategies was consistently higher online

than in class. Based on the data shown in Table 27, only using imagery and reviewing

material online and in class received equal scores in the first two weeks. The rest of the

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semester, most of these strategies prevailed online even though their use in class also

rose.

Table 27 Jang’s Biweekly Evaluations of the Use of Memory Strategies

Weeks 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-12

The use of: T O T O T O T O T O T O

Associating 3 4 3 4 3 5 4 5 4 5 4 5

New words in context 4 5 4 5 2 5 4 5 4 5 4 5

Imagery 4 4 4 5 5 5 4 5 4 5 4 5

Keywords 3 4 3 4 4 5 4 4 4 5 4 5

Reviewing 4 4 4 4 3 5 4 5 4 5 4 5

Biweekly average 3.6 4.2 3.6 4.4 3.4 5 4 4.8 4 5 4 5

Note. The biweekly evaluations of memory strategies were performed on the scale of 1 (worst) to 5 (best). T = traditional environment; O = online environment. As an experienced learner, Jang immediately gave preference to memory

strategies online, where she had more opportunities to work with text and imagery.

Specifically, placing new words in context online received the highest score throughout

the course. This can be explained by the fact that online reading offered more relevant

vocabulary. It was easier to understand the meaning of the new words since many of

them were hyperlinked to the pictures and dictionary definitions. Online dictionaries were

also provided to the students through the Web site. Finally, placing the words in context

included using them in writing and online communication with peers. Such diverse

vocabulary practice was not possible in class and, therefore, was evaluated the lowest.

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Figure 21 demonstrates that studying online required more memory strategies

than in class. By the third biweekly report, it was clear that her online study needed more

effort than her class work. Therefore, there was a slight decrease in the use of memory

strategies in class. However, as Jang continued learning and gaining experience in the

hybrid format, she divided her attention between the classroom and the Web site.

Knowing what amount of material she had to work with allowed her to adjust her

memory strategies to the requirements of each environment.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1 2 3 4 5 6

Bi-weekly

Avera

ge

Class

Online

Figure 21. Bar graph showing changes in Jang’s use of memory strategies in class and online.

Cognitive strategies. Unlike all other sets of strategies, cognitive strategies found

a slightly greater use in class than online in the first two weeks. However, the following

evaluations showed their stable growth online and decrease in class. This pattern changed

in the second half of the semester, when cognitive strategies reached their peak in the

online environment and continued to fluctuate in the traditional one.

The first two weeks was the time when Jang was learning to use the Web site and

discovering what role it played in the entire course structure. In that period, her online

experiences were limited to completing the reading, discussion, and writing assignments.

As a result, most of the strategies in this set received equal scores in both environments.

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However, her next biweekly report showed that more of her learning started happening

online than in class and, therefore, required more cognitive strategies in that environment

(see Figure 22). Compared with classroom instruction, the level of difficulty of the online

material was higher for Jang and prompted her to apply various cognitive strategies in

order to complete the assignments.

Table 28 Jang’s Biweekly Evaluations of the Use of Cognitive Strategies

Weeks 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-12

The use of: T O T O T O T O T O T O

Repeating 4 4 4 4 3 5 4 5 4 5 4 5

Recognizing 5 4 5 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

Adding resources 4 4 4 5 3 5 4 5 4 5 3 5

Analyzing 4 4 3 5 2 5 4 5 4 5 4 5

Summarizing 4 4 3 5 3 5 4 5 4 5 4 5

Biweekly average 4.2 4 3.8 4.6 3 5 4.2 5 4.2 5 4 5

Note. The biweekly evaluations of cognitive strategies were performed on the scale of one (worst) to five (best). T = traditional environment; O = online environment. Recognizing is the only strategy in this set that received the highest scores for the

use in class in nearly all evaluations. A possible explanation can be Jang’s earlier

acquired learning style with an emphasis on form recognition rather than language

production. In contrast, analyzing and summarizing which required an active

manipulation of the material lost their values in class when Jang became more

accustomed to using the Web site, which provided a more interactive learning

environment.

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It is also important to note that the steadily dominant position of cognitive

strategies online did not change for the most part of the semester while in class their

stability was established only in the second half. In addition to the differences in the

amount and complexity of the assignments offered in class and online, it indicates that

the online environment helped Jang develop some of her cognitive strategies and transfer

them to learning in class.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1 2 3 4 5 6

Bi-weekly

Avera

ge

Class

Online

Figure 22. Bar graph showing changes in Jang’s use of cognitive strategies in class and online.

Compensation strategies. The use of compensation strategies online was given

clear preference since the beginning of the semester. Table 29 demonstrates that all items

in this set were receiving the highest rates throughout the semester. Compared with the

online environment, these strategies were used much less in class, especially in the first

half of the semester. However, the situation improved at the end of the course, when Jang

started working more collaboratively and, therefore, had to apply more compensation

strategies in the traditional setting.

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Table 29 Jang’s Biweekly Evaluations of the Use of Compensation Strategies

Weeks 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-12

The use of: T O T O T O T O T O T O

Language clues 3 4 3 5 3 5 3 5 4 5 4 5

Native language 2 4 2 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 4 5

Help from experts 3 4 3 5 3 5 4 5 4 5 4 5

Communication 4 4 3 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 5 5

Message adjustment 2 4 2 5 3 5 3 5 4 5 4 5

Average 2.8 4 2.6 5 3 5 3.4 5 4 5 4.2 5

Note. The biweekly evaluations of compensation strategies were performed on the scale of one (worst) to five (best). T = traditional environment; O = online environment.

Due to the nature of the online learning, Jang had more freedom to use a variety

of compensation strategies in order to better acquire the material. As she often mentioned

in her interviews, while studying in class, she felt confined by social rules which stopped

her from attracting attention to her personal learning needs. Thus, the social environment

in class was a restricting factor in her use of compensation strategies. In contrast, she felt

liberated while working online. Knowing that no one was watching her, she was less

apprehensive of her language errors and could communicate more and ask for help when

she needed it. Since all communication online occurred through reading and writing, she

was forced to manipulate the text with the help of language clues, direct translation, and

message adjustment. As a result, all compensation strategies were required to a much

greater extent in this environment.

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The use of compensation strategies online also helped her become more confident

in her communication skills. The online discussions, where many of these strategies were

used, made her more aware of her own potential as a learner as well as cultural

differences and personalities of her classmates. These changes found their reflection in

her face-to-face learning. As shown in Figure 23, the in-class use of compensation

strategies was steadily growing since the third biweekly period. Although they were

never used as much as online, their increase indicates that Jang was developing as a

learner in both environments and transferring skills from one to the other.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1 2 3 4 5 6

Bi-weekly

Avera

ge

Class

Online

Figure 23. Bar graph showing changes in Jang’s use of compensation strategies in class and online.

Social strategies. Just like memory and compensation strategies, social strategies

online immediately outweighed their use in class and reached its highest level by the

middle of the semester. Even though there was a slight decrease in the fourth and fifth

biweekly periods, overall the online environment called for more social strategies than

the traditional one. Based on the data presented in Table 30, another significant

difference is that social strategies were used more consistently online than in class, where

their pattern was highly irregular.

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Table 30 Jang’s Biweekly Evaluations of the Use of Social Strategies

Weeks 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-12

The use of: T O T O T O T O T O T O

Asking to clarify 4 4 3 4 5 5 3 5 4 5 4 5

Asking to correct 4 4 4 5 5 5 4 5 4 5 4 5

Cooperating 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 4 5 4 5 5

Communicating with more

proficient speakers

3 4 3 4 5 5 3 5 4 5 4 5

Developing cultural understanding 3 3 3 4 5 5 4 5 3 5 5 5

Average 3.6 3.8 3.4 4.2 4.8 5 3.6 4.8 4 4.8 4.4 5

Note. The biweekly evaluations of social strategies were performed on the scale of one (worst) to five (best). T = traditional environment; O = online environment. Jang’s evaluations of her use of social strategies demonstrate the changes in her

learning experiences. At the beginning of the semester, she obviously felt that both

environments provided equal opportunities for all aspects of her social learning except

communicating with more proficient speakers. However, her opinion began to change

when she realized that she was involved in more interaction online than in class. The

more she used the Web site, the more social strategies she needed.

The stability of Jang’s online scores shown in Figure 24 can be explained by the

fact that online discussion was an integral part of the course. Following the requirement

to participate in the blog at least four times during the week, she found herself immersed

in the discourse which was impossible without asking questions, correcting, and sharing

information. On the other hand, acting this way in class disagreed with Jang’s

understanding of the proper behavior of a student. She used social strategies only when

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she was assigned to work in a group with other students, but she never initiated a social

interaction if the task did not require it. Online, however, where physical presence could

not substitute for communication, she had no choice but to interact with others. As a

result, social strategies were more frequently applied online than in class.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1 2 3 4 5 6

Bi-weekly

Avera

ge

Class

Online

Figure 24. Bar graph showing changes in Jang’s use of social strategies in class and online. Comparison of Jang’s Use of Learning Strategies

The data obtained from Jang’s biweekly evaluations indicate that studying online

required more learning strategies than in class, which can be seen in Figure 25. Among

the four categories, cognitive strategies had the leading position in a combination of both

environments. Jang explained it by her preference to learn from working with the text,

which required frequent use of such cognitive strategies as repeating, recognizing, and

using additional resources both in class and online. However, applied separately in class

and online they came second to social and compensation ones respectively.

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0

20

40

60

Class

Online

Both

Class 18.83 19.5 16.67 19.83

Online 23.67 23.83 24.17 23

Both 42.5 43.33 40.84 42.83

Memory Cognitive Compens Social

Figure 25. Bar graph showing differences in Jang’s use of strategies in the hybrid format.

Jang’s evaluation of social strategies in class was based on her perception of

learning among her peers. Staying quiet, she was nevertheless listening to and observing

her classmates, which made her feel as part of the group and helped her learn. Inwardly,

she was impressed with the fact that other students could express their opinions and ask

questions openly without waiting to be called on. This prompted her to place social

strategies as the highest she used in class. Online, however, they were rated the lowest of

all because of her disappointment with not getting responses from some peers, but their

combined score was high due to the frequent use in class.

On the other hand, compensation strategies were evaluated the lowest in class

since they required “overcoming limitations” in speaking when applied in a social setting

(Oxford, 1990, p. 47). Least practical were switching to the native language, which was

not possible in the multilingual environment, and adjusting the message, which required

verbal communication. Due to Jang’s personal learning behavior, most of her language

was produced online, where she felt more comfortable to communicate in writing and

compensate for the gaps in knowledge. Therefore, compensation strategies were used the

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most online and the least in class among the four sets. The large difference in these

values made them the least used in a combination of both environments.

Summary of Case 4

This course added many discoveries to Jang’s knowledge of cultures,

communication, and ways of learning. New in the United States, she was overwhelmed

with differences in teaching methods and school requirements. Moreover, she had to

adjust to the hybrid learning format, which was a new and unusual experience. However,

as a disciplined and responsible person, she was able to stay focused on her learning tasks

and not succumb to self-pity.

In spite of the significant gaps in her language skills and general knowledge,

which hindered her overall progress, there were several victories. During the course, she

learned to look critically at her performance and choose her own activities and resources

to address the most obvious language problems. The Web site, which initially seemed

complex and intimidating, became a friendly companion in her learning process. Not

satisfied with the textbook practice, she frequently resorted to the online resources to find

answers to her language-related questions. However, it was the online communication

format that contributed the most to her learning success. The online expansion activities

which involved reading, discussion, and writing gave her multiple opportunities to apply

her language skills and learn from her more advanced peers. Studying in this

environment, she was encouraged to use more learning strategies, which improved her in-

class experiences as well. The result of her efforts was better writing and general

language use.

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However, one semester was not enough time to eliminate all of Jang’s problems.

Her cultural view on learning and teaching was one of the blocks that stopped her from

becoming more self-directed as a learner. Being accustomed to following her instructors’

directions, she could not decide independently what goal to set and how to reach it in the

most efficient way. To a large extent, her progress in this course was affected by lack of

critical thinking skills which made it difficult for her to internalize the new concepts and

reflected negatively on her writing skills development. These issues prevented her from

achieving better learning results.

What features characterize changes in Jang’s writing in the hybrid EAP course?

During the course, Jang’s writing demonstrated such changes as better

organization and unity, improvements in stating the controlling idea and maintaining

focus in writing, and better use of syntax and punctuation.

What evidence of Jang’s self-directedness was present in the hybrid format?

Jang’s self-directedness in this study was evident mainly in her progress in

practice time management and self-discipline which allowed her to regulate her learning

and stay focused on the problems she decided to overcome and the tasks she was

assigned to complete. Additionally, she maintained a high level of motivation throughout

the course and was able to significantly increase her independent study time.

Which learning strategies (memory, cognitive, compensation, or social) did Jang

prefer to use more in this type of environment?

In a combination of both environments, priority was given to cognitive and, to a

smaller degree, social and memory strategies. While studying in class, Jang most

frequently relied on social and cognitive strategies; compensation strategies were used

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least of all. Online, the most preferred strategies were compensation, cognitive, and

memory.

Cross-Case Examination

This case study revealed many features that were inalienable part of hybrid

learning. The three areas that were addressed through the research questions—writing,

self-directed learning, and learning strategies—create the core of this learning format due

to the students’ involvement in writing discourse and independent study. The findings

indicate that the hybrid course expanded their writing experiences and raised their skills

and levels of self-awareness as learners. Each case produced some evidence of success in

most areas of the investigation. Yet there were difficulties which should be considered in

hybrid course design.

Research Question 1

The four participants in this study had high-intermediate (Level 6) overall

language proficiency at the beginning of the course. However, there were differences in

their speaking and writing skills, educational background, and experiences in the English

speaking environment. Yana and Jang, who recently arrived in the United States, had

more difficulties in communication and correct use of grammar. However, Yana had

more learning experiences in higher education settings and was able to learn fast by

building upon her strong learning skills. Her prior education allowed her to develop

general knowledge and establish her personal style of thought expression, which required

specific vocabulary and sentence structure. Jang, on the other hand, learned English as a

school subject and could not easily make a transition to using it as a means of verbal and

written communication. Gio and Joe had lived in the US for seven and six years

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respectively. During that time, they developed their communicative competence by using

English socially and taking ESL classes. Although they spent almost equal number of

semesters studying English, Joe’s writing and grammar were more advanced than Gio’s.

In fact, Gio’s grammar skills were the lowest among the participants in spite of her taking

six semesters of ESL. Thus, due to the differences in skills and attitudes to learning, there

were no uniformed results regarding changes in writing at the end of the semester (see

Table 31).

Table 31 Summary of Changes in the Participants’ Writing at the End of the Semester

What features characterize changes in the writing skills?

Yana, Gio, Joe, Jang

Yana, Joe

Yana, Joe

Gio, Jang

Yana, Joe, Jang

Yana, Gio

Common changes

1. Better organization of writing: clear presentation of controlling idea,

relevant supporting details, improved sequence of supporting details

and examples, improved unity of writing

2. Better content of writing: including interesting details, thorough

development

3. Increased volume of writing

4. Better sentence structures

5. Better punctuation

6. Better spelling

Yana, Gio, Joe, Jang

Gio, Jang

Gio, Jang

Gio, Jang

Common difficulties

1. Difficulties in the use of grammar: verb forms, prepositions, articles

2. Difficulties in general language use

3. Lack of general knowledge

4. Lack of critical thinking skills

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As shown in Figure 26, the participants also demonstrated different gains in the

volume of language production and grades. Yana made the most progress in these areas

based on the difference between the average results in the first and second halves of the

semester. Joe increased his average volume of writing, whereas his average grade did not

change as dramatically as Yana’s. Gio, on the other hand, improved the quality of writing

more than its volume. Jang increased the volume of her paragraph writing, but she could

not keep up with the blog communication due to technical problems in the second half of

the semester and decreased her blog participation. Although she started writing longer

paragraphs, she did not have a significant gain in her grades because of her overall low

level of language production.

-100

0

100

200

300

400

500

Blog volume

Paragr. volume

Grade gain

Blog volume 268 77 130 -14

Paragr. volume 435 44 134 88

Grade gain 11.8 7.6 4.6 0.7

Yana Gio Joe Jang

Figure 26. Bar graph showing differences in the average writing volume and grades. The values represent the differences between the average numbers of word count and grade received in the middle and at the end of the semester.

In order to have a complete account of the changes in the participants’ writing

skills, it is important to compare their writing performance at the beginning and at the end

of the semester. Table 32 shows that Yana and Gio initially had the lowest grades.

However, there is a significant gap between their highest grades, which indicates

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different growth of writing skills. Joe’s initial grade was much higher than Yana’s, yet he

did not perform as well as Yana did. Gio and Jang had slightly different writing

proficiency at the beginning and at the end of the semester; however, the difference

between their highest and lowest grades is the same, which suggests that they had equal

gain. Based on the differences in the volume of writing and grades, Yana and Joe became

the most proficient writers, while Gio and Jang achieved less success.

Table 32 Summary of the Differences in Average Writing Volume and Grades throughout the

Semester

Blog volume Paragraph volume Grade

lowest highest lowest highest lowest highest

Yana 131 679 271 1,442 64 97

Gio 114 420 133 485 64 80

Joe 216 815 276 720 71 93

Jang 160 589 209 504 75 91

Case 1: Yana— “The Team Player”

Compared with the other participants, Yana showed the most changes in her

writing which are evident in the increase of the volume and quality of writing (see Figure

26). Part of her success was her strong educational background and high level of

motivation which allowed her to utilize her general knowledge and learning skills in her

independent study. Thanks to the online component of the course, her language learning

became a continuing process of seeking and sharing knowledge, which helped her

increase her volume of writing (see Figure 26 & Table 32). Being constantly exposed to

new ideas and ways of expressing them in the blog and Writing Shop, Yana improved her

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overall understanding of the language and became motivated to write better posts. The

skills she developed through online reading and communication were enhanced by

additional grammar practice. Learning from different sources and applying the language

in various academic discussions resulted in improving the quality of her writing which

can be seen in the difference between her lowest and highest grades. It is obvious from

Table 32 that Yana started the course as a beginning writer; however, her grades

continued to improve throughout the course, and her final grade of 97 was the highest in

her group.

I am so happy that I have this Web site. I don’t think I would have learned as much in these six weeks without the Web site. (Week 6 interview)

Case 2: Gio “The Outsider”

Having worked closely with Gio throughout the course, I realized that making an

effort was not her learning style. Although she was punctual and polite in class, she

completed her assignments without enthusiasm, often superficially and inattentively. Her

difficulties in grammar and writing after taking six semesters of ESL indicate that such

learning behavior was typical for her and not caused by the new learning format.

Gio’s approach to learning was completely different from that of her peers due to

her lack of motivation to study on her own. Unlike Yana, she did not take advantage of

the Web site. Her hybrid learning experience was limited to posting brief responses to the

blog discussion questions, first draft demonstrations, and some grammar practice which

was inconsistent and spontaneous. For her, the online assignments were just another form

of homework, which she did formally, with no interest in becoming part of the learning

community. She avoided participating in the blog discussions and sharing her ideas with

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others. Thus, the power of social learning did not make an impact on her language

progress. As a result, she did not show a significant gain in either area of writing.

I don’t know what to say to people or how to make them interested in my opinion. I don’t like to argue. If I know something well, I just keep it to myself. (Week 10 interview)

Case 3: Joe— “The Leader”

Joe’s experience in the hybrid course was similar to Yana’s in that he approached

online communication as an opportunity to share his knowledge and opinions with his

peers. In order to do that, he read and researched additional materials and worked on his

blog posts as much as he did on his writing assignments. His outgoing personality made

him the leader of the online discussions, which required serious work on his language

skills. His volume of writing was higher than other students’ at the beginning of the

course and increased further in the second half of the semester (see Figure 26). Since his

grammar was also more advanced, he focused on the content and organization of writing.

Thus, even though he made significant improvement in both areas, his grades did not

increase as dramatically as Yana’s.

Through interaction online, I have to look for more information and use all my resources. I want to put quality posts, so I am challenged to give more. (Week 8 interview)

Case 4: Jang— “The Follower”

Jang’s progress in writing was not as great as Yana’s or Joe’s, yet it can be

considered quite significant given that she had learned most of her English in her native

country, where the purpose of learning the language was to perform well on the test

rather than to use it for communication. Her success is most obvious in the writing

organization and sentence structure. However, her lack of general knowledge and critical

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thinking skills created difficulties in acquiring more language through online reading and

communication. Although she was diligent about participating in the blog discussions,

she could contribute little knowledge of her own. Technical problems also interfered with

her progress. The volume of her blog writing decreased at the end of the semester, when

she lost her Internet connection. Yet the online practice helped her develop confidence

and learn from others.

Online I find more new things because I see more posts. In class I don’t hear new things often. (Week 4 interview)

Research Question 2

In spite of the differences in learning needs, goals, levels of motivation, and

attitude to learning, all participants demonstrated some common evidence of self-

directedness and the challenges in the Web-based environment and ability to exercise

self-directedness (see Table 33).

Table 33 Summary of Evidence of Self-Directedness Found in the Hybrid Course

What evidence of self-directedness is present in the hybrid learning format?

Yana, Joe, Jang

Yana, Joe, Jang

Yana, Joe, Jang

Yana, Joe

Yana, Joe, Jang

Yana, Jang

Yana, Jang

Yana, Joe, Jang

Common evidence

1. Setting new learning goals

2. Persistence in pursuing learning objectives

3. The use of additional resources

4. High expectations of themselves

5. Motivation to learn

6. Critical self-evaluation

7. Recognizing strengths and weaknesses

8. Plan further steps in learning

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Yana, Joe, Jang 9. Seeking help from others

Yana, Gio, Joe

Yana, Gio, Joe

Jang, Gio

Joe, Gio

Common difficulties

1. Self-discipline

2. Time-management skills

3. Decision making

4. Monitoring progress

Due to their cultural backgrounds and personalities, the participants approached

learning in different ways and had different expectations of themselves, their instructor,

and their learning community. Their nicknames—Team Player (Yana), Leader (Joe),

Outsider (Gio), and Follower (Jang)—reflect their personalities and levels of involvement

with others while working on a learning task. Thus, self-directedness in this course was

highly individual for each person.

Case 1: Yana— “The Team Player”

Yana approached learning as a constructive process, in which she placed herself

as a co-participant both in the traditional and online environment. Due to her sociable

personality and high expectations of herself, she was open to the idea of trying new ways

of learning. Although she had never used online technologies for learning English before,

she did not hesitate to make the Web site her learning companion. Having the access to

the online discussions and resources, she was able to broaden the range of her learning

goals and choose the tools to reach them.

During the course, Yana demonstrated that she was capable of regulating her own

learning. An important part of this process was her understanding of her strengths and

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weaknesses, which allowed her to plan new steps and evaluate her progress. A few times,

her weekly self-evaluations reflected self-discipline issues such as not allocating enough

time or not pushing herself hard enough to complete the assignment. However, such

instances were not common and did not create a problem in her learning process. On an

average week, Yana spent about 20 hours studying on her own. Her motivation and the

drive to succeed were very strong due to her eagerness to become more familiar with

American culture and find her place in this society. It helped her to improve not only her

English skills but also her self-regulative competency.

Case 2: Gio— “The Outsider”

Gio was the only participant who did not demonstrate strong evidence of self-

directedness. The main problem was absence of clear goals and a real need to improve

her English. Her position as a Spanish editor did not put high demands on her second

language skills. Although she would have liked to complete the education she started in

her native country, she did not feel that it was an urgent necessity and, therefore, did not

have a strong intrinsic motivation to make maximum progress in the shortest amount of

time, which greatly affected her self-discipline and time-management (Edom et al.,

2004). Unlike the other participants, she spent only about five hours a week studying

online. The fact that she was negligent about her weekly plans and did not consider

seriously either setting new goals or evaluating her progress indicates that she was not

interested in taking control over her learning progress.

Although the study did not specifically address the relationship between the type

of personality and self-regulation of learning, it is important to mention that Gio’s

position of an outsider in class and online limited her chances of learning from her more

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advanced peers and diminished her learning progress as well. In the first weeks, she was

explaining it by lack of cultural understanding. At the end of the semester, however, she

admitted that she simply chose not to be involved. This choice was made poorly since

interaction could have increased her motivation to learn (Frankola, 2001, as cited in

Edom et al, 2004) in addition to giving her a variety of learning experiences. As a result

of avoiding learning, Gio’s performance in class was lower than other student’.

Case 3: Joe— “The Leader”

Joe’s motivation to learn was the strongest among the four participants since it

was sustained by his ambition to be ahead of the group. He immediately saw learning in

both environments as an opportunity to bring his skills and knowledge to a much higher

level than would be possible in a traditional course. Like Yana, he also wanted to learn

English faster in order to explore new possibilities for work and study and improve his

social status. However, as a learner, he was not objective in his self-assessment. Trying to

be perfect, he considered every error a serious problem. This approach affected his

weekly self-evaluations where every item he found less than perfect was graded

unsatisfactory.

Joe’s persistence in learning was evident in the amount of time he spent practicing

online. His typical week included about 25 hours of independent study, which were

distributed between his grammar, writing, and online communication activities many of

which Joe selected based on his own interests. Through the Web site, he was able to add

a number of resources to augment his class material and become more self-reliant in his

learning progress.

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Case 4: Jang— “The Follower”

Of all the participants, Jang had the strongest self-discipline and time-

management skills which she developed based on the traditional rules of learning

behavior in her native country. Since early childhood, she was trained to follow the

instructions to the letter and be responsible for completing the assignments. These

qualities allowed her to stay focused on learning tasks which she approached with

persistence and eagerness to improve her language skills. However, the drawback of her

traditional learning style was lack of metacognitive strategies which would allow her to

take control over her learning. She was unable to make personal decisions regarding her

learning goals and replicated the ones set by the course. Her weekly plans did not reflect

any personal interests or attempts to expand her general knowledge. Yet her goals were

concrete and attainable through the steps she planned. The simplicity of Jang’s weekly

plans was an indication of the beginning stage of her developing self-directedness.

Another shift to being more self-directed occurred in organizing her learning

tasks. Immersed in a pool of new information and learning activities, she felt disoriented

and could not prioritize the tasks at first. However, evaluating her weekly progress, she

learned to identify the areas that needed more attention and avoided making the wrong

steps. Based on the analysis of her own performance, she was able to focus on the areas

that needed more practice. Since this was the first course that provided additional

resources online, it took Jang some time to appreciate the convenience of the new format.

Being used to the traditional way of learning, she used to wait for the textbook

assignment to be given for each class. When she saw that the Web site offered a larger

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variety of learning resources than the textbook, she started studying independently online.

This was a major step toward becoming more self-directed.

Research Question 3

The investigation of the use of learning strategies in the hybrid learning format

complemented the findings on the students’ self-directedness which could not be

achieved without such metacognitive strategies as setting goals, planning steps, and

performing self-evaluation. Learning in the traditional and online environments, however,

required direct manipulation of the text and oral communication which involved using

memory, cognitive, compensation, and social strategies. Similarly to exercising self-

directedness, the use of learning strategies demonstrated that each participant had highly

individual approach to learning.

The data in Figure 27 indicate that all strategies were used to a greater extent

online than in class by all the participants except Gio, who rated her strategies almost

equally in both environments. Since Gio spent about five hours a week studying

independently online while the other participants spent between 20 and 30 hours, it is

possible to assume that those learners, who studied online more used, more learning

strategies than Gio, who studied online very little. It is also clear that Joe and Jang, whose

face-to-face instruction took place once a week, used significantly more learning

strategies than Yana and Gio, who had classroom instruction twice a week. It can be

explained by the fact that the participants in the Saturday program had to study more on

their own than those in the evening program. It suggests that there may be a relationship

between the frequency of sessions and the use of strategies. However, neither of these

assumptions was targeted by the study and, therefore, could not be verified.

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0

50

100

150

200

Class

Online

Both

Class 63.8 63.6 71 74.83

Online 83.8 63.4 92.8 94.67

Both 147.6 127.2 163.8 169.5

Yana Gio Joe Jang

Figure 27. Bar graph showing comparison of overall use of strategies by the participants.

The summarised data in Table 34 show that among the four categories social

strategies were rated the highest in class and the lowest online; compensation and

cognitive strategies were used the most online and the least in class. Memory strategies

received average evaluation in both environments.

Table 34 Comparison of the Use of Individual Strategies in Class and Online

Memory

Cognitive Compensation Social

Class Online Class Online Class Online Class Online

Yana 16.2 22.4 15.8 22.8 17 20.4 14.8 18.2

Gio 16.8 14.8 14.6 16.6 15.4 16 16.8 16

Joe 16 23 15.5 23.3 18.5 23.7 21 22.8

Jang 18.8 23.7 19.5 23.8 16.7 24.2 19.8 23

Note. The values in this table represent the average of the total scores obtained from biweekly evaluations of the use of learning strategies in class and online. Case 1: Yana— “The Team Player”

Yana’s use of all four sets of strategies online was greater than in class. In

particular, she relied the most on cognitive and memory strategies while studying in the

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online environment. Both of these categories involved direct interaction with the text and

applying crtical thinking skills. This refects Yana’s approach to learning which placed a

great importance to details, patterns, and associations between the new concepts and the

existing ones. Social strategies were the least used online and in class because she felt

that was not receiving enough peer support in each environment. Compensation strategies

which include a variety of skills allowing to understand the new material were used the

most in class. This can be explained by the fact that attending the class twice a week she

had to process more new information and had an opportunity to use the language in direct

interaction with her classmates. Working online, she was internalizing this information

through a more detailed manipulation of the language and, therefore, required memory

and cognitive strategies.

Case 2: Gio— “The Outsider”

Gio’s evaluations did not show a significant difference in the use of strategies in

class and online (see Figure 27). The main reason is that she did not study as much online

as the other participants. As a student in the evening program, she spent six hours a week

in class and only about five hours a week online. Therefore, she used most of the

strategies similarly in both environments. In class, she most commonly relied on memory

and social strategies, among which the highest evaluation was often given to elaborating,

reviewing, and asking for clarification and correction. It indicates that she preferred to

receive direct explanations than to work with the material by herself and apply effort,

which also points to her low level of motivation. Online, however, she used more

cognitive strategies than the other categories, which can be explained by the need to

repeat the class topic and to use additional grammar resources. However, none of the

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categories significantly outwheighed the others in either environment. Thus, Gio’s lack of

motivation to study affected not only her self-directedness but also the strategies she used

outside of class.

Case 3: Joe— “The Leader”

Joe’s use of learning strategies online was significantly higher than in class. In

this respect, his evaluations are similar to those of Yana’s; however, all his score for

online use of strategies exceeded Yana’s as a result of spending more time online. Joe’s

class met only once a week, which forced him to study independently. With the help of

the Web site, he was able to incorporate a variety of learning activities, which explains

the fact that compensation strategies which led to a better understanding of the material

were evaluated the highest in this environment. Social strategies were used the least

online because Joe felt that it was more appropriate to ask for clarification and correction

face to face. However, he emphasized the use of social strategies in class as most relevant

in his role of a leader. Since interaction was his preferred learning style, cognitive

strategies, which required concentrating on the forms and patterns, were used the least in

class.

Case 4: Jang— “The Follower”

Jang used the most learning strategies in both environments (see Figure 27). All

her online evaluations were higher than those of Joe and Yana’s since she also spent the

most time studying online. Like Joe, she used compensation strategies the most online

where she worked on all her language skills. Another similarity is that social strategies

also received the lowest evaluation in the online environment. However, Jang was not

intimidated to ask questions online. The main reason was lack of cooperation with her

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peers which Jang could not overcome due to her limited general knowledge and cultural

understanding. On the other hand, social strategies were used the most in class, where

Jang had no choice but to collaborate with the partners in the group she was assigned to.

The least used in class were compensation strategies regardless of being the highest

evaluated online. It indicates that the traditional environment did not offer as much

variety of learning experiences as the Web site.

Results of Cross-Case Examination

In brief, the data obtained during the case study demonstrate findings in the

following areas:

1. Changes in the writing of the students include improvements in the organization,

content, volume of writing, syntax, and spelling.

2. Evidence of self-directedness includes motivation to learn; regulating learning by

setting goals, evaluting progress, and planning steps to achieve goals; and

recognizing strengths and weaknesses.

3. The use of all four groups of learning strategies (memory, cognitive,

compensation, and social) in the hybrid learning format is characterized by their

greater application online than in class.

Evidence of Quality

In order to ensure validity and reliability of the case study, the data were

interpreted within and generalized to the conceptual framework established earlier in the

study. Its components included Vygotsky’s (1962) theory of social learning; Scardamalia

and Bereiter’s (1994) model of computer-supported intentional learning environment

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(CSILE); Bandura’s (1986) theory of self-efficacy; and Oxford’s (1990) classification of

language learning strategies.

Reliability in this study was viewed as the property of information (Merriam,

1988; Stake, 1995; Yin, 2003) and strengthened by using the following strategies:

1. The participants had a similar level of language proficiency.

2. The study was conducted during the entire semester.

3. The questionnaire items were designed to seek evidence in response to the

research questions.

4. The participants were involved in repetitive learning activities which allowed for

establishing commonalities and differences in their learning behavior.

5. The participants evaluated the same learning experiences and strategies on a

weekly and biweekly basis.

6. Accurate records of collected data were kept throughout the study.

Following Yin (2003) and Stake (2006), validity was ensured by performing

additional data treatment:

1. Triangulation was used to cross-check the data on each research question using

multiple sources.

2. The results of the questionnaires and interviews were discussed with the

participants in order to receive their feedback and verify accuracy.

3. The participants’ writing samples and the results of the questionnaires and

interviews were discussed with three colleagues in order to receive different

points of view and reduce the possibility of researcher’s bias.

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4. The assumptions and conclusions concerning the processes and the results of the

study were critically re-examined throughout the study.

Summary

This chapter presented the data collection process and treatment of the evidence

received in the course of the case study. The description of the hybrid course, which

included students’ first impressions of this learning format, the organization of the

course, and the feedback form the participants, was given in order to place the study in a

specific context and create the background for the discussion of individual cases. Four

students attending evening and Saturday EAP classes volunteered to participate in this

research. Their writing samples, weekly self-evaluations, and the responses to biweekly

questionnaires and in-person interviews provided evidence that allowed for answering the

research questions. The discussion of each case study included personal introduction of

the participants, demonstration of the evidence related to the research questions, and

analysis of the evidence. Cross-case examination included summary of findings among

the four cases followed by the individual case studies which allowed for establishing

commonalities and differences in the results of the investigation. The chapter also

contains summary of the strategies which were used in this study in order to ensure its

reliability and validity.

Due to the differences in the English language skills, cultural background, and

motivation to learn, each participant achieved a different degree of success. However,

based on the obtained data, it is possible to find similarities in changes of their writing

and learning behavior. Thus, the most common changes in the writing are reflected in the

improvements in the organization, content, volume of writing, syntax, and spelling. The

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evidence of self-directedness is demonstrated in motivation to learn; regulating learning

by setting goals, evaluting progress, and planning steps to achieve goals; and recognizing

strengths and weaknesses of self-directedness. The use of all four groups of language

learning strategies (memory, cognitive, compensation, and social) in the hybrid format

was found to be greater online than in class.

The data presented in this chapter are interpreted in chapter 5, which concludes

the discussion of the findings in this case study. The interpretations and conclusions on

each research question are given within the conceptual framework which is built on

social learning theory. The chapter introduces the factors, such as learners’ cultural

background, time management, and critical thinking skills, which were encountered

during the study but could not be addressed due to the limitations of the research design.

These factors indicate directions for further research in the area of hybrid learning. In

addition to suggestions for further research, chapter 5 gives recommendations for

practical application of the findings and discusses their implications for social change. To

complete the discussion, the chapter includes reflections on the experiences of teaching

the hybrid EAP course and conducting the research.

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION

This chapter completes the discussion of the findings obtained during the case

study of the hybrid EAP course. The purpose of the study was threefold: to investigate (a)

changes in the writing skills of college-bound adult ESL student; (b) evidence of their

self-directedness; and (c) the use of learning strategies in the hybrid learning format. The

need for studying the application of the hybrid design in the EAP course was called for

by the importance of improving the effectiveness of precollege ESL writing instruction

and enhancing learners’ language acquisition through a continuous reading and writing

discourse.

This research was designed as a qualitative case study in order to incorporate

multiple sources of evidence and data collection techniques and to better understand

students’ attitudes and behaviors which can lead to positive changes in their writing skills

in a hybrid course. The case study took place at Westchester Community College (WCC),

NY, where the hybrid EAP course was taught. Four participants from willing volunteers

were selected for this investigation. Two of them were attending the EAP course in the

evening program and received six hours a week of classroom instruction for 10 weeks;

two others were studying in the Saturday EAP program and had one 3-hour face-to-face

session a week for 12 weeks. All participants had high-intermediate level of the English

language proficiency at the beginning of the semester.

Three research questions were addressed in this study:

1. What features characterize changes in the writing of ESL students in hybrid

courses?

2. What evidence of self-directedness is present in the hybrid program?

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3. Which learning strategies (memory, cognitive, compensation, or social) do

students prefer to utilize more in this type of environment?

The data collected during the investigation indicate that the most common

changes in student writing include improvements in the organization. At the end of the

course, all four participants were able to clearly state the controlling idea of their writing,

provide relevant supporting details, organize the details in correct sequence, and maintain

the unity of writing. Additionally, there was evidence of improvement in the content and

volume of writing, sentence organization, punctuation, and spelling. However, due to the

highly individual nature of language acquisition and differences in prior educational

experiences and motivation, there were no uniformed results in improving the quality of

writing. In particular, it refers to slow progress in grammar and general language use and

difficulties in applying background knowledge and critical thinking skills.

The evidence of self-directedness in the hybrid course was presented by the

students’ motivation to learn and their ability to regulate their learning by setting new

goals, evaluating their progress, and planning further steps in learning. Their independent

study involved using multiple resources provided through the Web site (esl-page.com)

and researching new topics of their interests. Other elements of self-directedness in this

course included high expectations of themselves, which helped the learners stay

persistent in achieving their goals and perform critical analysis of their progress in order

to address their strengths and weaknesses. Most of the participants spent additional 20-30

hours a week studying online, which included reading, preparing blog posts and weekly

writing assignments, and practicing grammar. However, based on the students’ self-

evaluations, time management and self-discipline were some of the issues affecting their

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independent study. Other common difficulties included adequate assessment of individual

progress and the choice of what to study and how to approach the task.

The findings regarding the use of learning strategies indicate that all four

categories chosen for this investigation—memory, cognitive, compensation, and social—

were used to a much greater extent online than in class by three participants, who used

the Web site 20-30 hours per week. One participant, who studied only five hours a week

online, did not find significant difference in the use of strategies in either format.

However, even in this case, cognitive and compensation strategies slightly prevailed in

the online environment. Overall, studying online, two of the participants used cognitive

strategies the most; two others preferred compensation strategies. Social strategies were

used most commonly in class. A significant difference was also found in the overall use

of strategies both in class and online between the participants attending classes twice a

week and once a week.

In more detail, the results of the case study will be discussed further focusing on

the interpretation and limitations of the findings; implications for social change;

recommendations for action and further research; and reflections on teacher-researcher

experiences.

Interpretations of the Findings

Role of the Conceptual Framework

The evidence collected in response to the research questions of the case study was

interpreted within the conceptual framework which was developed at the beginning of the

investigation. The connection between the main aspects of each theory, which is

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presented in Figure 28, helped to create the background for the analysis of the findings

and to compare the participants’ progress in the hybrid course.

Figure 28. Diagram of conceptual framework.

From the point of view of Vygotsky’s (1962) theory, two factors of the hybrid

learning contribute to the changes in writing skills: social nature of learning which is

evident in sharing knowledge and the connection between the development of cognitive

constructs and writing. These factors were created by combining the traditional and

online learning formats following the CSILE model by Scardamalia and Bereiter (1994),

which emphasizes online collaboration and knowledge-building discourse. The

mechanism of knowledge sharing operated in a loop pattern where the original post from

one student attracted a reaction from another person, which then prompted a response

from the author, etc. The cyclic organization of the course helped to create the

Social learning

CSILE

Sharing knowledge

Intentional learning

Language learning strategies

Self-directedness

Online collaboration

Metacognitive strategies

Knowledge building discourse

Connecting new concepts & writing

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opportunities not only for knowledge sharing but also for expanding learning (Serdyukov,

2004; Serdyukov & Hill, 2004).

This ongoing discourse required using various communication strategies

(agreeing, disagreeing, clarifying, asking questions, informing) and expressing ideas with

grammatical and logical accuracy. The knowledge that the learners wanted to share had

to be retrieved from various information sources, which led to developing reading skills

and forming new concepts later found in writing. Unlike face-to-face communication,

online communication required a well-developed written speech and, therefore, was

beneficial for the acquisition of new concepts and language forms. Thus, a combination

of various skills and strategies required in the online environment enhanced students’

writing.

Although the design and the pedagogy of the course were fundamental in the

hybrid format, other important factors were involved in the learning process. Among

them, self-efficacy of the students played the most decisive role. In view of Bandura’s

(1986) theory, awareness of one’s own potential and limitations and the ability to regulate

one’s own learning behavior are the underlying components of self-efficacy. This

conception implies that a person is able to perform self-monitoring, self-judgment, and

self-evaluation of his or her own behavior. A person’s perception of self as an achiever is

essential in order to develop self-efficacy. On the other hand, low expectations of self

result in poor self-efficacy (Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pastorellu, 1996). In

learning, self-efficacy is represented by self-directedness which is evident is the ability to

understand one’s own capacity to learn which results in applying metacognitive learning

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strategies: setting learning goals, planning and performing steps to achieve goals,

critically evaluating the performance, and determining further course of action.

Since learning is a highly individual act, the conceptual framework of this

research was complemented by direct language learning strategies (memory, cognitive,

and compensation) and indirect language learning strategies (social), which were

modified from Oxford’s (1990) strategy classification system. Strategies can be defined

as specific steps taken “by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable,

more self-directed, more effecting, and more transferable to new situations” (Oxford,

1990, p. 8). In addition to completing an understanding of the processes involved in

intentional learning, this component of the conceptual framework aided in collecting and

interpreting the data regarding the use of learning strategies in the hybrid format.

Research Questions

Changes in the Writing Skills

The first research question addressed the changes in the writing which took place

in the hybrid learning format. The data which were obtained throughout the course from

student in-class and take-home assignments and blog posts allow for the conclusion that

the most common changes reflect improvements in the organization, content, and volume

of writing. Better organization was noticed in the writing of all four participants and

included such features as better presentation of the controlling idea, relevant supporting

details, better sequence of supporting details and examples, and improved unity of

writing. This change can be attributed to the cyclical structure of the hybrid course which

allowed for providing the students with prompt feedback and extensive writing practice

outside of classroom. Improvements in content and volume were found in the writing of

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Yana and Joe, who were involved in blogging more than the other two participants. Their

contribution to the blog discussions was supported by extensive reading, which gave

them opportunities not only for meaningful knowledge construction but also for faster

developing their writing skills.

Additionally, there were positive changes in writing mechanics which referred to

the use of better syntax and spelling. Gio and Jang had positive changes in sentence

structure. Both of them made improvements in the use of clauses and the word order.

However, punctuation remained a problem in Gio’s writing although it was significantly

improved by the other three participants. Yana, whose spelling problems were the most

obvious at the beginning of the semester, was able to make noticeable progress in this

area. To a smaller extent, spelling also improved in Gio’s writing. These changes indicate

that using written language for communication is also beneficial for positive changes in

the mechanics of writing.

All participants agreed that these features developed throughout their engagement

in the online writing discourse in blog and Writing Shop, which allowed them to share

their ideas, collect information, complete their prewriting, and receive feedback. They

also commented on the convenience of using asynchronous method of online

communication which eliminated the pressure to produce fast responses and gave them a

chance to do their own research and compose longer passages. These results are

substantiated by the findings in earlier studies (Al-Jarf, 2002; Black, 2005; Carpenter,

Brown, & Hickman, 2004; Jones, 2007) which indicate that CMC positively affects the

quality and organization of second language writing. Many researchers explain student

achievements in the hybrid and Web-enhanced courses by the constant interaction with

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the text while processing and producing the language which promotes the use of multiple

language skills, critical thinking, and intellectual development (Esmaeili, 2002; de

Guerrero, 2004; Krashen & Lee, 2004; Smith, 2000). These studies found a strong

connection between reading, thinking, forming inner speech, and writing which points to

the fundamental importance of the development of language through the development of

mind (Vygotsky, 1962).

The results of the case study also revealed some challenges that should be taken

into consideration while designing and teaching hybrid EAP courses. Namely, the hybrid

learning format did not entirely eliminate the problems in general language use and

grammar. These aspects are closely related to the level of language acquisition and

require significant amount of time and learner effort (Krashen & Brown, 2007).

Specifically, all four participants continued having difficulties in the use of grammar

forms which were alien to their native languages (verb tenses, prepositions, and articles)

even though they received grammar instruction during class time and used online

resources independently to work on the most troublesome forms. Similar issues were

found in other research involving the hybrid model (Zhang, Gao, Ring, & Zhang, 2007),

which suggests that developing accuracy in the use of academic language is far more

complex than improving organization and, therefore, must be specifically addressed in

the hybrid courses.

Among the factors that impeded writing skills development were also insufficient

general knowledge and critical thinking skills of some participants. The difficulties in

these areas are commonly encountered in the EAP programs due to inadequacy of prior

education of the precollege adult ESL students. Since writing, especially academic

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writing, requires highly developed cognitive constructs and the ability to carry out

analysis and argumentation, organization of writing cannot guarantee qualitative changes

in this area (Heaney, 2006). The CSILE model in this study allowed the students to

develop new schemata through online reading and interaction which required critical

thinking skills. However, some participants were better prepared to make the transition to

constructive learning than others due to their personal motivation and earlier developed

approach to learning.

Evidence of Self-Directedness

The second research question referred to evidence of self-directedness present in

the hybrid course. Based on the findings, it was possible to establish that Yana, Joe, and

Jang, who had high motivation to learn, used additional online resources and stayed

persistent in pursuing their learning objectives. With some guidance earlier in the

semester, these participants learned to set new goals, evaluate their progress, and plan

further steps in learning. They also demonstrated evidence of having high expectations of

themselves, recognizing their strengths and weaknesses, and seeking help from more

experienced partners. All of these components of self-directed learning (Bandura, 1986)

were essential in the hybrid course, which required a considerable amount of independent

study. However, Gio, whose level of motivation was very low, did not prove that she was

capable of regulating her learning. Her negative attitude to independent study affected her

overall progress in this course and her willingness to take control over her learning.

These results agree with some earlier studies (Carpenter, Brown, & Hickman, 2004;

Kannan & Macknish, 2000) which indicate that motivation is the principal factor of

positive experience in the hybrid learning format.

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Among other issues related to self-directedness were inadequate self-discipline

and time management skills, which are common in online education (Serdyukov & Hill,

2004). Although Yana, Joe, and Jang spent approximately 20-30 hours studying

independently online, they sometimes reported difficulties focusing on the assignments

caused by the need to share the computer with other family members or by some

irrelevant Internet attractions. On a minor scale, fear of making decisions and overcritical

self-monitoring were also interfering with self-directed learning of Jang and Joe. Jang,

who only recently arrived in the US from Thailand, was educated in a highly teacher-

centered system and was not accustomed to making her own decisions regarding her

learning. Joe, on the other hand, had a tendency to exaggerate his errors. Although these

aspects are closely linked to personality and attitude to learning, they also indicate

problems with self-efficacy and should be considered while planning, organizing, and,

and teaching hybrid courses along with students’ educational culture and traditions.

Use of Learning Strategies

The last research question addressed the most commonly used language learning

strategies in the hybrid learning environment. This direction of research continued the

investigation of students’ ability to carry out independent study and is, therefore, closely

connected with the question of self-directedness, which involves such strategies as setting

goals, evaluating progress, and planning further steps in learning. Operating with these

indirect strategies implies the choice of the actions that could bring better learning results.

Thus, further investigation of the use of strategies included four categories: memory,

cognitive, compensation, and social. The data obtained from student evaluations indicate

that Yana, Joe, and Jang, who were more self-directed than Gio, used all four sets to a

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greater extent online than in class. There was a short transition period at the beginning of

the semester, when the students were becoming familiar with the new format. Starting

from the second biweekly evaluation, the use of learning strategies online significantly

outweighed their use in class.

The fact that all strategies dominated in the online environment can be partially

explained by the growth of the students’ self-directedness and continuing interest in

learning. Following the CSILE model, none of the class assignments were duplicated

online, and the level of difficulty of online course work was gradually increasing so as to

maintain the level of challenge (Sankaran, Sankaran, & Bui, 2000). In addition, the online

discussions helped the students to become more familiar with each other and learn from

each other’s experiences while constructing their new knowledge. These elements of the

hybrid format allowed for sustaining the students’ motivation throughout the course.

Similar findings were reported in some studies on the hybrid writing instruction (Bloch,

2007; Cunningham, 2000; Lowe & Williams, 2004) which indicated that having online

learning experience in addition to the traditional instruction creates a better sense of

community and has a motivational effect on students.

While emphasizing the importance of interaction and knowledge sharing in hybrid

learning, it is necessary to note that social strategies were used more online than in class;

however, they were not used as much as cognitive and compensation ones. This finding

does not contradict social learning theory but reveals its different function in the web-

based instruction. In the classroom, students have to pay much more attention to social

factors (teacher, peers, etc.) which put social strategies ahead of the others. However, in

the online environment, where there are no social distractions, students apply fewer social

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skills and are encouraged to use more information processing and critical thinking skills.

Even while communicating online, they have to read and think first before producing the

message. Therefore, interaction remains an essential part of the online

learning community, but by removing physical social presence, it creates a social forum

that brings forward higher order thinking skills and stimulates learning.

Thus, the use of learning strategies online can be characterized by the tendency to

apply cognitive strategies (repeating, recognizing, using additional resources, analyzing,

and summarizing) and compensation strategies (using clues, native language, and

communication; getting help; and adjusting message) more than the other categories. It is

important to notice that the division between the two categories was based on the amount

of the traditional instruction the students received during the week. Thus, Yana and Gio,

who had classes twice a week and received more material from direct instruction, used

the Web site to repeat this material with the help of additional resources, to summarize

their reading, and to analyze their errors after getting instructor’s feedback. Therefore,

they used cognitive strategies online the most. Joe and Jang attended classes once a week

and had to apply more effort studying independently, which required strategies that could

help them understand the material on their own. Thus, they found compensation

strategies most useful.

It was also found that those students who added 20-30 hours of online study to

their traditional instruction used significantly more strategies in the Web-based

environment than in class. Gio, whose online study time was limited to five hours a week,

did not demonstrate a significant difference in the use of strategies in either environment.

Thus, the increase in the use of strategies online can be explained by the amount of time

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the student spent studying independently online. Additionally, there was a noticeable

difference in overall use of strategies in both environments in the evening and Saturday

EAP programs. Joe and Jang, who received three hours of traditional instruction a week

in the Saturday program, had to spend more time studying online and used more learning

strategies in that environment than Yana and Gio, who attended classes twice a week in

the evening program. The Saturday students also used more learning strategies in class

than the students in the evening program. This finding suggests that online study helped

develop their overall learning skills which allowed them to study more efficiently in each

environment.

Summary of Findings

The evidence obtained throughout the investigation allowed for the conclusion

that combining classroom and online instruction resulted in the following changes in the

participants’ learning behavior:

1. Improvements in the writing skills which were found in organization, content,

volume, syntax, and spelling.

2. The use of self-directed learning which involves setting goals, evaluting progress,

and planning steps to achieve goals and is based on motivation to learn and

recognizing strengths and weaknesses.

3. The use of all four sets of language learning strategies (memory, cognitive,

compensation, and social) to a greater extent online than in class.

Limitations of the Study

The main limitation of this study was the inability to embrace all the variables

affecting student performance. The format of the case study limited the scope of the

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research to the phenomenon of the hybrid EAP course in the community college setting.

Therefore, many sets of data indicating factors and relationships that lay beyond the

chosen research questions could not be explored so as not to change the direction of the

investigation.

None of the participants in this project had ever had experiences with the hybrid

format of learning prior to taking this course. In their interviews, the participants

answered questions about their best and worst experiences both in class and online. Their

responses indicated that their feelings about studying online changed throughout the

course. In the second half of the semester, all four participants stated that if they had to

choose between the traditional and the hybrid format, they would choose the hybrid one.

However, the scope of the research did not include investigation of the students’ feelings

about combining classroom and online instruction. Thus, it was impossible to fully

address the changes in their attitude to using online technologies for language learning.

The chosen format of the online component was limited to the class Web site,

where social software technology was used for class discussions and first draft

demonstrations. The technical limitations of the course design did not allow for using

other forms of course delivery such as Black Board or WebCT. The investigation was

focused entirely on student performance and excluded the relationship between the

method of delivery and the learning progress. Therefore, the results of the study cannot

be used to compare the effectiveness of all existing course delivery systems.

The first research question targeted changes in the students’ writing as a result of

taking the hybrid course. However, the process of writing requires strong critical thinking

skills and language proficiency and often depends on cultural and personal factors which

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could not be investigated in this study. In the hybrid format, critical thinking skills are

essential in processing information from reading and summarizing it in writing. Although

reading was an important part of this course, its role was not specifically addressed in the

research. The changes in writing are presented as the result of all aspects of the hybrid

learning rather than reading and writing connection. Likewise, the relationship between

critical thinking skills and changes in writing could not be addressed in this study.

Although all participants had an average proficiency of Level 6, there actual language

skills differed due to such factors as approach to learning, length of stay in the US,

language background, and work or family environment. Because of the specific purpose

and conditions of the study, these factors stayed outside the focus of the investigation.

The second research question concerned the evidence of self-directedness of the

students. Most of the data indicate that motivation to study, self-discipline, and time

management skills helped the students to apply metacognitive strategies in regulating

their learning. However, it was impossible to address the factors that affect these

components of self-directedness. In particular, it is necessary to understand what factors,

intrinsic or extrinsic, have a stronger influence on learners’ decisions to study

independently and their choice of learning activities and how time management skills can

be affected by the need to attend classes at appointed time in the hybrid format. Another

fundamental component of self-directedness which was noticed during the investigation

refers to the students’ expectations of themselves and the instructor. Since this aspect

often bears a cultural impact, it raises the question of the relationship between the cultural

background of the learners and their performance in courses that require independent

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online study. However, the scope of the study did not allow for investigating either

motivational or cultural factors.

The final research question addressed the use of language learning strategies in

the hybrid learning format. According to the obtained data, all sets of strategies were used

significantly more online than in class. However, some of the findings could not be

substantiated by research literature due to lack of data in this area. It was also impossible

to further investigate to what extent the amount of classroom instruction affects the

choice of learning strategies online; whether there is a relationship between the amount of

time of independent study and the use of learning strategies; and whether the use of

specific strategies online affects the learner performance in class. More research is

needed in order to answer these questions.

Implications for Social Change

ESL instruction is an important developmental field that serves as a transition

stage to acculturation and realization of individual potential in a new social environment.

Due to its social importance, ESL has attracted the attention of many scholars and

practitioners who sought ways of more efficient teaching and learning. Although much

has been achieved in ESL methodology over the years, researchers continue to be

challenged with new possibilities brought about by the growing knowledge. Most

recently, technological advancements have offered tools for second language learning

which require researchers’ attention. The conducted case study of hybrid ESL writing

instruction contributes to the cause of positive social change with its theoretical, practical,

and social applications.

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From the theoretical perspective, the study offers new knowledge based on the

experience of applying the conceptual framework involving social learning in a

combination of traditional and online instruction. It also demonstrates an innovative

approach to teaching academic ESL writing and thus enriches the current methodology

and research with new evidence of the benefits of online technologies for ESL

instruction. Moreover, it shows the role of the conceptual framework in the hybrid course

design and sets a model of the hybrid instructional format.

The practical importance of the study is indicated by the participants’ positive

outcomes and experience in the hybrid course which resulted in improvements in their

writing skills and their growth as self-directed learners. Both results were achieved by a

successful course design and organization which allowed for increasing the study time

and creating multiple opportunities for skills development through continuing cyclical

learning. Since writing is the most difficult skill to acquire, the improvements in this area

which occurred in a 10- and 12-week course can be considered significant. While

learners’ self-directedness is essential in all academic programs, it is paramount for ESL

students who are pressured to perform well in the content areas using a non-native

language. By giving the learners the tools for independent study and the opportunity to

learn collaboratively, this course helped them build their metacognitive skills and feel

responsible for their learning. These experiences raised their confidence as learners and

allowed them to become more flexible in using various learning strategies. Increasing

their online learning, they became more independent in setting and achieving their goals

and choosing strategies that were more appropriate for their needs. Thus, the three

aspects of the research—writing skills, self-directedness, and learning strategies—are

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relevant to the present-day needs of college-bound ESL students and have practical

significance to both students and instructors.

The social aspect of this research is reflected in preparing adult ESL learners for

academic study which is a prerequisite for improving their professional status and quality

of life. Education has always been an important factor of personal and professional

development. However, its significance in the US has grown in recent years due to the

economic slowdown. Therefore, the English language skills, particularly writing, are

fundamental for those who wish to continue their education in the United States. By

improving the learners’ acquisition of writing skills, the hybrid EAP course built a basis

for a faster transition to the credit programs and a more successful academic experience.

Last but not least, by serving the needs of the minority groups, this course provided them

with tools for self-improvement which will eventually benefit both the learners and the

community they live in. From this perspective, the case study contributed not only to

individual needs of the adult ESL students but also to the positive change in the

American society.

Recommendations for Actions

The findings in this study indicate that the hybrid format of learning gives a

number of advantages in improving the quality of the ESL writing instruction and

developing self-directed and independent study skills of learners. Therefore, it is of

primary interest to post-secondary educational institutions which offer developmental

ESL courses, ESL instructors who prepare learners for academic study, and college-

bound ESL learners. Additionally, the study demonstrated a model of integration of the

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traditional and online instruction which can be used by instructional designers developing

hybrid courses.

Success in hybrid learning begins with understanding of the technological and

pedagogical features it involves and the responsibilities it places on the instructors and

learners. Therefore, it is essential that hybrid courses be properly advertised and

described to the interested population. It is important that schools offer student

counseling to those who are planning to take a hybrid course in order to explain the

technical and academic requirements of this type of study. Equally important is staff

development which should involve technology skills as well as methods of integrating

online material into the traditional instruction. Although both student counseling and

staff development are part of any academic environment, specifically for hybrid courses,

it should be done in collaboration with technology departments and the program

administrators.

Technologically, hybrid courses do not require a special infrastructure and can be

implemented through any available course delivery system or open network. This

decision depends on the practical considerations and should be taken by the school

department of technology and the instructor prior to advertising the course. Likewise, the

choice of the communication mode (synchronous or asynchronous) should be chosen

according to the purpose of the instruction and the school’s technological capacity. It is

essential, however, that access to the Web component be available at all times, and the

instructor and students maintain online communication throughout the course.

The biggest change required by introducing hybrid courses involves teachers’ and

students’ work load. The amount of online material may contain from 30% to 79% of

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course content (Allen, Seaman, & Garrett, 2007). Thus, it is the responsibility of the

program administrators to determine the number of face-to-face and online hours in the

teaching contract. For students, it is important to understand that their online participation

is an integral part of their course work and that there are many benefits beyond receiving

grades and credits.

The findings of the study are important for ESL instructors who intend to use the

hybrid format in their courses. The results concerning the development of writing skills

are especially interesting for those who work with college-bound students or teach ESL

writing in other adult education programs. This project also demonstrated an example of

integration academic modules in five content areas—literature, history, science,

psychology, and business—into an EAP course, which can be followed by other ESL

professionals. However, it is critical to understand that a hybrid course is not simply a

means of communication with students outside of class but a continuation of class work

which requires strong facilitation skills and dedication to learner success. Because hybrid

learning is based on student-centered pedagogy, the instructors must be ready to embrace

this approach in order to see positive results in the students’ performance (Gousseva,

1998; Cunningham, 2000). Computer skills are another component of success. Thus,

instructors must be responsible for taking the necessary training in order to be ready to

implement constructivist ESL methodology using online technologies. Although many

schools have professional course developers, as experts in the field, ESL instructors

should share the responsibility for selecting the course material and developing the course

structure and sequence.

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This case study can also be of interest to ESL students who are motivated to learn

faster as a result of such intrinsic factors as job requirements, family needs, or personal

development. These factors determine their desire to try different ways of learning in

order to accomplish their goals. However, student motivation must be accompanied by

willingness to take control over their learning by setting attainable goals and

understanding their potential. Planning to take a hybrid course, students must be realistic

about their time management skills and their strengths and weaknesses. Those who are

willing to share the responsibility for the learning will be able to appreciate the flexibility

of this method and the support they can receive outside of class.

Finally, this study showed an example of an EAP course which can be interesting

for instructional designers, course developers, and ESL publishers, who offer online

companions to their print materials. The online component allowed for the cyclical

organization of the course and the expansion of each lesson through a variety of learning

activities. This format proved to be successful and should be used in the future. This

course integrated the textbook and online material including reading selection and self-

study resources in grammar and writing. However, the use of the textbook may be

optional since the online environment provides resources for all language skills

development. Importantly, the course Web site must serve the purpose of the instruction

and focus on functionality rather than visual effects (Deubel, 2003; Serdyukov & Hill,

2003).

The dissemination of these results can be done by sharing the results of the study

with the administration of the English Language Institute (ELI), which hosted the project.

The findings can be included in staff development workshops and student orientation

245

sessions. Additionally, the information for both instructors and students can be posted on

the ELI Web site. For a wider audience, dissemination can take place through online and

print professional publications and conference presentations.

Recommendations for Further Study

Several variables were encountered during the investigation which could not be

explored due to the limitations of the case study. Some of occurred in connection with the

research questions; others refer to the hybrid format of learning and course design.

My analysis of the changes in the writing skills of the participants was based on

the final drafts of compositions and the online discussion posts. However, a deeper

understanding of the changes in the writing as a process of though expression requires

addressing the amount of reading and the form of reading that preceded the writing

practice. Much research had been done on connection between reading and writing skills;

however, the online environment makes interaction with the text principally different

from reading a book. Due to its branching design, the online text takes readers to new

destinations which include additional reading (definition, explanations, authors’

biographies, descriptions, etc.), visual (illustrations, photos, charts, data tables, etc.), and

audio (podcasts, narratives, songs, etc.) materials. Thus, reading online provides learners

with a rich experience that stimulates different senses and involves different critical

thinking and language processing skills. This brings up a question of whether such form

of reading enhances the development of writing and critical thinking skills.

Another point that could not be included in the investigation of writing skills is

the acquisition of grammar. This aspect requires quantitative data collection instruments

and can be better addressed in an experimental research. It is also important to understand

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what factors of the hybrid learning (direct instruction, online tutorial, self-study

resources, CMC, etc.) cause most changes in grammatical accuracy.

Students’ self-directedness and the use of learning strategies in the hybrid

learning require further research. My investigation in these areas resulted in some

accidental evidence that the learners’ self-directed skills and the choice of learning

strategies have a strong relationship with the model of learning that is customary in their

native culture. However, in this case study, it was impossible to investigate the effect of

the participants’ cultural background on these aspects of learning. Although some

research on motivation and the use of strategies among cultures has been done (Oxford,

1996), it did not involve hybrid learning, which differs from the traditional environment

due to the use of technology. This direction of research should involve cultural views on

learning with technology, attitudes to learning independently, and the relationship

between self-directedness and learner success.

Some of the questions regarding the use of learning strategies relate to the

organization of the course and should be investigated further. First of all, it is important

to understand the relationship between the amount of classroom and online study and the

choice of learning strategies in each environment. Since learning online can take a

significant amount of time, it is also necessary to explore the relationship between this

factor and the use of learning strategies. The data in this study indicated that the use of

learning strategies online was growing faster than in class. It is, therefore, necessary to

address the factors that promoted this growth and its possible effects on learning.

Additional areas of research include learners’ attitudes toward combining

classroom and online instruction and the changes in their perspectives on studying

247

independently online. All the participants in this study reflected positively on most of

their learning experiences and expressed their preference to hybrid courses over the

traditional ones. However, it is not clear what experiences caused the change from feeling

insecure to feeling confident in the online environment. Also, some participants had

technical and social difficulties such as losing the Internet connection and not receiving

enough support from their peers online. Therefore, it is important to understand what

impact these issues had on their learning.

Finally, the design of the hybrid course also requires further investigation. In

particular, it is necessary to explore the online features and resources that students find

most useful in their learning experience. Since technology continues to develop, new

forms of communication (e.g. Skype) should also be considered in hybrid learning.

Thus, further research may include the following questions:

1. Whether online reading has a positive effect on writing and critical thinking skills

development

2. Whether specific features of online learning enhance grammatical accuracy

3. Whether there is a relationship between cultural views on independent learning

with technology and self-directedness

4. Whether the amount of classroom study time affects the choice of learning

strategies

5. Whether there is a relationship between the amount of independent study the use

of learning strategies

6. Whether specific factors of online learning dictate the choice of strategies and

affect learning

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7. Whether specific hybrid learning experiences affect learners’ attitude to this

format

8. Whether students find some features of hybrid learning more useful than others

9. Whether the need to attend scheduled classes affects students’ time management

Reflections on the Teaching and Research Experiences

Teaching Experience

I have been integrating online technologies into traditional instruction since 2007,

when I first designed the Web site, ESL Writing Extension, as a prototype for the hybrid

EAP course. Since then, I have used the site in my pilot study and redesigned it three

times trying to improve the look, functionality, and content. It took about a year to

completely develop the structure of the course and to choose the most successful

organization and material. Therefore, starting this project, I was confident in the

technological aspect of the course and my ability to find creative solutions to any

technical problems that may have occurred. From the human perspective, however, I was

well aware of the challenges and responsibilities I was about to take on.

This spring semester, I was assigned to teach the lower section in the evening and

Saturday program, and my experience was telling me that I was facing an uphill battle.

Students who are placed in the lower section usually have many problems in grammar

and writing, and the semester is spent practicing paragraph development. The essay

format is briefly introduced at the end of the course. In addition to language problems,

some students have lack of general knowledge and wrong expectations of the course and

their responsibilities as learners. Having taken a few regular ESL courses, students grow

comfortable in the all-ESL environment, where teachers are tolerant to errors and do not

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mind repeating in class what should have been studied at home. Being challenged with

higher academic requirements, they reveal serious lack of study and time management

skills. This list can continue with an array of individual learning problems, which only

emphasizes the need for change in the ESL instruction.

One of the most difficult aspects of teaching an ESL class is forming a

community of learners in a multilingual, multicultural setting. In addition to personal

attitudes to learning, all students bring their cultural styles of interaction which create

challenges in developing the sense of togetherness and establishing open communication.

Both evening and Saturday groups were culturally diverse. In my evening class, which

consisted of 13 students, there were five students from Peru, two students from Ukraine,

one from Korea, one from Columbia, one from Ghana, one from Russia, one from

Romania, and one from Nicaragua. Among the 17 students in the Saturday group, there

were five students from Peru, three students from Ecuador, three from Thailand, two

from Korea, two from Columbia, one from Albania, and one from the Dominical

Republic. Although the Spanish language was dominant in both groups, interaction

among the students in class and online was affected by their cultural differences in the

first few weeks of the course. However, once most of the students became accustomed to

using the blog for communication, they realized that they were making many interesting

discoveries about other cultures and acknowledged that the online environment gave

them better opportunities for communication than the traditional one. It can be explained

by the differences in social presence represented by each environment. The invisibility

factor of online communication erased the usual social barriers that stop second language

learners from freely expressing themselves. In contrast, face-to-face interaction was more

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bound by the awareness of other people’s reaction to individual behavior. Thus,

interaction online became more open than in class, where it continued to be affected by

social presence.

Teaching the hybrid course, I realized that the typical difficulties of the traditional

instruction were magnified through the use of technology. The online communication

brought out many problems which could easily remain hidden in class: language errors,

negative attitudes, lack of motivation, etc. Some students had little knowledge to share

but tried to be involved; others had fear of communicating and either contributed very

little or skipped the discussions; yet others never developed the habit of working on their

English outside the class and simply did not do the assignments. These issues are not

exceptional in ESL practice. Every traditional class has students with low skills who try

hard, students who are afraid to use the language in front of others, and students who do

not study on their own. However, in a class of 15-20 students, it is easy to blend in while

online everyone makes an individual statement.

On the other hand, some students saw the online discussions as an excellent forum

for self-expression. This group wanted a chance to be heard in class as well but had to

consider the time and the needs of others. Using the blog, they had no such restrictions.

Other students found that asynchronous communication helped them develop their

thoughts better because there was no pressure to produce immediate response. They liked

the fact that they could spend as much time as necessary to prepare their messages and

post them at their convenience. Likewise, students who were uncomfortable speaking in

class felt more confident using written communication because they could collect their

ideas and correct their mistakes before sharing their posts with others. Not having social

251

presence physically, they also felt that it was a safer way to communicate since there was

no one to judge their accent or appearance.

From the technical perspective, there were no significant problems with using

computers for learning. All students in the evening class were computer literate and had

computers either at home or at work. In the Saturday class, only one student did not have

a computer and did not know how to use one. This person received assignments in print

but did not participate in the online discussions. Therefore, lack of technology skills was

not an impediment to online study for most students.

Overall, my experience of teaching the hybrid course reinforced my belief that

students’ intrinsic motivation and dedication are the most important factors of success in

adult ESL instruction. Many students have job and family responsibilities that outweigh

their academic commitments. This develops dependence on the teacher and false

expectations of the instruction. Students begin to believe that physically attending the

class where the teacher can answer their questions substitutes for their learning outside

the classroom. Some students even acquire the I-pay-for-it attitude in order to justify their

lack of effort. These common social problems of the ESL field became especially

obvious in the hybrid course, which required systematic independent learning. In both

groups, there were students who did not participate explaining it by lack of time; those

who participated irregularly; and those who consistently followed my requirements for

online participation. This group showed the most improvement.

Another observation refers to individualization of instruction which I found was

easier to accomplish in the hybrid course than in the traditional one. The students’ first

draft demonstrations in Writing Shop helped me notice the areas that needed immediate

252

attention and give them feedback and recommendations. Some students used this section

of the Web site to communicate with me throughout the week. After posting the first

draft, they continued making changes and posting new drafts in order to achieve

maximum improvement. This helped me to establish a productive collaboration which

would have been impossible in the traditional format. Other students emailed me their

questions regarding their assignments or the correct use of grammar and vocabulary.

Additionally, the students’ blog posts demonstrated their understanding of the topic and

allowed me to address their weaknesses in the following lesson. Compared with the

traditional classes, the hybrid course gave students more individual attention and had

them more engaged in learning.

Thus, aside from some issues with students’ motivation, my teaching experience

was enriched by the new possibilities of communicating with the students outside the

class and better ways of addressing their needs.

Research Experience

The first week of the EAP program in the spring semester coincided with the

beginning of my case study. Knowing that my participants may have many of the typical

ESL problems, I felt apprehensive of the success of the project. However, I had to avoid

that bias in order not to develop wrong expectations that could affect my judgment. I tried

to focus on the positive teaching experiences I had over the years and the encouraging

results of my pilot study. An ESL classroom is unlike any other learning environment in

that it brings together individuals from the most diverse backgrounds and social groups.

Just as it is common to find learners who are struggling with literacy, it is also common

to have students with higher degrees and aspiration for learning. My optimism was also

253

reinforced by the sense of purpose that was inseparable from this project. Seeing my

research socially important helped me stay positive and focus on my objectives.

The first two weeks of the study were the hardest mainly because I had to deal

with the usual resistance of both groups to use the Web site. However, this difficulty was

expected based on my previous experience of teaching the hybrid course. Studying online

was not only new to all of them but also unexpected. This element of surprise was both a

positive and a negative factor in my study. On the one hand, the time and effort it took to

make students realize the benefits of this method could have been spent more

productively. On the other hand, it ensured that my participants were ordinary ESL

students who had typical attitudes and problems and not an exclusive group of

overzealous learners.

This time, the adjustment period, which normally takes place at the beginning of

the semester, included an additional challenge of establishing collaboration with my

participants and understanding their needs and expectations. It impressed me that many

students volunteered to take part in this project even though they knew that there were no

extra credits or grades to gain. They seemed to be genuinely interested in learning more.

However, once I started working with the participants, I realized that only three of them

were sincere in their desire to improve. Gio, whom I called the Outsider, was much less

motivated than the others. I cannot explain why she joined the project. Perhaps she

overestimated her own enthusiasm for learning. She did not break her commitment, but

because of her minimal effort, she did not improve as much as the other participants. Yet

her involvement in the study was a valuable experience for me. As a teacher, I realized

that this format of learning requires more motivation and self-directedness than the

254

traditional one. As a researcher, I learned that even the best-planned studies can have an

unpredictable downside when working with human subjects. Above all, Gio’s

participation allowed me to contrast her progress and experiences with those of Yana,

Joe, and Jang. Since Gio’s learning was not much different from the traditional format,

the experiences of the other three participants clearly show the benefits of the hybrid

learning.

Most of the data collection tools required the participants’ evaluation of the

learning experiences in this course. Naturally, there was some confusion in the first week,

so I had to do some modeling and explaining. However, due to my duel role in this study,

I also had to be aware of my possible influence on their responses. In order to avoid

getting “suggested” answers, I gave them the freedom to complete their questionnaires

independently stressing that there were no right or wrong answers and that every

experience and observation they shared with me had value. My other strategy was to keep

a friendly relationship with the participants regardless of their performance. I emphasized

the fact that, being a student myself, I could relate to the difficulties they had to go

through, but as a teacher, I wanted to see them learn more, and that was the whole

purpose of the project. However, I did not treat them differently from other students

either in class or online.

My most significant experience as a researcher came from analyzing the data. The

positive changes in the evaluations of online learning experiences and the improvements

in writing showed that my idea of a hybrid EAP course proved to be beneficial for the

students. Yet it took careful examination of many details in order to assemble the overall

picture. My analyses would have been impossible without my close relationship with all

255

participants which allowed me to understand their learning needs, preferences, and goals,

as well as their personalities. Since this was a qualitative study, these human “data”

helped me recognize the reasons behind their responses and interpret them better.

However, I had to be aware of the potential subjectivity in my interpretations of

the data that might come as the result of familiarity with the students. One of my

strategies was grading the writing of all students who attended my classes without

looking at the names of the authors. This helped me to avoid making premature

predictions. Also, using the rubric for ESL composition (Jacobs, Hartfiel, Hughey, &

Wormuth, 1981), I tried to make sure that my assessment matched the criteria. I am

grateful to two of my colleagues at WCC, who agreed to verify my assessment of the

students’ writing. Another useful strategy was my constant communication with the

participants. Their feedback during the interviews was invaluable to me as a way of

clarifying their perspective on the hybrid learning experiences and the values they

assigned to the questionnaire items. During the study, the participants received two

progress reports reflecting the changes in the quality and volume of their writing. In

addition to being a motivational factor, it helped to maintain their goals and the spirit of

collaboration.

Looking back at my experience, I realize that my choice of the case study design

was appropriate for the purpose of the research. I was trying to conduct an in-depth

investigation and, therefore, could not involve more than four participants. However, due

to a number of questions that rose during the investigation, I believe this direction of

research should continue with a larger sample of population and a different method. My

alternative for a case study with a few participants from each group would be an

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experimental study with two groups in the same EAP program. The students in one class

would use the Web site in addition to their face-to-face sessions and make the

experimental group; the students in the other class would attend their regular sessions

without access to the Web site. This method would allow for the comparison of the

students’ achievements in both learning formats.

As a novice researcher, I have learned that every study has limitations. However,

they do not impede gaining new knowledge but open doors to new ideas and raise new

questions to be answered. This study has been an important experience for me especially

due to its practical aspect which will hopefully find its place in the ESL curriculum.

Conclusion

The case study of hybrid course design demonstrated that blending traditional and

online instruction creates a number of advantages for college-bound students who are

motivated to improve their language skills faster. The results of the study indicate that

learners can achieve significant gain in organization, content, and volume of writing.

These improvements are the result of integrating online reading and communication with

academic writing which takes place in a cyclical manner and increasing the time for a

better material acquisition. Additionally, the hybrid format allows for individualizing the

instruction by providing students with the instructor’s support and tools for independent

learning. However, as all online study, the hybrid learning requires high intrinsic

motivation and self-directedness. Both successes and failures are magnified by this

method due to the openness of the online environment. Thus, the benefits of the hybrid

format for truly motivated people can come from being engaged in meaningful

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constructive learning; while for those who are either not motivated or unsure of their

learning goals, the hybrid format may not make a significant difference.

At present, the novelty of the hybrid learning causes reservations regarding

blending traditional and online instruction, most of which stem from misunderstanding of

what this method represents and what organizational changes are required (Allen,

Seaman, & Garrett, 2007). The intention of this study was to demonstrate that a hybrid

course is not a variation of either online or face-to-face learning format, but a unique

instructional design that brings student participation and achievement to a higher level. It

is my sincere hope that my research will draw attention of those people who make

decisions regarding course offering and those who carry them out to the use of online

technologies in second language learning.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A:

HYBRID COURSE DOCUMENTS

Table A1 Content of the Web Site

Course information Learning resources

1. course description

2. Saturday syllabus

3. PM syllabus

4. requirements

5. home assignments for:

a) Evening EAP

b) Saturday EAP

1. grammar

2. writing

3. reading

4. course handouts

Table A2 Integration of Class and Online Instruction

Spring 2008 Instructional Plan

Week Class work Online reading/discussion topic Writing topic

1 Paragraph

structure

Brilliant or Plagiarized? Is Plagiarism a Crime?

2 Narrative

Paragraph

History Module: The Puritans Describe a Significant Event in History or

Politics of Your Country

3 Descriptive

Paragraph

Historical Places around the

World

Describe a Historical Place in Your

Country

4 Analyzing

Causes

Immigration Analyze the Cause of Immigration

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5 Analyzing

Causes

Literature Module: The Use of

Force

Analyze the Behavior of the Characters in

the Story

6 Process Writing Science Module: What is

Cybernetics?

Describe the Process of Communication

in Your Culture

7 Process Writing Computers in Everyday Life Describe the Process of Using WCC

Online Library Catalogues

8 Comparison &

Contrast

Traditional & Nontraditional

Schools & Students

Compare & Contrast Traditional &

Nontraditional Students

9 Comparison &

Contrast

Gender Differences and Learning Compare & Contrast Specific

Characteristics of the Development of

Boys & Girls

10 Classification

Paragraph

What Type of Learner Are You? Write a Classification of Learning Styles

11 Analyzing

Effects

Business Module: Cultural

Dimensions & Globalization

Describe the Effects of Another Culture

on the Development of Your Country

12 Analyzing

Effects

Computer Revolution Describe the Effects of Computer

Technologies on Society

Table A3 Sample Weekly Assignment

Week Date Evening EAP Date Saturday EAP

5 2/25

1. Text: Chapter 4: pp. 88-93

2. Grammar: 240-242

3. Blog discussion: Literature Module;

The Use of Force

4. Writing: Explain the reasons for the

conflict in the story The Use of Force.

2/23-

27

1. Text: Chapter 4: pp. 88-96

2. Grammar: pp. 240-242

3. Blog discussion: Literature

Module; The Use of Force

4. Writing: Explain the reasons for

the conflict in the story The Use of

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Post 1st draft in Writing Shop by 2/27 Force. Post 1st draft in Writing Shop

by 2/27.

2/27 1. Text: Chapter 4: pp. 94-96

2. Continue blog discussion

3. Read & comment on other students’

paragraphs online (use checklist on pp.

92-93). Prepare final draft and submit in

class on 3/03.

2/27-

3/01

1. Continue Blog discussion.

2. Read & comment on other

students' paragraphs online (use

checklist on pp. 92-93).

3. Prepare final draft & submit in

class on 3/01.

Table A4 Sample Blog Discussion Questions

Week 5 Blog Discussion Questions

1. What caused the conflict in the story? What part did each character play in it?

2. Could the conflict have been avoided? Do you think the use of force was justified?

3. Did you notice any problems in the behavior of the family members?

4. Do you find Mathilda's behavior typical for a girl her age? What would you do if you were her

parent?

5. What is the typical relationship between parents and children in your country? How is it

established?

6. Are there any differences in the way children are raised in your country and in the US?

APPENDIX B:

DATA COLLECTION TOOLS

Table B1 Intake Questionnaire Codes: PK – prior knowledge; SD – self-directedness Directions to the participants: Rate your responses on the scale from 1 (least like me) to 5 (most like me).

Demographic data

Age _____ Semesters of ESL _____

Sex _____ Computer skill _____

Years of education completed _____ Job status _____

Country of origin _____ Family status _____

Years in the U.S. _____

Educational background

PK The education I received prior to moving to the US

a) ___ gives me knowledge of other

cultures

b) ___ gives me knowledge of other

languages

c) ___ helps me set my goals and assess

my progress

d) ___ helps me learn new things

e) ___ helps me learn English

PK 2. The source of most of my learning experiences

was

a) ___ school

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b) ___ family and friends

c) ___ work

d) ___ TV

e) ___ books

f) ___ other (specify)

SD 3. The primary purpose of my learning is a) ___ to become a better person

b) ___ to get a better job

c) ___ to contribute to society

d) ___ to become successful

e) ___ to support my family

SD 4. The success of my learning in this program

depends on

a) ___ my study at school

b) ___ my study at home

c) ___ my teachers’ work

d) ___ my program organization and

academic support

e) ___ my family support

SD 5. The most important reason for using technology

in this program is that it

a) ___ helps me learn things faster

b) ___ helps me effectively accomplish

my goals in this class

c) ___ allows me to do my assignments

independently

d) ___ gives me opportunities to learn

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more

e) ___ allows me to learn at my own

pace

SD 6. The following sentence best describes me as a

learner in this program

a) ___ I am able to learn many things on

my own

b) ___ I can reach any goals if I work

hard

c) ___ I know my strengths and

weaknesses

d) ___ I can make decisions for myself

and carry them out

e) ___ I can plan and evaluate my

learning progress

Table B2 Weekly Self-Evaluation

Directions to the participants: Complete Section 1 at the beginning of each week of study. Complete Section 2 at the end of the week. Critically analyze and evaluate your performance. Section 1: 1. My goal this week is:

2. Steps I will take to reach my goal are:

3. Skills I want to improve are:

4. Problems I want to overcome are:

5. Things I want to learn in general are:

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Section 2:

Evaluation points Strongly

agree

Agree Disagree Strongly

disagree

Comments

I reached the goal I set for myself at the

beginning of the week

4 3 2 1

I completed all the steps I originally

planned

4 3 2 1

I improved the skills I wanted to improve 4 3 2 1

I overcame the problems 4 3 2 1

The new things I have learned this week

are

The skills I have improved this week

Things I would do differently

Table B3 Biweekly Learning Experiences: Online Reading and Writing Skills

Directions to the participants: Evaluate your reading and writing experience on a scale of 1 (worst) to 5 (best). Online reading Strongly

agree

Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly

disagree

I find that online reading helps me

a) relate my previous experience to the new

material

5 4 3 2 1

b) find ideas for writing 5 4 3 2 1

c) learn new vocabulary and grammar

structures

5 4 3 2 1

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d) learn new things in general 5 4 3 2 1

Online writing

I find that online written communication

helps me

a) use more English 5 4 3 2 1

b) become a more skillful writer 5 4 3 2 1

c) realize my weak and strong points in the

use of English

5 4 3 2 1

d) become more fluent in writing and orally 5 4 3 2 1

Table B4 Biweekly Learning Experiences: Combining Classroom and Online Experience

Directions to the participants: Compare your learning experience in class with your combined experience in class and online and evaluate the items below on a scale of 1 (worst) to 5 (best). I find that my classroom experience alone Rate Comment

Provides:

1. Proper language models (grammar structures, idioms, etc.)

2. Opportunities to improve my general English skills

3. Opportunities to improve my writing skills

Helps me:

4. Use my full potential as a learner

5. Apply my knowledge in practice

6. Share my knowledge with others

7. Learn from my peers as well as my teacher

8. Work on my weaknesses

I find that combining classroom and online experience

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Provides:

1. Proper language models (grammar structures, idioms, etc.)

2. Opportunities to improve my general English skills

3. Opportunities to improve my writing skills

Helps me:

4. Use my full potential as a learner

5. Apply my knowledge in practice

6. Share my knowledge with others

7. Learn from my peers as well as my teacher

8. Work on my weaknesses

Table B5 The Use of Learning Strategies Directions to the participants: On a scale from 1 (worst) to 5 (best) evaluate the strategies you have used most in class and online. If it doesn’t apply to your experience, write N/A.

Memory strategies

Evaluate the use of memorization techniques In class Online

1. Associating/elaborating

2. Placing new words into context

3. Using imagery, symbols, and mapping

4. Using keywords

5. Reviewing

Cognitive strategies

Evaluate the use of language learning techniques In class Online

1. Repeating

2. Recognizing and using formulas & patterns

3. Using additional resources

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4. Analyzing

5. Summarizing & reflecting

Compensation strategies

Evaluate your comprehension techniques In class Online

1. Using language and other clues

2. Switching to native language

3. Getting help from the instructor & peers

4. Using communication

5. Adjusting the message

Social strategies

Evaluate your social learning techniques In class Online

1. Asking for clarification

2. Asking for correction

3. Cooperating on a task with classmates

4. Communicating with more proficient speakers

5. Developing cultural understanding through communication

Biweekly In-Person Interview

I. Writing Experience

1. What difficulties in producing language have you encountered over the past two

weeks in

a) grammar

b) vocabulary

c) writing style (clarity of thought expression, paragraph organization:

descriptive, narrative, etc.)

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d) content (familiarity with the writing topic, linking with prior experience, etc)

2. What did you do to overcome these difficulties?

a) reviewed the task

b) rewrote the message

c) asked for help

d) other (please explain)

3. What difficulties in understanding the language have you encountered in

a) grammar

b) vocabulary

c) writing style

d) content (familiarity with the discussion topic, linking with prior experience)

4. What did you do to overcome these difficulties?

a) reviewed the task

b) rewrote the message

c) asked for help

d) other (please explain)

5. What difficulties have you encountered specifically in your online writing

experience

a) semantic (understanding the content)

b) syntactic (sentence structure, word order, punctuation)

c) mechanical (typing, editing, spelling)

d) general language use (language means, tense forms, etc.)

6. What did you do to overcome these difficulties?

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a) reviewed the task

b) rewrote the message

c) asked for help

d) other (please explain)

7. What difficulties have you encountered specifically in your online interaction

with your peers

a) clarity of your thought expression (use of vocabulary, idioms, sentence

organization, etc.)

b) clarity of others’ thought expression

c) differences in understanding the content

d) differences in understanding the task

8. What did you do to overcome these difficulties?

a) reviewed the task

b) rewrote the message

c) asked for help

d) other (please explain)

II. Learning Experience

1. Was writing an important part of your learning experience over the past two

weeks? Explain why.

2. Which format (in-class, online, or a combination of both) did you find more

effective in providing opportunities to practice writing skills? Explain why.

3. Was ability to express you thoughts orally or in writing important to you? Explain

why.

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4. Which format (in-class, online, or a combination of both) did you find more

effective in providing opportunities for self-expression? Explain why.

5. Was collaborating with others important to you? Explain why.

6. Which format did you find more effective in providing opportunities for

collaboration with others? Explain why.

7. Was learning new things in general important to you? Explain why.

8. Which format (in-class, online, or a combination of both) did you find more

effective in providing opportunities to learn new things? Explain why.

9. What resources did you find more effective and convenient (textbook or online

materials and hyperlinks)? Which once did you use most in your learning

experience? Explain why.

10. In general, which format helped you learn most, in-class, online, or a combination

of both? Explain why.

III. Practical Issues

1. What difficulties have you had attending the class (class schedule, physical

discomfort, social distractions, interpersonal relations with other students and the

instructor, temperature, parking, etc.)? How did you overcome these difficulties?

2. What difficulties have you had in your online experience (posting procedure, lack

of social presence, delays in receiving feedback, etc.)? How did you overcome

these difficulties?

3. What did you find positive and negative about your in-class learning experience?

Explain why.

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4. What did you find positive and negative about your online learning experience?

Explain why.

5. What did you find positive about your in-class and online social experience?

What do you find negative? Explain why.

Table B7 Grade Conversion Chart

A (Excellent) 90-100

B (Good) 80-90

C (Fair) 70-80

D (Poor) 60-70

APPENDIX C:

PARTICIPANTS’ WRITING SAMPLES

Case 1: Yana’s Writing Samples

Week 1 Paragraph: Plagiarism

In the last few years, in all over world, increase the problem of plagiarism which concern

not just creators of any literary, musical or scientific treatise but students and scholars as

well. Let try to understand (to investigate) whether is plagiarism a crime. In fact, stealing

any ideas or extracts of other people with the object of profit motive definitely classify as

a crime because it breaks copyright law. However, whether students how do plagiarize

are a crime or they are simply cheater which violate “honor codes based on trust between

students and faculty.” I find it is a two side of the same coin. Some students are not

confident and strong enough, worse more lazy and as a result they find problems’

solution by using an internet and getting a copy of already done work. They are not

honest to other students, to the teacher and what is most important to their self. On the

other hand, some students research o lot of material and then rewrite it by their own

words. I think, ones getting an information can not disappear from a brain forever later.

Of course it not enough to be a good educated, although less is better than nothing. In

brief, plagiarism hurts writing, thinking and analysing skills and students how do that

stealing their own knowledge and they can not be able become a high educated specialist.

So in the future it will de almost impossible to get prestige job because the competition is

very hard. However, they do nothing to the detriment of other people. Thus I will never

definite students plagiarism as a crime.

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Week 1 Blog

Hi to all of you,

I have the honor to introduce myself. My name is Yana and I am, like you and you, and

you... and you, taking English for Academic Purposes Program.

My goal is to improve my English writing skills that means improving my vocabulary,

grammar and ability to write essay. I am almost sure we are going to work together

greatly!

Week 4 Paragraph: The Reasons for Immigration

Immigration is international phenomenon, and typically (characteristically) for all of

well-known countries. There are a number of reasons of Immigration, but would like to

dwell (up)on a following main reasons: sociel and economicel problems, economical and

business cooperation between countries and an escape from political, race or religious

persecutions. Each human would like to have good job and carier for himselves, a safety

place to stay and a comfortable house to live for him and his family and a possibility to

get high education and secure future for his next generation. Unfortunately, not every

countries can give an opportunity to try to get one's best or to make one's best that human

can. As a resalt, people start to look for more favourable conditions of work, or higher

living standard in another countries. So, people leave they homeland and go there, where

they could have a possibilites of getting better job, earning better money; where they

coulde be confident in they future and in the future of their children. For example, the

time of Russian reorganization 1985 – 1991, which was the time of economycal crisis

and political depression, was very difficult for the country and her folk. It caused a

beginning of the mass immigration like Russian-German went to Germany, Jewish to

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Israel and many progressive Rassian people to America. Everybody, who got an

alternative to go to the country with better standart of live and social protectability, left

Russia and went to another country. A development of the external economic links are

the next reason. Economical rise create conditions for a business development, a

collaboration in an art, a science, and so on. Every day, more and more, leader countries

open subsidiaries of banks, factories, companies and key industsries in all over the world.

They make a contract with a skill people, which go into these countries and then, from

different rerasons, more often (frequently), do not go back. One more, not less important

reason, difficulties between the State and the personality. In some countries, plenty of

people who do not agree whith exsixtent political structure their country, have to leave

the homeland because of persecutions. Also, hational revolutions or wars owing to

religious conflict force people run away to really democraty countries, where they would

have freedom of words, thought, choise of religious. Good example is immigration after

Russian October Revolution 1917, when Russian nobly and aristocracy had all kind of

persecution. Other example, imigration from Chile, after general Pinochet came to power

and established dictatorial regime. Of course, there are much more different reasons of

imigration, but evidently, that sociel-economical and military-political reason take the

most important place in this list.

Week 4 Blog

America was always attractive for people from many countries. The idea of “pursuit of

happiness” heartens people who went to America. Also, they hoped to find here freedom,

possibility to get a new life, to start own business or to earn money and start some

business in the homeland. Nowdays, the reasons has not change. Yes, I consider

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assimilation is still a priority today. In spite of the fact that each ethnicity organizes

something like a community (Russian usually stay with Russian-speaking, German with

German, Chinese with Chinese, Jewish with Jewish, etc.), and they keep up their

traditions, people try to learn more from language, history, political and economical

systems. Other question is how much chains and possibilities they have. In my opinion,

the small ethnic communities are parts of the mainstream culture. America had always

accept different culture. So America was formed, so America functions, and because of

this reason America was and is attractive for almost everybody. Of course, there are basic

rules and lows, which must be accepted by these small ethnic groups of people.

Week 7 Paragraph : How to Find Information Online

Nowadays, using Internet makes the process of receiving any information about colleges

and its courses much easier. If you are interested in some Accounting course, a good

point to start is at www.sunywcc.edu/home.htm Web site, which belongs to Westchester

Community College (WCC). The process of finding out about an Accounting course on

their Web site will not be difficult. You only have to follow a few successive steps. First

of all, you will have to open the aforementioned WCC Web. You will come to the WCC

homepage, where you can see several tabs. All of these tabs contain submenus, which

open up when moving the cursor over top menu. One top menu reads “Academics”. If

you move the cursor over it, you will see that it contains the sub menu “Course

information”. Click on it and you will be taken to another Web site, which provides

information about course schedules. This page offers three difference semesters starting

in Spring, Summer and Fall. After you have decided which semester is more appropriate

for you, click at Credit Course Schedule text version. You will be taken to yet another

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webpage that is divided into two parts. On the right part there are an array of information

about course details. On the top left there is information about when a semester starts and

finishes, and below, about course categories where you will have to click on Accounting.

On the right side of the same page, will appear all available information about

Accounting and Finance classes. This information tells us about these courses reference

number, title, day, time and place to study. Also, it tells who will teach that section, how

many academic and charge credits you can earn for each course, and, in case you need to

find this course in the catalogue, a catalogue number. Some courses have a comments,

like “Managerial Accounting Prereq: ACC 119 Financial Accounting” or “Honor Option

Available/Contact Prof Christesen 914-606-6876” which give an additional important

information about a course. For example, the first comment means that before even

considering taking ACC 120 Managerial Accounting it is required to pass Acc 119

Financial Accounting course. Additionally, in the last column you can find out which

courses need lab time and the prise for that. On this page you can easily see that there are

day, evening, online and off-campus courses. For instance, if you decided to study for

Spring Semester 2008, which runs from January 22 through May 10, and selected ACC

119 Financial Accounting course, you will see that it takes place on an evening schedule.

There are two different days available for this course. You will be able to take either

Mondays and Wednesdays course, which begins at 5:40 pm till 8:00 pm, or Tuesdays and

Thursdays course, beginning at 6:00 pm till 8:15 pm. Both of these courses take place in

classroom building (CLA) room 0108, and give 4 academic and 4 charge credits. Also,

those do not request any LAB. Last, but not least important information you can find is

about tuition. Above the course schedule page there is a green bar, which contains several

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tabs. Click on admissions and you will be taken to Web site which contains submenus,

one of which is read Tuition & Fees. Click on it and on this page you will see information

about full- and part-time tuition. If you want to study 12 or more credit hour per semester,

you have to take full-time tuition; if fewer than 12 credit hours, part-time is enough. It

needs to be noted that tuition depends on the kind of students. Resident students pay less

than non-resident. Prices and schedules for each Accounting courses in WCC vary widely

and it really is a question of the individual’s budget and time as well as the learning style

which approach is suited the most. WCC is the largest educational institution in the

Westchester County, and has a variety of courses. Following the instruction, as described

above, will help you find information about every course that you will be interested in

fast and easily.

Week 7 Blog

What is globalization? Globalization of humanity is including the whole world in the

united system of economic, social, politic and cultural intercommunication. The character

of present society has been moulded by hight pace of development of technology and

increasing of her role in human life. Resources of modern information technology play of

no small importance role in the process of globalization. They make each tellurian

involved to every events in every part of the globe. There are as advantages, as

disadvantages of using the technology. Of corse, because of using technology life became

more progressive, dynamic and convenient. Also, it promotes a solution of some global

problems. However, using technology damages environment and is injurious to human's

health as well.

Case 2: Gio’s Writing Samples

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Week 1 Paragraph: Plagiarism

I considered Plagiarism a crime for two reasons, one because people are not honest and

two plagiarism people gain their degree with low acknowledge of their career. Students

not honest are going to pass their graded with out effort. Plagiarism is a bad habit and it

does help the students to be a good professional in their future. You all know classes are

hard, but you need to be creative and honest with our teachers. You can always make

research in the internet, but copy some job done, is be not sincere with your self and with

your teacher. If you are a plagiarism in your class will show when you finish your career

and be a bad professional. Also is going to be hard to work and don't have a good skills.

Week 1 Blog

Hi to all,

Let me introduce myself, my name is Giovana and I also taking English for Academic

Purposes Program. My goals for the future are:

-Be able to write well

-Spreak fluently English

-Develop and work on my career, "Media Communications" in USA.

What is plagiarism?

Is when you take information that doesn't belong to you and used it as your. Is cheat

somebody, that can be the teacher of your class, telling him or her that you did the home

work or test by yourself, but you really liying him or her you copy this from somebody

else.There are many kinds of plagiarism, people copy disks, videos, private information

and much more.

Week 4 Paragraph: The Reasons for Immigration

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As an immigrant of U.S. and base in my own experience I can name three cause of

immigration, political persecution, economic reasons, and lack of opportunities for

professionals in our native countries. The first reason why people left their country is

political persecution, in case of my country, Peru, a decade ago many people desided to

run away from there because, the terrorist issue. Many families got kill, bussineses were

destroyed and universities were invade for these groups. People have to move on and find

other places to live, a lot of them found political asylum in united State. The second cause

is economic problems, and this is one of the most important issues in my country, people

don’t make enoght money to paid rent, buy their food and buy clothes, so if somebody

has the chance to came here, they will definily do it. The third reason is lack of

opportunities for proffesionals, every year thousands of students are graduated from

universities and when they are looking for job, they don’t find it. It is very hard to find a

job in your field. Now in my country you find a lot of proffesionals doing taxi or they are

vendors. In sum, I think many of us want to succed in life and that’s why we are here, we

are part of America.

Week 4 Blog

I think this a really controversial topic to disscus, and we are the protagonists. Because

his economy is one of the best in the world and we came here looking for opportunities

we could’t find in our countries. No, I don’t think that the reasons are exactly the same.

They had change. Probably hindred years ago immigrated for religionus persocution in

their countries. In 1906, asian immigrants were exclude, racism 1907 immigration

restriction for southeastern European, because social and economic festering problems in

U.S. as a consequences of immigration.

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Yes, it is important to assimilate in this culture, which also is a mix of many nations

around this world.I think many people can find more opportunities in the mainstream

culture, but not everybody have the chance to do it. I learned that the money is one of the

most important things to live here. Families are very independent, one from other.

People are busy all the time.

Week 8 Paragraph: Traditional vs. Nontraditional Students

Going to college is never late; if you never have the opportunity to be a traditional

student you can still be a nontraditional student. Here are some differences and few

similarities you need to know. Age, social and family status, experiences, and schedule

are the differences. And the similarities are, the reason for study, previous education, and

academic needs. Traditional students are 17 to 25 years old; they usually go to college

when they finish high school. While, nontraditional students are older than 25 years. A

lot of traditional students, have a very active social life, a lot of friends and parties. On

the other hand, nontraditional students are busy working and some of them have family,

wife and children, they don’t have time to socialized. Traditional students don’t have

much experience about life, while nontraditional do. Schedule is another difference

while, traditional students are full time, and nontraditional are part time students. There

are also some similarities. Traditional and nontraditional students have the same reasons

to study, which is improve themselves and be a good professionals. Another one is

previous education. There both have to finish high school to go to college. And the last

one, is academics need, they have the same program. Traditional or nontraditional

students have many opportunities to make themselves better.

Week 8 Blog

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Traditional students are the ones that finish high school and enroll to colleges, don’t

work, they are also depends in their parents or family that support them, they study full

time. Nontraditional students, which I’m identify, are that ones are older than 25 years,

independent, most of them have family, have a full time job, and study part time. This

increasing numbers starts in the beginning of 1970, there are many reasons, one of them

can be the necessity to make more money, with technology people want to go to college

to get a degree in different fields, guys want to do more job than the farmer and women

became more ambitious in get a profession than stay home cooking. With globalization,

professional go to another countries to updated their degrees and get their master.

Case 3: Joe’s Writing Samples

Week 2 Paragraph: Describing A Historical Event

People from Peru will always remember 22 November 2000 as the day of freedom from a

corrupted, massive human violator, and abusive of power government. Peruvian president

Alberto Fujimori after more than a decade of government, resigns by long distance,

sending a letter to the Peruvian Congress from Tokyo (Japan) where he sought for

political Asylum. Fujimori actually is on trial for his dictatorial government in Peru.

Back in September 2000, Peruvian television released a video-tape where Vladimiro

Montesinos (Fujimori’s secrete police chief) considered the power behind the throne, is

showing bribing to an opposition legislator handing him US $ 15,000, in return for his

agreement to switch his allegiance to the ruling party’s parliamentary bloc. The video

proved the corruption inside the government already known, and besides others events

which follow up, this minimum one was mainly the cause of Fujimori’s fall. In order to

exterminate the two terrorist movements “ The Shinning Path” and “Tupac Amaru”

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formed prior to Fujimori’s Government, He made up policies to carry this out. Human

rights were stepped in. Prosecution for massacres, murders and torture were used in the

counterinsurgency campaign against everyone presumed being part of this movements or

many of whom opposed to the system of govern. As a result, thousands of

“disappearances” of innocents’ workers, peasants and students were reported. Fujimori

controlled all along the state’s power: Executive, Legislative, Judiciary and even the

media. Either by bribing (mainly with drug traffic money) or menace, they were able to

govern almost without opposition. In 2005 Fujimori flew secretly to Chile, Peru’s

southern neighbor. The idea was to possible run in the 2006 elections. Chilean police

arrested him, and after a trial suit made by new Peru’s government, The Chilean Supreme

Court approved his extradition last September 2007. Last December, in a historic

decision (first one made to a former president) of the The Peruvian Judiciary, Fujimori

was found guilty for abuse of authority and sentenced to six years in prison. More dire

trial has already began, this time for human rights violation. The prosecution has asked

for a 30 years sentence. To sum up, this dictatorial period was a hard one for Peruvian

people. Corruption, disrespect of human rights, and abuse of power made it. Even though

there are some credits they reached, I complete disagree with the methods. “The end

doesn’t justify the means”.

Week 2 Blog

Puritans mainly hoped to accomplish to purify the Church of England from within. Also,

they hoped that the entire community, their “city on the hill” in the American colonies,

becomes a model for people still in England, and an example of how godly people should

live. Their intention didn’t materialize. As the “city in the hill” Puritans did in the past,

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American society still has the same root, due to believe itself a model to follow for the

world as Democracy, and the way they see immigration issues. American society is ruled

by Democracy system, they believe on it. They believe as well that this system of

government should rule the world. However, trying to settle it in Iraq is bringing such a

negative results we see everyday. A well percent of American society reminds me The

Puritans as well, in the way they see Hispanic immigration. Even tough they immigrated

as many Hispanics are now; they somehow want to reinstall The Pillory to those whom

had the audacity to disregard American rules. An example of it is American children’

parents deportations as a punishment. As a result, suffering like the pillory did.

Week 4 Paragraph: The Reasons for Immigration

Different nation’s conditions have been the cause of immigration to the United States of

America throughout its history. Peru in South America is not an exception. A good

number of Peruvian people have immigrated to the United States due to security,

economic stability, and looking for a better children’s future. Security is one of the

reasons of immigration for them. In order to plan their future; safety for their families is

primordial. The last two decades Peru had suffered a social and political instability, due

to terrorist movements, and the brutal contra insurgency of a dictatorial government.

Thousands of innocent workers’, peasants, and students were prosecuted, tortured, and

murdered. Consequently, thousand of Peruvians were forced to immigrate. Another

reason is the necessity of an economic stability. Peru’s difficult economic situation

implied a high unemployment; many professionals were obliged to carry out under

qualified jobs in order to subsist, others less “fortunate” wouldn’t even have this chance.

The job opportunity that this northern country offered was a powerful reason for them to

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immigrate. However, the most important reason of immigrating was to look for a better

future for their children. As in most of Hispanic families, their children future is

fundamental. They know the fact that U.S.A. has one of the world’s highest school

educations, the gratuity of it, and the facility to have a college education. Compared to

Peru where magisterial strikes looking for fair payments, the need of an education

infrastructure improvement, and the poverty of schools, for instance; make its public

education deficient. All in all, the excellent conditions to this Peruvian immigrants that

this country offers, security, economic stability, and a good chance of better future for

their children above explained; represents to them a huge force to migrate.

Week 4 Blog

Immigration is a big issue to talk about. I’ll try to be the most practical possible on my

answers. People the last two centuries have been attracted to this country mainly for its

prosperity. It means in a few words “a better life”. Basically, the reasons for present day

immigrations are the same as a hundred years ago. As a hundred years ago The Industrial

Revolution, The free Market in the present made an important reason for migration. In

addition, economic depression, escaping from autocratic regimens, famines, and poverty;

are other reasons as well. In Both cases they shared the same ideas: knowing that

America was built for immigrants, they came looking for “The American Dream”.

“When in Rome, do as the Romans Do”. Hispanic people have had realized the

importance of their vote in the actual primary elections. Trough it, they got involved in an

important nation’s issue, showing presence and power. It happened because they realized

the priority, and importance of assimilating to this new culture. As a result, they never

will be ignored again.

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Week 9 Paragraph: Are Boys and Girls the Same?

Do you know that girls’ cerebral volume development is faster than in boys? Can you

believe it? Well, researchers from the National Institute of Health found that total

cerebral volume peak at 10.5 years in girls, four years earlier than in boys. Yes, scan of

boys’ and girls’ brain over time show they develop differently. Furthermore, they present

others physical and psychological differences. Are there only differences in their

characteristics of development? No, social skills development is one similar characteristic

they have. The fact that boys don’t hear as well as girls is one of the physical differences

that exists between them, which means that an instructor needs to speak louder in order

for the boys in the room to hear her/him; it could be one reason for affecting boys on their

attention and in their language skills development. On the other hand, girls’ better hear

make them more attentive, which is one of the reasons of their language skills earlier

development. While girls brains are better at seeing the nuance of color, texture, and

facial expressions, boys’ visual system are better at seeing the action. This difference is

reflected in the way young girls like to use a lot of colors when drawing including more

people on it and playing with dolls; young boys differently like to play with trucks. How

emotions are handled is a clear example of Psychological differences between

adolescents. Due to girls’ more pronounced development of their brain area, which deal

with emotions; they are more likely to express their emotions either orally or in writing in

spite of boys, who are at a disadvantage. Friendship is carried out differently between

them also. Girls spend a lot of time being together, talking and going to places.

Friendship in boys; however, is based in common interest in games and activities. Social

skill is one characteristic that not only girls but also boys develop. They benefit from

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daily coexistence, where they learn from each other differences. They get to know each

other from it. To sum up, every child is unique and, also, not all boys or all girls are the

same. In addition, it’s necessary to mention that instead of saying that boys develop

slower than girls, it’s more exactly to say that they developed at different pace.

Week 9 Blog

In my opinion, the advantage of teaching boys and girls together can link to a better

sociable balance; consequently, to help to understand better the opposite gender. As an

example of disadvantage, focusing in education, I could mention the “pull back”

education development effect that boys affect on girls. Biological reasons between boys

and girls are discussed as a reason of teach them separately. The article mentions physical

and biological differences among them. Research reveals, as an example of a physical

difference, that in men the left and right hemispheres of the brain are completely

different; where the first one controls the verbal skills and the second one the spatial

functions. This division does not exist in women, who use both hemispheres of the brain

for language. Also, it mentions as another example, the notable differences to the way

images are processed between males and females due to retina composition. How boys

and girls handle emotions are explained in the article as well, as an example of

physiological differences between them. In the adolescence the change development of

the cerebral cortex, which deal with emotion is higher in girls than in boys. So, it takes

the latter ones at a disadvantage, when talking about emotions. All these differences

besides other ones are used by the author to justify somehow the necessity of teach boys

and girls separately.

Case 4: Jang’s Writing Samples

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Week 2 Paragraph: Describing a Historical Event

The abolition of slavery in Thailand

The slave system is the problem for developing country, for example; social , political

especially , economic. It was stopped by King Chakri V. Thailand had slavery for a

hundred year, ago. Since Ayuttaya Dynasty to Rattanagosin Dynasty till mid of Chakri

Dynasty. At that time, we did not have a democratic government, yet and third of people

were slave. The slaves were treated by their own boss ( rich people ). When rich people

lend poor people money but they cannot pay back, they will give their children to be a

slave instead of money. When babies were born from slave’s parents they were slave,

also. If they want to have freedom, they might have enough money but it was extremely

impossible because they got a little salary. King Junlajomkrow or King Chakri V of

Thailand had stopped the slave system by peaceful way, since 1874. The King tried to

give the reasons and explained to each group of politicians then expanded to other group

of people. He tried many ways giving their life better. He donated his money for them

and decreased the cost of slaves to get freedom. He gave an education for slave’s children

by established a school for them. So, when people had education they can think about the

reasons and made a decision follow the King’s way, without revenge of Thais. That is

another important event of history and that is why Thailand still exist.

Week 2 Blog

Discussion about The Puritans

a) They have the same attitude and behavior, stick in the bible without caring people what

they think.

b) They planed to conduct their religious affairs through the Church of England but

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expected to govern themselves. They were not intention materialized.

c) I don’t know but I think I cannot see the Puritans roots in the modern American society

because now, we have freedom to think and do whatever we want.

d) Yes, it dose. When Thailand fight for democracy, we had a lot of painful and sadness

because many people sacrificed themselves for.

e) “the happiest nations have no history” I think, it means no nations don’t have problems

and the problems will have a result with painful, and it means how long that your country

exist. If you have an old history that means you have many sadness because that that

period you don’t have more education, consideration and technology helping you solve it.

Week 4 Paragraph: The Reasons for Immigration

There can be many causes of immigration. Some of the causes are employment, finding a

better life and escaping from wars. One of the reasons is employment. Immigrants want a

job that can support their life and the place where they move is easier to get a job. The

countries where they move have better variety jobs and they are willing to do it. Some

people move because they get an advance position of their career. They can earn a higher

step and profit. Another reason is finding a better life. They want to leave from poverty.

They need money to make their life more comfortable. If they have money they can get

the proper consumer goods and the appliances. Also, they can have a good education.

They receive an opportunity to choose the proper school. The most important reason is

escaping from wars. Immigrants need a place where they can have a peaceful and safety

for them and their family. Nobody needs to live in a high rate of risk and dangerous.

Some immigrants escape from political war because they cannot accept the pressure.

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Many harmful will happen if they are still in their country. So, there are some reasons,

which make people emigrate from their own country.

Week 4: Blog

I don't think assimilation is still a priority today because they are have equal freedom.

They can think and do or act like American. I don't know much about the democratic here

but I think they are not ready to become part of the democratic processes.

For the first point of c) after I read from Joel I change my mind, I think most of people

that immigrated want to be part of this country. Also, I think like the pharse “When in

Rome, do as the Romans Do”, nobody wants to feel different. For the second point the

new immigrants are not ready for democracy because they just come in, may be they

don't know as much about the democracy here. If they lived for a while (until they know

and were accepted) they can have an opportunity for democracy.

I think people have always been attracted to this country because this country in their

sight is prosperity. They might have their better life in the flourish country. The reasons

for present-day immigration are the same as a hundred years ago, for example reasons

like; population increase but no job, technology and education was behind, unfair of

social or politics and the impoverishment.

In my opinion, I think assimilate in the mainstream culture is better because it makes they

feel that they are a part of and they were accepted from assimilation mainstream. I think

some people prefer ethnic communities because they feel more comfortable with people

of the same background. They will feel inoffensive and understand each other easily.

They will feel like they are the same family that can talk everything with and have a true

friend.

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Week 10 Paragraph: Classification of Learning Styles

Students have their own learning style; however, they not recognize what kinds

are they belong. Learning style of students can be divided into two categories. First

category is students who are talkative. They like to listen, speak, and interact with other.

Their performances are outstanding in classrooms. They like to listen to their teachers or

classmates and share the ideas with speaking and interacting. The presentation, using

CDs or DVDs, and group working will work for them because they can use their strength

talent points of learning style. When they express with talking, it helps them understand

the subject matters easier. The careers, which should be suitable for these students are

receptionist, tour guide, secretary, flight attendant, or concierge. The students, who

belong to this category, can do these kinds of jobs because they have to deal with many

people by using participation or interaction, which they already had that skills. Second

category is students who are reticent. They like to think, read, and write. When they are

alone, they have widespread thoughts and inspirations. They prefer a quiet time and no

rush. Their ideas come out better on paper. The learning activities that will work for

them are chart, diagram, reading article, or searching information reference, etc. Students

in this category can take their times and bring the brilliant ideas. Like author, interpreter,

researcher, columnist, or journalist, the students can develop their capacity of learning

style with these kinds of jobs. By recognize which learning style are they, they will

understand and improve their quality of learning.

Week 10 Blog

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Sorry for silent for a long time. The internet was dead. Now I am back!! It sounds

interesting on the test which will tell you what type of study you are. I will try it now. Be

right back!!

Hi Joe, I know that you can help me. In ACT-REF I got 1REF, SEN-INT I got 3INT,

VIS-VRB I got 1VIS, SEQ-GLO I got 3GLO. I think if we know what type of study we

are and adapt to use the advantages of it. We will learn better and we will know our weak

points and prove it by trying harder or our friends who better in the other styles will help.

Which means, we can go forward together and help each other. I think in school are using

every style of learning but writing is use more than other style because students will write

or lecture what they learned and then write the paper or homework, too. I believed that

everybody have at least one thing which they can do the best or feel comfortable to do it!!

APPENDIX D:

SAMPLES OF PARTICIPANTS’ WEEKLY SELF-EVALUATIONS

Table D1 Sample of Yana’s Self-Evaluation in Week 5

Section 1: Planning (to be completed at the beginning of the week)

My goal this week To improve my knowledge of verb tenses

Steps I will take to reach my goal Work with online grammar resources

Skills I want to improve Express my thoughts clearly

Problems I want to overcome Talk with other people with more confidence

Things I want to learn in general System of education in the USA

Section 2: Evaluation (to be completed at the end of the week)

Evaluation points Strongly

agree

Agree Disagree Strongly

disagree

Comments

I reached the goal I set for

myself at the beginning of

the week

�

I completed all the steps I

originally planned

�

I improved the skills I

wanted to improve

�

I overcame the problems �

The new things I have

learned this week

How political and social systems and cultures of different countries affect

people’s upbringing

The skills I have improved

this week

Discussion and analyzing information

Things I would do Initiate collaboration with classmates

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differently

Table D2 Gio’s Sample Self-Evaluation in Week 6

Section 1: Planning (to be completed at the beginning of the week)

My goal this week To participate in the blog discussion

Steps I will take to reach my goal Practice online

Skills I want to improve Interact with my classmates online

Problems I want to overcome Fear of communicating online

Things I want to learn in general Learn more about where we live

Section 2: Evaluation (to be completed at the end of the week)

Evaluation points Strongly

agree

Agree Disagree Strongly

disagree

Comments

I reached the goal I set for

myself at the beginning of

the week

�

I completed all the steps I

originally planned

�

I improved the skills I

wanted to improve

�

I overcame the problems �

The new things I have

learned this week

I learned about cybernetics

The skills I have improved

this week

I improved interaction, but just a little

Things I would do

differently

Give myself more time for homework

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Table D3 Sample of Joe’s Self-Evaluation in Week 8

Section 1: Planning (to be completed at the beginning of the week)

My goal this week To improve the use of gerund vs. infinitives, punctuation (commas

& semi-colon), and new vocabulary

Steps I will take to reach my goal To use the online resources for gerund, infinitives, & punctuation;

to make a list of new words

Skills I want to improve To recognize when to use gerunds, infinitives, and the new

vocabulary correctly

Problems I want to overcome To use commas & semi-colons correctly

Things I want to learn in general How to increase reading speed

Section 2: Evaluation (to be completed at the end of the week)

Evaluation points Strongly

agree

Agree Disagree Strongly

disagree

Comments

I reached the goal I set for

myself at the beginning of

the week

�

I completed all the steps I

originally planned

�

I improved the skills I

wanted to improve

�

I overcame the problems �

The new things I have

learned this week

How to use some new online resources

Skills I have improved Punctuating sentences

Things I would do

differently

Use more of my teacher’s support online

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Table D4 Sample of Jang’s Self-Evaluation in Week 8

Section 1: Planning (to be completed at the beginning of the week)

My goal this week To start the blog discussion and Writing Shop assignment during

the spring break

Steps I will take to reach my goal To finish reading the article on Monday

Skills I want to improve To use verb tenses in writing correctly

Problems I want to overcome To use a different beginning in writing

Things I want to learn in general How to attract readers with a better introduction

Section 2: Evaluation (to be completed at the end of the week)

Evaluation points Strongly

agree

Agree Disagree Strongly

disagree

Comments

I reached the goal I set for

myself at the beginning of

the week

�

I completed all the steps I

originally planned

�

I improved the skills I

wanted to improve

�

I overcame the problems �

The new things I have

learned this week

What “self-directed” means – I never heard it before.

The skills I have improved

this week

How to compare and contrast

Things I would do

differently

Post my responses more frequently

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APPENDIX E:

306

LUDMILA ELLIS 17 Alpine Drive, Unit E • Wappingers Falls, New York 12590 • (845) 790-5147 mellis08@optonline.net

EDUCATION Walden University expected summer 2008 PhD in Education , Instructional Design for Second Language Learning Dissertation: “A Case Study of Hybrid Course Design in ESL Writing Instruction” Chair: Peter Serdyukov, Educational Technology Committee: Mary Dereshiwsky, Research Methodology Amie Beckett, Second Language Acquisition State University of New York, New Paltz, NY 1996-1998 M.S. in Edication, TESOL Rostov Pedagogical Institute, Rostov-on-Don, Russia 1982-1987 B.A. in Teaching Foreign Languages

Diploma with Honors

TEACHING EXPERIENCE

ESL INSTRUCTOR 2001-PRESENT Westchester Community College Valhalla, NY

Teach academic, integrated skills, and intensive ESL courses in grammar, reading, and writing and listening and speaking. Developed a hybrid EAP course and created a companion Web site esl-page.com. Integrated online technologies into the traditional ESL instruction. Design and evaluate students’ in-class and online assignments in language skills and content areas. Update and maintain the course Web site and the blog. Facilitate the students’ online discussion. ESL INSTRUCTOR 1999-2006 Ulster County BOCES Port Ewen, NY Taught traditional multilevel ESL and distance learning classes. Taught adult literacy classes. Taught advanced ESL to Japanese professional staff at Plasmaco, Inc.; developed ESL curriculum and skill supporting activities; administered NYS placement test. ESL INSTRUCTOR 1998-2001 Unification Theological Seminary Barrytown, NY Taught developmental writing, reading, research, and intensive listening and reading courses to graduate ESL students; developed course syllabi; administered and graded tests. Developed class assignments involving research strategies and online skills. ESL INSTRUCTOR 1998-99 Orange County Community College Newburgh, NY

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Taught intensive noncredit ESL course as part of the ESL Bridge Program. Developed skills supporting activities. Assisted students in the writing lab. ENGLISH INSTRUCTOR 1989-92 Rostov Pedagogical Institute Rostov-on-Don, RU Taught practical Course of English, English Phonetics, and integrated skills classes to first- and second-year students of English. ENGLISH INSTRUCTOR 1988-90 Rostov State University Rostov-on-Don, RU Taught English with concentration in reading, writing, and research skills to students of Psychology.

TEACHING INTERESTS: TESOL, ESL COURSE DEVELOPMENT & INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES

2007 TESOL membership 2006 Took courses in Web design and blogging for education 2006 Best Plus Test training 2003 Fundamentals of Editing and Proofreading, New York University 2003 Creativity in TESOL workshop; Distance Learning Programs workshop Hudson

Valley Consortium 2002 Hudson Valley/Catskills TESOL conference, Distance Learning workshop References

Prof. Yeghia Aslanian Borough of Manhattan Community College 199 Chambers Street, Room N-420 New York, NY 10007 212-220-1398; yaslanian@yahoo.com Prof. Peter Serdyukov National University 11255 North Torrey Pines, La Jolla, CA 858-642-8332; pserdyuk@nu.edu Lukas Murphy, Assistant Director ESL Institute Westchester Community College 75 Grassland Road, AAB-302, Valhalla, NY 10595 914-606-7744; Lukas.Murphy@sunywcc.edu