Chapter 27 Evaluating Information

Chapter 27Chapter 27

Evaluating Evaluating InformationInformation

Separating Facts from Separating Facts from OpinionsOpinionsIdentifying factsIdentifying facts• A fact is a statement you can prove. A fact is a statement you can prove. • Two types of facts are observations Two types of facts are observations

and definitions.and definitions.• Some ways you can test a Some ways you can test a

statement are: statement are: 1.1. Make a personal observationMake a personal observation2.2. Refer to your experienceRefer to your experience3.3. Ask a recognized expertAsk a recognized expert4.4. Consult an authoritative written sourceConsult an authoritative written source

Separating Facts from Separating Facts from OpinionsOpinionsIdentifying opinionsIdentifying opinions• An opinion is a statement that tells An opinion is a statement that tells

what a person thinks, believes or what a person thinks, believes or feels about a subject.feels about a subject.

• You can’t prove opinions.You can’t prove opinions.• Some ways to identify opinions are: Some ways to identify opinions are:

– Look for adjectives and adverbs that Look for adjectives and adverbs that express judgment.express judgment.

– Look for words that indicate what a Look for words that indicate what a person feels or believes such as ought, person feels or believes such as ought, should, think or believe.should, think or believe.

Separating Facts from Separating Facts from OpinionsOpinions• Opinions can be unsupported or Opinions can be unsupported or

informedinformed

• Unsupported opinions are not Unsupported opinions are not backed up with facts.backed up with facts.

• Informed opinions are supported Informed opinions are supported with facts.with facts.

• BEWARE: Even though an opinion BEWARE: Even though an opinion can make perfect sense and is can make perfect sense and is backed up with facts, it’s still an backed up with facts, it’s still an opinion.opinion.

Examples: Fact or Opinion?Examples: Fact or Opinion?

• An adult male African elephant weighs An adult male African elephant weighs 12.000 pounds.12.000 pounds.

• Hunting elephants for their ivory tusks Hunting elephants for their ivory tusks should be banned.should be banned.

• An elephant can run at speeds of up to 25 An elephant can run at speeds of up to 25 miles/ hour.miles/ hour.

• Elephants make odd soundsElephants make odd sounds

Logical RelationshipsLogical Relationships

•A logical relationship is a clear and A logical relationship is a clear and reasonable connection (events, reasonable connection (events, objects, people and places)objects, people and places)

•Examples of logical relationships Examples of logical relationships are cause and effect, comparison are cause and effect, comparison and contrast and analogy.and contrast and analogy.

Logical RelationshipsLogical Relationships• A cause is an event or action that A cause is an event or action that

leads directly to another event or leads directly to another event or action.action.

• An effect is the direct or logical An effect is the direct or logical outcome of an event or action.outcome of an event or action.

• Words that signal cause and effect Words that signal cause and effect relationships include because, relationships include because, therefore, so, as a result, and since.therefore, so, as a result, and since.

• DON’T assume A is a cause of B or DON’T assume A is a cause of B or that something has ONLY one cause that something has ONLY one cause when it has many.when it has many.

Logical RelationshipsLogical Relationships• A comparison shows how two or more A comparison shows how two or more

things are alike. things are alike. • Some words that indicate similarities Some words that indicate similarities

are also, both, likewise, and in the are also, both, likewise, and in the same way.same way.

• A contrast shows how two or more A contrast shows how two or more things are different. things are different.

• Words that indicate differences include Words that indicate differences include but, however, on the other hand, and but, however, on the other hand, and unlike.unlike.

• You can use Venn diagrams to You can use Venn diagrams to compare two or more items.compare two or more items.

Logical RelationshipsLogical Relationships

• An analogy is a type of comparison, An analogy is a type of comparison, often used to explain something often used to explain something unfamiliar by likening it to something unfamiliar by likening it to something familiar.familiar.

• A good analogy effectively expresses an A good analogy effectively expresses an essential likeness between two things.essential likeness between two things.

• ““In the late 1800s, The Old Farmer´s Almanac In the late 1800s, The Old Farmer´s Almanac was to farmers what TV weather forecasts are was to farmers what TV weather forecasts are to us today” to us today”

• ““The blue sky was the same color as a sky The blue sky was the same color as a sky blue crayon”blue crayon”

Interpreting InformationInterpreting Information• An An INFERENCEINFERENCE is a logical guess is a logical guess

based on facts and common sense.based on facts and common sense.

• To draw a To draw a CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION you review you review a number of facts and details and use a number of facts and details and use your prior knowledge to make a your prior knowledge to make a logical statement about a topic. They logical statement about a topic. They are statements based on evidence.are statements based on evidence.

• A A GENERALIZATIONGENERALIZATION is a general is a general statement based on many specific statement based on many specific examples.examples.

““Glaciers are huge moving bodies of ice and Glaciers are huge moving bodies of ice and are powerful causes of erosion”are powerful causes of erosion”INFERENCE: Glaciers must exist in cold INFERENCE: Glaciers must exist in cold weatherweather““The severe wind and rain of a hurricane can The severe wind and rain of a hurricane can

cause windows to shatter”cause windows to shatter”

Prior knowledge: boards on the outside of a Prior knowledge: boards on the outside of a window may help. People buy many boards.window may help. People buy many boards.

CONCLUSION: Lumberyards sell a lot of CONCLUSION: Lumberyards sell a lot of boards just before hurricanes.boards just before hurricanes.

High temperatures feel hotter when humidity High temperatures feel hotter when humidity is high.is high.

Low temperatures feel colder when humidity Low temperatures feel colder when humidity is high.is high.

Recognizing Logical Recognizing Logical FallaciesFallacies•Sometimes an idea is stated in a Sometimes an idea is stated in a

way that at first appears to make way that at first appears to make sense. However if you examine sense. However if you examine the statement you might find the statement you might find that it actually contains a that it actually contains a FALLACY FALLACY or an error in logic.or an error in logic.

•There are many types of logical There are many types of logical fallacies.fallacies.

Recognizing Logical Recognizing Logical FallaciesFallacies

FALSE ANALOGYFALSE ANALOGY• A A FALSE ANALOGYFALSE ANALOGY involves a comparison involves a comparison

between two things that have nothing in between two things that have nothing in common. common.

• It’s an illogical comparison. It’s an illogical comparison.

• When examining an analogy ask yourself the When examining an analogy ask yourself the following questions:following questions:1. What are the similarities between the things being 1. What are the similarities between the things being compared?compared?

2. What are the differences between the things being 2. What are the differences between the things being compared?compared?

3. Is there any one difference that makes the analogy 3. Is there any one difference that makes the analogy illogical?illogical?


CIRCULAR REASONINGCIRCULAR REASONING

•When a person tries to prove a When a person tries to prove a statement by repeating it in other statement by repeating it in other words, the person is using words, the person is using CIRCULAR REASONINGCIRCULAR REASONING..

• It’s also known as begging the It’s also known as begging the question.question.


• An error in logicAn error in logic

• False analogy: False analogy: a comparison between things a comparison between things that do not have features in common.that do not have features in common.

• Circular reasoning: Circular reasoning: repeating a statement in repeating a statement in

different words.different words.

• Overgeneralization:Overgeneralization: a generalization that is too a generalization that is too broad to be valid and can easily be disproved. broad to be valid and can easily be disproved.

They are often signaled by words as no one, They are often signaled by words as no one, everyone, always, never, best, and worst. everyone, always, never, best, and worst.

• Either/or ThinkingEither/or Thinking: a claim of only 2 choices : a claim of only 2 choices when there are more.when there are more.

Identifying logical fallacies:Identifying logical fallacies:1.1.The orchestra was well-rehearsed The orchestra was well-rehearsed

because it had practiced a lot.because it had practiced a lot.

2.2.No one understands opera.No one understands opera.

3.3.Either you have artistic talent or Either you have artistic talent or you don’t.you don’t.

4.4.Tuning an instrument is like finding Tuning an instrument is like finding the right outfit to wear.the right outfit to wear.

5.5.Musical talent takes time to develop Musical talent takes time to develop because it takes years.because it takes years.

Misusing Emotional AppealsMisusing Emotional Appeals

•An emotional appeal stirs An emotional appeal stirs up feelings by means of up feelings by means of carefully chosen words and carefully chosen words and images.images.

•Watch out for some advertisers Watch out for some advertisers and politicians!and politicians!


BANDWAGON APPEALBANDWAGON APPEAL• The The BANDWAGON APPEALBANDWAGON APPEAL

capitalizes on the fun of being part of capitalizes on the fun of being part of a crowd and the desire to be socially a crowd and the desire to be socially accepted.accepted.

• It invites you to do or join something It invites you to do or join something because “everyone” is doing it.because “everyone” is doing it.

“ “Don´t be the last to have …..video Don´t be the last to have …..video game”game”


APPEALS TO PITYAPPEALS TO PITY

•EMOTIONAL APPEALSEMOTIONAL APPEALS not only not only touch people’s minds, but more touch people’s minds, but more importantly their hearts. importantly their hearts.

•This approach is especially This approach is especially effective for charity causes.effective for charity causes.

““200 kids go to bed hungry, but you can 200 kids go to bed hungry, but you can help. For just one dollar…..”help. For just one dollar…..”


NAME CALLINGNAME CALLING

•NAME CALLINGNAME CALLING is attacking a is attacking a person or group in order to person or group in order to discredit an idea with which the discredit an idea with which the person or group is associated.person or group is associated.

• It serves to distract the audience It serves to distract the audience from the real issue.from the real issue.

““The narrow-minded senator opposes The narrow-minded senator opposes recycling”recycling”


TESTIMONIALSTESTIMONIALS• TESTIMONIALSTESTIMONIALS are statements by are statements by

well-known people or satisfied well-known people or satisfied customers that are used to endorse customers that are used to endorse and promote products, services, and promote products, services, people, or ideas.people, or ideas.

• This persuasive technique uses This persuasive technique uses people’s admiration for celebrities people’s admiration for celebrities and their need to identity with others and their need to identity with others like themselves.like themselves.

• They can be misleading or valid.They can be misleading or valid.


LOADED LANGUAGELOADED LANGUAGE

• LOADED LOADED LANGUAGELANGUAGE consists of words consists of words with strongly with strongly positive or negative positive or negative connotations, connotations, intended to intended to influence the influence the audience’s attitude.audience’s attitude.

POSITIVEPOSITIVE NEGATIVENEGATIVE

planplan schemescheme

prosperouprosperouss

loadedloaded

leisurelyleisurely lazylazy

enthusiasenthusiastt

zealotzealot

honesthonest bluntblunt

assertiveassertive aggressivaggressivee


In advertising words are classified as follows:In advertising words are classified as follows:

• PURR WORDSPURR WORDS are words with a are words with a positivepositive connotation. connotation.

• SNARL WORDSSNARL WORDS are words with a are words with a negativenegative connotation. connotation.

• WEASEL WORDSWEASEL WORDS are qualifiers -such are qualifiers -such as almost, nearly, virtually, and close as almost, nearly, virtually, and close to- that are to- that are unclearunclear and purposely and purposely used to mislead.used to mislead.

Education

Chapter 27 Evaluating Information