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Basic Principles of Animal Form & Function
Chapter 40
1. Distinguish between anatomy and physiology.
Animal Form and Function
Anatomy & Physiology• Anatomy– Biological form
• Physiology– Biological function
• Why do animals have such various appearances when they have such similar demands placed on them?
2. Explain how physical laws constrain animal form.
Animal Form and Function
Physical constraints • Water– Shapes of animals that are swimmers–Why streamlined?
• Size– Size of skeleton– Size of muscles– Relation to speed of organism
3. Use examples to illustrate how the size and shape of an animal’s body affect its interactions with the environment.
Animal Form and Function
Exchange with the environment
Rate of exchange proportional to surface area
Amount of materials that must be exchanged is proportional to volume
Differences in unicellular vs. multicellular organisms
Interstitial fluid
Fig. 40-4
0.5 cmNutrients
Digestivesystem
Lining of small intestine
MouthFood
External environment
Animalbody
CO2 O2
Circulatorysystem
Heart
Respiratorysystem
Cells
Interstitialfluid
Excretorysystem
Anus
Unabsorbedmatter (feces)
Metabolic waste products(nitrogenous waste)
Kidney tubules
10 µm
50 µ
m
Lung tissue
5. Define the terms tissue, organ, and organ system.
Animal Form and Function
Hierarchical Organization Cells Tissues Organs Organ System
Digestive Circulatory Respiratory Immune Excretory Endocrine Reproductive Nervous Skeletal Muscular Integumentary
Organism
Epithelial Tissue Sheets of tightly packed cells Cells joined tightly together with little material
between them Functions
Protection Absorption or secretion of chemicals Lining of organs
Free surface Exposed to air or fluid
Basement membrane Extracellular matrix that cells at base of barrier are
attached
Classification of Epithelial tissue
Number of cell layers Simple epithelial
Single layer of cells Stratified epithelial
Multiple tiers of cells Pseudostratified epithelial
Single-layered but appears stratified Shape of cells
Cuboidal Columnar Squamous
Epithelial TissueEpithelial Tissue
Cuboidalepithelium
Simplecolumnarepithelium
Pseudostratifiedciliated
columnarepithelium
Stratifiedsquamousepithelium
Simplesquamousepithelium
7. Describe the function of macrophages and fibroblasts within connective tissues.
Animal Form and Function
Connective Tissue• Cells spread out scattered through extracellular
matrix– Substances secreted by connective tissue cells– Web of fibers embedded in foundation
• Structure– Protein
• Function– Bind and support other cells
• Fibroblasts– Secrete protein of extracellular fibers
• Macrophages– Engulf bacteria & dead cells– Defense
6. Distinguish among collagenous fibers, elastic fibers, and reticular fibers.
Animal Form and Function
Classification of connective tissue
Collagenous fibers Made of collagen Nonelastic fibers Do not tear easily
Elastic fibers Long threads Made of elastin Rubbery
Reticular fibers Very thin and branched Collagen Tightly woven fibers Joins connective tissue to adjacent tissues
Types of Connective Tissue• Loose Connective Tissue–Most widespread– All 3 fibers– Bind epithelium & hold organs in place
• Fibrous Connective Tissue–Mostly collagenous fibers– Parallel fibers– Nonelastic strength– Tendons and ligaments
Types of Connective Tissue• Bone–Mineralized connective tissue– Osteoblasts– Hard mineral and flexible collagen– Osteons • Concentric layers of mineralized matrix
• Cartilage–Mainly collagenous fibers in rubbery matrix– Chondrocytes – Abundant in embryo skeletons
Types of Connective Tissue Adipose
Fat Loose connective tissue Cushions, insulates, stores fuel
Blood Liquid extracellular matrix (plasma) Erythrocytes Leukocytes Platelets
Connective TissueFig. 40-5c
Connective Tissue
Collagenous fiberLoose
connectivetissue
Elastic fiber120
µm
Cartilage
Chondrocytes
100
µm
Chondroitinsulfate
Adiposetissue
Fat droplets
150
µm
White blood cells
55 µ
m
Plasma Red bloodcells
Blood
Nuclei
Fibrousconnective
tissue
30 µ
m
Osteon
Bone
Central canal
700
µm
Muscle Tissue Contract when stimulated Contractile proteins
Actin & myosin Skeletal muscle
Voluntary muscle Striated
Cardiac muscle Heart Striated, intercalated discs Involuntary
Smooth muscle No striations Lines walls of organs Involuntary
Fig. 40-5j
Muscle Tissue
50 µmSkeletalmuscle
Multiplenuclei
Muscle fiber
Sarcomere
100 µm
Smoothmuscle
Cardiac muscle
Nucleus
Musclefibers
25 µm
Nucleus Intercalateddisk
Nervous Tissue Receives stimulus and transmits signals Glial cells
Nourish, insulate, replenish neurons Neuron
Nerve cell Cell body with 2 or more extensions
Axons Transmit signals
Dendrites Receive signals
Fig. 40-5n
Glial cells
Nervous Tissue
15 µm
DendritesCell body
Axon
Neuron
Axons
Blood vessel
40 µm
9. Compare and contrast the nervous and endocrine systems with respect to specificity of target cells and speed and duration of response.
Animal Form and Function
Coordination and Control in Animals• Endocrine System– Signaling molecules in bloodstream– Coordinates gradual changes• Growth, development, reproduction, digestion
– Hormones • Only picked up by cells with the correct receptors• Slow acting but long lasting
• Nervous System– Impulse travels along target cell only– Transmission is very fast and short lasting– Immediate response• Locomotion, behavior
11. And 12.Regulating the Internal Environment
Homeostasis• Negative feedback– Change in environment triggers control
mechanism to turn off stimulus– Prevent small changes to become big
problems–Most body processes• Sweating
• Positive feedback– Change in environment triggers control
mechanism to increase stimulus– Childbirth
Fig. 40-UN1
Homeostasis
Stimulus:Perturbation/stress
Response/effector
Control center
Sensor/receptor
13. Define thermoregulation. Explain in general terms how endotherms and ectotherms manage their eat budgets.
Regulating the Internal Environment
Thermoregulation• Five general adaptations help animals
thermoregulate:– Insulation– Circulatory adaptations– Cooling by evaporative heat loss– Behavioral responses– Adjusting metabolic heat production
14. Name four physical processes by which animals exchange heat with their environment.
Regulating the Internal Environment
16. Explain the role of vasoconstriction and vasodilation in modifying the transfer of body heat with the environment.
Regulating the Internal Environment
17. Describe how a countercurrent heat exchanger may function to retain heat within an animal body.
Regulating the Internal Environment
Fig. 40-12
Canada goose Bottlenosedolphin
Artery
Artery
Vein Vein
Blood flow
33º35ºC
27º30º
18º20º
10º 9º
23. Describe the basic source of chemical energy and their fate in animal cells.
The Bioenergetics of Animals
Fig. 40-17Organic molecules
in foodExternalenvironment
Animalbody Digestion and
absorption
Nutrient moleculesin body cells
Carbonskeletons
Cellularrespiration
ATP
HeatEnergy lost
in feces
Energy lost innitrogenous
waste
Heat
Biosynthesis
Heat
Heat
Cellularwork
25. Define metabolic rate and explain how it can be determined for animals.
The Bioenergetics of Animals
Metabolic Rate• Amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time• Measured in calories or Joules• Calculated – heat loss, O2 consumed, CO2 produced,
food consumption• Endothermic
– Warm-blooded– Heat generated by metabolism– Requires lots of energy
• Exothermic– Cold-blooded– Requires less energy– Incapable of intense activity for long period of time
26. Distinguish between BMR and SMR.The Bioenergetics of Animals
Metabolic rate (cont)• Metabolic rate is inversely proportional
to body size• Basal metabolic rate–Metabolic rate of nongrowing endotherm at
rest, empty stomach, no stress– Human average = 1600 – 1800 kCal per day
for males; 1300-1500 kCal per day for females
• Standard metabolic rate–Metabolic rate of resting, fasting, non-
stressed ectotherm– Alligator = 60 kCal per day
Metabolic Rate (cont)• Maximum metabolic rate = peak
activity times• Maximum rate = inversely proportional
to duration of activity• Sustained activity depends on ATP
supply and respiration rate• Age, sex, size, temperature, quality &
quantity of food, activity level, oxygen availability, hormonal balance, time of day all affect metabolic rate
28. Describe, in broad terms, how the energy budget of small and large endotherms differ.
The Bioenergetics of Animals
Fig. 40-20
Ann
ual e
nerg
y ex
pend
iture
(kca
l/hr)
60-kg female humanfrom temperate climate
800,000Basal
(standard)metabolism
ReproductionThermoregulation
Growth
Activity
340,000
4-kg male Adélie penguinfrom Antarctica (brooding)
4,000
0.025-kg female deer mousefrom temperateNorth America
8,000
4-kg female easternindigo snake
Endotherms Ectotherm
Fig. 40-19
Elephant
Horse
HumanSheep
DogCat
RatGround squirrel
MouseHarvest mouse
Shrew
Body mass (kg) (log scale)B
MR
(L O
2/hr)
(Iog
sca
le)
10–3 10–210–2
10–1
10–1
10
10
1
1 102
102
103
103
(a) Relationship of BMR to body size
Shrew
Mouse
Harvest mouse
SheepRat Cat
DogHuman
HorseElephant
BM
R (L
O2/h
r) (p
er k
g)
Ground squirrel
Body mass (kg) (log scale)10–3 10–2 10–1 1 10 102 103
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
7
(b) Relationship of BMR per kilogram of body mass to body size