Ch9 portable

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Chapter 9Chapter 9Motivation and EmotionMotivation and Emotion

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Chapter 9 OverviewChapter 9 Overview

Explaining MotivationExplaining Motivation Social MotivesSocial Motives HungerHunger EmotionEmotion


Explaining MotivationExplaining Motivation

Motivation Motivation is all the processes that is all the processes that initiate, direct and sustain behaviorinitiate, direct and sustain behavior

Motive Motive is the need or desire that is the need or desire that energizes and directs behavior toward energizes and directs behavior toward a goala goal


The Components of MotivationThe Components of Motivation

ActivationActivation– Taking the first steps toward a goalTaking the first steps toward a goal

PersistencePersistence– Continuing to work toward a goal despite Continuing to work toward a goal despite

encountering obstaclesencountering obstacles IntensityIntensity

– The energy and attention applied to The energy and attention applied to achieve a goalachieve a goal


Intrinsic and Extrinsic Intrinsic and Extrinsic MotivationMotivation

Intrinsic motivationIntrinsic motivation– Desire to perform an act because it is Desire to perform an act because it is

satisfying or pleasurable in and of itselfsatisfying or pleasurable in and of itself e.g., A child reads a book because it is fune.g., A child reads a book because it is fun

Extrinsic motivationExtrinsic motivation– Desire to perform an act to gain an Desire to perform an act to gain an

external reward or avoid an undesirable external reward or avoid an undesirable consequenceconsequence

e.g., A child reads a book to avoid losing TV e.g., A child reads a book to avoid losing TV privilegesprivileges


Biological Approaches to Biological Approaches to MotivationMotivation

In many species, behavior is In many species, behavior is motivated by motivated by instinctsinstincts– Fixed behavior patterns characteristic of Fixed behavior patterns characteristic of

every member of a speciesevery member of a species e.g., spiders spinning webs, birds migratinge.g., spiders spinning webs, birds migrating

No true instincts motivate human No true instincts motivate human behaviorbehavior

But, biological forces underlie some But, biological forces underlie some human behaviorshuman behaviors


Biological Approaches to Biological Approaches to Motivation cont…Motivation cont…

According to Clark Hull, a biological According to Clark Hull, a biological need creates an unpleasant internal need creates an unpleasant internal state, called a state, called a drivedrive, and the person or , and the person or organism is motivated to reduce itorganism is motivated to reduce it

e.g., need for food causes hunger, e.g., need for food causes hunger, motivates food seeking to reduce the motivates food seeking to reduce the drivedrive

Drive theory is based on the concept Drive theory is based on the concept of of homeostasishomeostasis

Natural tendency of the body to Natural tendency of the body to maintain a balanced internal statemaintain a balanced internal state


Figure 9.1 Drive-Reduction Theory


Biological Approaches to Motivation cont…

People are motivated to maintain an People are motivated to maintain an optimal level of optimal level of arousalarousal– a state of alertness and mental and physical a state of alertness and mental and physical

activationactivation In contrast to drive reduction theory, In contrast to drive reduction theory,

arousal theory proposes that humans arousal theory proposes that humans and other animals are sometimes and other animals are sometimes motivated to increase tensionmotivated to increase tension

When arousal is too low, When arousal is too low, stimulus stimulus motivesmotives motivate organisms to increase motivate organisms to increase stimulationstimulation


Biological Approaches to Motivation Cont…

The Yerkes-Dodson law States that task performance is best States that task performance is best

when arousal level is appropriate to task when arousal level is appropriate to task difficultydifficulty

Higher arousal for simple tasksHigher arousal for simple tasks Moderate arousal for moderate tasksModerate arousal for moderate tasks Low arousal for difficult tasksLow arousal for difficult tasks


Figure 9.2 The Yerkes-Dodson Law


Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow proposed that Abraham Maslow proposed that human needs are hierarchicalhuman needs are hierarchical

Humans are motivated by their Humans are motivated by their lowest unmet needlowest unmet need

When lower needs are met, the When lower needs are met, the ultimate goal is ultimate goal is self-actualizationself-actualization


Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs cont…

Maslow studied people who Maslow studied people who exemplified self- actualizationexemplified self- actualization

Abraham LincolnAbraham Lincoln

Thomas JeffersonThomas Jefferson

Albert EinsteinAlbert Einstein

Eleanor RooseveltEleanor Roosevelt


Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs cont…

Self-actualizersSelf-actualizers Perceive reality accuratelyPerceive reality accurately Believe they have a mission to Believe they have a mission to

accomplishaccomplish Devote their lives to some larger goodDevote their lives to some larger good Frequently have Frequently have peak experiences peak experiences of of

deep meaning, insight, and harmony deep meaning, insight, and harmony with the universewith the universe


Figure 9.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs


Social Motives

Motive (such as the needs for Motive (such as the needs for affiliation and achievement) that affiliation and achievement) that is acquired through experience is acquired through experience and interaction with othersand interaction with others


Achievement Motivation

Henry MurrayHenry Murray Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

– A series of pictures of ambiguous A series of pictures of ambiguous situationssituations

– Person taking the test is asked to Person taking the test is asked to create a story about each picturecreate a story about each picture

– The stories are presumed to reveal The stories are presumed to reveal the test taker’s needsthe test taker’s needs


Achievement Motivation cont…

According to Murray, one motive According to Murray, one motive revealed by the TAT is revealed by the TAT is need for need for achievement (n Ach)achievement (n Ach)

The need to accomplish The need to accomplish something difficult and to something difficult and to perform at a high standard of perform at a high standard of excellenceexcellence



People with high n AchPeople with high n Ach– Pursue goals that are challenging Pursue goals that are challenging

yet attainable through hard workyet attainable through hard work– Goals that are too easy offer no Goals that are too easy offer no

challenge and hold no interestchallenge and hold no interest People with low n AchPeople with low n Ach

– Are more motivated by fear of Are more motivated by fear of failure than by hope of successfailure than by hope of success

– So they set low goals or impossibly So they set low goals or impossibly high goalshigh goals



Goal orientation theory Goal orientation theory Proposes that achievement motivation Proposes that achievement motivation

varies according to which of four goal varies according to which of four goal orientations one adoptsorientations one adopts

Mastery approachMastery approach orientation orientation Mastery avoidanceMastery avoidance orientation orientation Performance avoidancePerformance avoidance orientation orientation Performance approachPerformance approach orientation orientation



Mastery goals measure achievement Mastery goals measure achievement against a desired level of knowledge against a desired level of knowledge or skillor skill

Performance goals measure Performance goals measure achievement against that of othersachievement against that of others

Research findings Students with mastery goal Students with mastery goal

orientations tend to procrastinate lessorientations tend to procrastinate less Students with performance approach Students with performance approach

orientation tend to get the highest orientation tend to get the highest gradesgrades


Work Motivation

Work motivationWork motivation is the conditions is the conditions responsible for arousal, direction, responsible for arousal, direction, magnitude, and maintenance of effort magnitude, and maintenance of effort of workersof workers

Two effective ways to increase work Two effective ways to increase work motivationmotivation

Reinforcement Goal Setting


Work Motivation cont…

Research suggests that organizations Research suggests that organizations can enhance employees’ commitment can enhance employees’ commitment to goalsto goals

Having them participate in goal settingHaving them participate in goal setting Making goals specific, attractive, Making goals specific, attractive,

difficult, and attainabledifficult, and attainable Providing feedback on performanceProviding feedback on performance Rewarding employees for attaining Rewarding employees for attaining

goalsgoals


HungerHunger

Primary drives Primary drives are unlearned are unlearned motives that serve to satisfy motives that serve to satisfy biological needs, states of tension biological needs, states of tension or arousal that arise from a or arousal that arise from a biological need and are unlearnedbiological need and are unlearned


Internal and External Cues

Two areas of the hypothalamus Two areas of the hypothalamus regulate hunger and eating regulate hunger and eating behaviorbehavior– Lateral hypothalamusLateral hypothalamus– Ventromedial hypothalamusVentromedial hypothalamus

Signals that activate these Signals that activate these structuresstructures– Low levels of glucose and high Low levels of glucose and high

levels of insulin stimulate hungerlevels of insulin stimulate hunger


Internal and External Cuescont…

External cues that stimulate eating External cues that stimulate eating includeinclude– Appetizing smell, taste, or appearance of Appetizing smell, taste, or appearance of

foodfood– Being around others who are eatingBeing around others who are eating– Reaction to boredom, stress, or an Reaction to boredom, stress, or an

unpleasant emotional stateunpleasant emotional state External cues that inhibit eating External cues that inhibit eating

includeinclude– Unappetizing smell, taste, or appearance Unappetizing smell, taste, or appearance

of foodof food– Acquired taste aversionsAcquired taste aversions– Reaction to stress or an unpleasant Reaction to stress or an unpleasant

emotional stateemotional state


Explaining Variations in Body Weight Health care professionals classify Health care professionals classify

body weight by measuring body weight by measuring body body mass index (BMI)mass index (BMI)– A measure of weight relative to heightA measure of weight relative to height

Heredity is a cause of variations in Heredity is a cause of variations in BMIBMI– Genes influence Genes influence metabolic rate metabolic rate and the and the

number of fat cells in the bodynumber of fat cells in the body– Set point theorySet point theory proposes that each proposes that each

person is genetically programmed to person is genetically programmed to carry a certain amount of body weightcarry a certain amount of body weight


Obesity and Weight Loss

Prevalence of obesity has increased over Prevalence of obesity has increased over the past 40 yearsthe past 40 years

Most individuals who are obese require a Most individuals who are obese require a doctor’s supervision to attain a healthy doctor’s supervision to attain a healthy weightweight

For individuals who are not obese, weight For individuals who are not obese, weight loss is best achieved by lifestyle changes loss is best achieved by lifestyle changes including both diet and exerciseincluding both diet and exercise– Diets that focus only on cutting calories tend Diets that focus only on cutting calories tend

to be ineffectiveto be ineffective


Figure 9.4 Age-Adjusted Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity among U.S. Adults, Age 20-74 Years


Eating Disorders

Anorexia nervosaAnorexia nervosa is an eating is an eating disorder characterized by disorder characterized by overwhelming, irrational fear of overwhelming, irrational fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, gaining weight or becoming fat, compulsive dieting to the point of compulsive dieting to the point of starvation, and excessive weight starvation, and excessive weight lossloss

Causes of this disorder are not Causes of this disorder are not well understoodwell understood

Treatment is difficultTreatment is difficult


Eating Disorders cont…

BulimiaBulimia nervosanervosa is an eating is an eating disorder characterized by disorder characterized by repeated and uncontrolled repeated and uncontrolled episodes of binge eatingepisodes of binge eating

Causes not well understoodCauses not well understood Treatment is difficultTreatment is difficult 10-15% of all people with bulimia 10-15% of all people with bulimia

are malesare males


Emotion

An identifiable feeling state An identifiable feeling state involving physiological arousal, a involving physiological arousal, a cognitive appraisal of the cognitive appraisal of the situation or stimulus causing that situation or stimulus causing that internal body state, and an internal body state, and an outward behavior expressing the outward behavior expressing the statestate


Theories of Emotions

The The James-Lange theory James-Lange theory suggests that suggests that emotional feelings result when an emotional feelings result when an individual becomes aware of a individual becomes aware of a physiological response to an emotion-physiological response to an emotion-provoking stimulusprovoking stimulus


Figure 9.5 The James-Lange Theory of Emotion


Theories of Emotions cont…

The The Cannon Bard theory Cannon Bard theory suggests that suggests that emotion-provoking stimulus is emotion-provoking stimulus is transmitted simultaneously to the transmitted simultaneously to the cerebral cortex, which is responsible for cerebral cortex, which is responsible for conscious experience of the emotion, conscious experience of the emotion, and to the sympathetic nervous system, and to the sympathetic nervous system, which causes physiological arousalwhich causes physiological arousal

So, emotions are experienced So, emotions are experienced psychologically and physiologically at psychologically and physiologically at the same timethe same time



The The Schachter-Singer two-factor Schachter-Singer two-factor theory theory suggests that two things suggests that two things must happen for a person to feel an must happen for a person to feel an emotionemotion

There must be physiological arousalThere must be physiological arousal There must be a cognitive There must be a cognitive

interpretation of the arousal, so the interpretation of the arousal, so the person can label it as a specific person can label it as a specific emotionemotion



The The Lazarus theory Lazarus theory proposes that a proposes that a cognitive appraisal is the first step in cognitive appraisal is the first step in an emotional response, and that all an emotional response, and that all other aspects of an emotion, including other aspects of an emotion, including physiological arousal, depend on itphysiological arousal, depend on it


Emotion and the Brain

The The amygdalaamygdala is the brain is the brain structure most closely associated structure most closely associated with fearwith fear

The The cerebral cortexcerebral cortex regulates the regulates the amygdala based on its amygdala based on its interpretation of the situationinterpretation of the situation

Emotions are lateralized in the Emotions are lateralized in the two cerebral hemispherestwo cerebral hemispheres


Figure 9.6 Neuroimaging of Emotions


The Expression of Emotion

Basic emotionsBasic emotions are unlearned and are unlearned and universaluniversal– They are found in all culturesThey are found in all cultures– Emerge in children according to a Emerge in children according to a

predictable developmental predictable developmental timetabletimetable


The Expression of Emotion cont…

Facial-feedback hypothesis Facial-feedback hypothesis is the idea is the idea that muscular movements involved in that muscular movements involved in certain facial expressions produce the certain facial expressions produce the corresponding emotionscorresponding emotions

Research supports this hypothesisResearch supports this hypothesis