Commonly Asked Questions AboutThe Canada Lynx

General

What is a Canada lynx?The Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis),the only lynx in North America, is arare forest-dwelling cat of northernlatitudes. Lynx feed primarily onsnowshoe hares but also will eat smallmammals and birds. Its range extendsfrom Alaska, throughout much ofCanada, to the boreal forests in thenortheastern United States, the GreatLakes, the Rocky Mountains, and theCascade Mountains. The Lynx is amedium-sized cat, similar to the bobcat,but appears somewhat larger. It haslonger hind legs and very large well-furred paws, which make it highlyadapted to hunting snowshoe hares inthe deep snow typical throughout itsrange. It also has long tufts on the earsand a short, black-tipped tail. Adultmales average 22 pounds in weight and33.5 inches in length with an averageweight for females at 19 pounds and 32inches in length.

What kind of habitats do lynx require?In the eastern and Great Lakes States,lynx live in southern boreal forests thatare considered mixed deciduous-coniferous forests. In the westernStates they live in spruce/fir forests athigher elevations. Downed logs andwindfalls provide cover for denningsites, escape, and protection fromsevere weather. Earlier successionalforest stages provide habitat for thelynx’s primary prey, the snowshoe hare.The size of lynx home ranges vary andhave been documented between 3 to 300square miles. Lynx are capable ofmoving extremely long distances insearch of food or to establish new homeranges. Lynx populations rise and fallfollowing the cyclic highs and lows ofsnowshoe hare populations. When harepopulations are low, the change in thelynx’s diet causes the productivity of

adult female lynx and survival of youngto nearly cease.

Why are lynx so rare in the contiguousUnited States?In the contiguous United States, lynxpopulations occur at naturally lowdensities; the rarity of lynx at thesouthern portion of the range comparedto more northern populations in Canadais normal. The rarity of lynx is basedlargely on limited availability of itsprimary prey, snowshoe hare. Atsouthern latitudes, low snowshoe haredensities are likely a result of thenaturally patchy, transitional borealhabitat. Such habitat prevents harepopulations from achieving highdensities similar to those in theextensive northern boreal forest. Lynxin the contiguous United States arepart of a larger metapopulation whosecore is located in central Canada.

Range And Status

What is the size of the lynx population?Because the lynx is such a rare animaland there are no reliable populationestimates for any region, the size of thetotal population in the contiguousUnited States is unknown.

What is the range of the lynx in thecontiguous United States?The range of the lynx in the contiguousUnited States includes 14 States—Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, NewYork, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota,Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana,Wyoming, Utah, and Colorado. Lynxinfrequently dispersed into Nevada,North Dakota, South Dakota, Iowa,Indiana, Ohio, and Virginia.

With available information, it isdifficult for us to determine whether

resident lynx populations existedhistorically or currently in many Stateswithin the contiguous United States.We have conclusive evidence thatresident populations of lynx currentlyexist in Montana, Washington, andlikely Maine. We suspect residentpopulations occurred historically inMinnesota, Wyoming, and NewHampshire, but current information isinadequate to determine whether theseStates currently support residentpopulations of lynx. It is likely thenative resident lynx population inColorado has been extirpated. We haveinadequate information to determinewhether resident lynx populationsoccurred historically or currentlywithin New York, Vermont, Michigan,Wisconsin, Idaho, Utah, and Oregon.

What is the status of lynx in individualStates? (What is the official Statestatus of the lynx?)Maine—(Lynx are listed as a species ofspecial concern.) In 1999, nine lynxwere radio-collared and kittens found.We conclude a resident lynx populationlikely exists in Maine.

New Hampshire—(Listed asEndangered in 1980.) Numeroushistoric records but information isinadequate to determine whether aresident population currently exists.

Vermont—(Listed as Endangered in1972.) Information is inadequate todetermine whether a residentpopulation existed historically, nowbelieved to be extirpated.

New York—(Protected small game withno open season.) Information isinadequate to determine whether aresident population existed historically,now believed to be extirpated. Areintroduction effort during 1987-1989apparently failed to establish abreeding population.

Minnesota—(Protected game animalwith no open season since 1984.) Wesuspect a resident population existedhistorically but information isinadequate to determine whether aresident population currently exists.

Wisconsin—(Species of concern, takingprohibited.) Information is inadequateto determine whether a residentpopulation existed historically orcurrently.

Michigan—(Listed as Endangered in1974, again in 1987.) Information isinadequate to determine whether aresident population existed historicallyor currently.

Washington—(Listed as Threatened in1993.) Lynx occupy five of the six areasconsidered to be lynx managementzones by the State of Washington. Weconclude a resident lynx populationexists in Washington.

Oregon—(Unregulated.) Information isinadequate to determine whether aresident population existed historicallyor currently.

Idaho—(Furbearer with no openseason.) Although numerous historicreports, information is inadequate todetermine whether a residentpopulation existed historically orcurrently.

Montana—(Classified as a Furbearerwith closed season.) We conclude aresident lynx population exists inMontana.

Utah—(Sensitive.) Information isinadequate to determine whether aresident population existed historicallyor currently.

Wyoming—(Protected as nongame withno open season since 1973.) We suspecta resident population existedhistorically in northwestern Wyoming;

however, although two lynx have beenrecently collared in Wyoming, availableevidence is inadequate for us to clearlydetermine whether a residentpopulation currently exists.

Colorado—(Listed as Endangered in1975.) Historically a residentpopulation existed, likely nowextirpated. Reintroduction effortinitiated in 1999.

Management

Considerations

What is the ownership or managementof lynx habitat in the contiguous UnitedStates?A substantial amount of lynx habitat ison U.S. Forest Service and Bureau ofLand Management lands—(Cascades[99 percent], Northern Rockies [72percent], Southern Rockies [82percent], Great Lakes [19 percent], andNortheast [7 percent]). The majority oflynx habitat in the Great Lakes andNortheast is under private, State, orcounty management.

In the west, lynx habitat on largeproportions of these Federal lands ismanaged in “nondevelopmental” status.Lands within nondevelopmentalallocations are managed to allownatural ecological processes todominate. Nondevelopmental landscontain large portions of wilderness or

other natural areas. Timber harvest androad building typically do not occur orare very limited in lands managed innondevelopmental allocations. Thepercent of western lynx habitat innondevelopmental allocations is—Cascades, 85 percent; NorthernRockies, 41 percent; and SouthernRockies, 23 percent.

Has a change in fire managementaffected the lynx?Based on available information on firesuppression and upon available habitatassessments, we conclude that at thepresent time, fire suppression effectsare less significant in lynx habitats thanin many other forest types in the westand, therefore, the effects of firesuppression are not threateningwestern lynx populations at this time.Fire did not play a historicallysignificant role in the Northeast;therefore, we conclude that firesuppression does not threaten lynx inthe Northeast. In the Great Lakes, firesuppression may have regional or local

impacts but does not currently threatenthe contiguous United States lynxpopulation.

What effect has the increased humanaccess into lynx habitat had on lynx?Human activities, such as wintermaintenance of roads and trails,snowmobiling and skiing create packedsnow trails that allow coyotes to accesstraditional lynx winter habitat.However, we have no evidence thatcompetition with coyotes, or otherpotential competitors such as bobcats ormountain lions, is negatively affectinglynx populations.

How has trapping affected the lynxpopulation?One of the primary reasons weproposed to list lynx, based on availableinformation at the time, was ourconclusion that the low numbers of lynxin the contiguous United States werethe residual effects of overtrapping thatwas believed to have occurred in the1970s and 1980s, in response to

unprecedented highpelt prices. However,we now understandthat low numbers oflynx in thecontiguous UnitedStates occur not as aresult ofovertrapping, butbecause lynx andtheir prey arenaturally limited byfragmented habitat,topography, andclimate compared tothat in the core of thelynx range in centralCanada.

Does competitionwith other speciesnegatively affectlynx in thecontiguous UnitedStates?We know thatcoyotes have greatlyexpanded their rangeand that packed snowtrails facilitate themovement of coyotesinto formerlyinaccessible deepsnow habitatsoccupied by lynx.Additionally,mountain lion

numbers appear to have increased.Lynx co-evolved with mountain lionsand bobcats and, in most areas, havecoexisted with coyotes for manydecades. We found no evidence thatcompetition with species such ascoyotes, mountain lions, or bobcats isnegatively affecting lynx at apopulation-level scale.

Are lynx affected by roads?Lynx movements may be negativelyinfluenced by high traffic volumes onroads that bisect suitable lynx habitat.We suspect that highways with hightraffic volumes and associated suburbandevelopments inhibit movementswithin home ranges and dispersal andmay contribute to loss of habitatconnectivity. Otherwise, however, roadsdo not appear to be a significant directcause of lynx mortality. We found noinformation demonstrating that forestroads negatively impact resident lynxpopulations.

Final Listing

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service hasdetermined that the Canada lynx willbe listed as threatened under theEndangered Species Act.

What factors does the U.S. Fish andWildlife Service consider assignificant threats to the continuedexistence of the lynx in the lower 48States?We conclude the single factorthreatening the contiguous UnitedStates distinct population segment ofthe lynx is the inadequacy of existingregulatory mechanisms, specifically thelack of guidance to conserve lynx inNational Forest Land and ResourceManagement Plans and Bureau of LandManagement Land Use Plans and thepotential for these plans to allow ordirect actions that adversely affectlynx. New information available sincepublication of the proposed rule foundthat the majority of lynx habitat,particularly in the Northern RockyMountains/Cascades and SouthernRocky Mountain regions, is located onFederal lands. Federal landmanagement assumes the largest rolein the conservation of lynx in thecontiguous United States because of thepreponderance of lynx habitat availableon U.S. Forest Service and Bureau ofLand Management lands.

When does the listing go into effect?The listing goes into effect 30 daysafter publication of the final rule in theFederal Register.

What determines if a species meets thedefinition of endangered orthreatened?The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Servicemust determine if the presence of oneor more of the five factors listed belowhave caused a species’ status to declineto where it meets the definition ofendangered or threatened:

■ The present or threateneddestruction, modification, orcurtailment of its habitat or range.

■ Overutilization for commercial,recreational, scientific, or educationalpurposes.

■ Disease or predation.

■ Inadequacy of existing regulatorymechanisms.

■ Other natural or manmade factorsaffecting its continued existence.

Endangered is defined as any specieswhich is in danger of extinctionthroughout all or a significant portionof its range.

Threatened refers to any species whichis likely to become an endangered

species within the foreseeable futurethroughout all or a significant portionof its range.

What protection does the lynx receivefrom listing as threatened under theEndangered Species Act?The Endangered Species Act requiresFederal Agencies to conserveendangered and threatened species andto consult with the U.S. Fish andWildlife Service on any actions thatmight affect the lynx.

Upon listing, lynx in the contiguousUnited States are protected from“take.” “Take” is defined as: to harass,harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill,trap, capture or collect. Harm mayinclude significant habitat modificationwhere it actually kills or injures a listedspecies through impairment of essentialbehavior (e.g., feeding, breeding orsheltering). Taking is prohibited unlessauthorized by a special 4(d) rule thatwould provide for the conservation of lynx.

Final Listing—Distinct

Population Segments (DPS)

What is a distinct vertebratepopulation as defined by theEndangered Species Act?Under the Endangered Species Act,populations of species can be listedindividually as threatened or

endangered if they are separated ordiscrete from other populations andthey represent populations withsignificant biological or ecologicalvalue. Once it has been determined thata population has these two elementsand therefore meets the definition of adistinct population, the specificpopulation is then evaluated using thefive listing factors used to determine ifit meets the definition of eitherthreatened or endangered (describedabove). This policy applies to vertebrateanimals that may be endangered orthreatened in part of their range butare more numerous elsewhere. TheEndangered Species Act protectsspecies, subspecies, and “any distinctpopulation segment of any species ofvertebrate fish or wildlife” which areendangered or threatened.

In the case of the lynx, a distinctpopulation segment means that lynx inthe lower 48 United States areconsidered discreet in that thispopulation is delineated by aninternational political boundary thatcoincides with differences in status andmanagement. In addition, thepopulation of lynx in the lower 48States are considered significantbecause loss of this population wouldsignificantly reduce the range of thespecies.

Why does the distinct populationsegment delineation stop at theCanadian border?The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’spolicy on vertebrate populationsegments allows for the identificationof distinct population segmentsfollowing international boundariesunder certain circumstances. With thelynx, there appears to be a difference inthe population status and managementpractices of lynx north of the UnitedStates border.

How important are the different regionsto the persistence of the contiguousUnited States distinct populationsegment?Within the contiguous United States,the relative importance of each regionto the persistence of the DistinctPopulation Segment (DPS) varies. TheNorthern Rockies/Cascades Regionsupports the largest amount of lynxhabitat and has the strongest evidenceof persistent occurrence of residentlynx populations, both historically andcurrently. In the Northeast (where

resident lynx populations continue topersist) and Southern Rockies regions,the amount of lynx habitat is naturallylimited and does not contributesubstantially to the persistence of thecontiguous United States DPS. Much ofthe habitat in the Great Lakes Regionis naturally marginal and may notsupport prey densities sufficient tosustain lynx populations. As such, theGreat Lakes Region does not currentlycontribute substantially to thepersistence of the contiguous UnitedStates DPS. Collectively, theNortheast, Great Lakes, and SouthernRockies do not constitute a significantportion of the range of the DPS. Weconclude the Northern Rockies/Cascades Region is the primary regionnecessary to support the continuedlong-term existence of the contiguousUnited States DPS. However, the rolethat each region plays in the long-termconservation of the species will beexplored further in recovery planningfor the species

Listing Impacts

Will listing the lynx shut down logging,recreational development, and otheractivities on Federal lands?No. In the vast majority of cases,modifications to reviewed projects arepossible that reduce or eliminateimpacts to listed species, allowingprojects to continue. The LynxConservation Assessment and Strategy,developed by the U.S. Forest Service,Bureau of Land Management, and U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service, providesguidelines for Federal Agencies toanalyze and minimize effects of plannedand ongoing projects on lynx and lynxhabitat and recommends lynxconservation measures. Compliancewith the National Forest ManagementAct and Federal Land Policy andManagement Act will reduce anyrestrictions necessary under theEndangered Species Act.

What effect does timber harvest haveon the lynx?Timber harvest activities andprecommercial thinning may reduce thequality of snowshoe hare habitat inlocal areas of the Northern Rockies/Cascades and Southern Rockies andthus may negatively affect lynx at localscales. However, based on the largeproportion of lynx habitat managed innondevelopmental status (such asdesignated Wilderness) compared to

the proportion of managed lynx foresttypes affected, current regional effectsof timber harvest and thinning appearto occur at levels that are not likelythreatening western lynx populations.

What impacts will the listing have onprivate, State, or County timberharvest?In the Northeast and Great Lakes, mostlynx habitat is in private, State, orCounty ownership and timber harvestand associated activities may bedetrimental to lynx on these lands.Modifications to private timbermanagement may be necessary in areaswhere lynx denning is known to occur.

Non-federal landowners also have theoption of entering into a HabitatConservation Agreement which willprovide for the conservation of the lynxwhile allowing timber harvest andprotection against incidental take.How will the listing affect trapping inthe contiguous United States?Trapping of lynx will be illegal uponthe date the listing goes into effect. AllStates (with the exception of Oregon)and many Tribes within the contiguousUnited States had already closed theirlynx trapping and hunting seasons priorto the lynx being listed under theEndangered Species Act.

We have been working with States andTribes to ensure that their trapping andhunting programs for species otherthan lynx do not result in the take oflynx. One option we are planning is theissuance of a special 4(d) rule to addressconservation of the species by Statesand Tribes in order to minimize thepotential for lynx to be incidentallytaken while ensuring that the legalhunting and trapping programs cancontinue.

Conservation Agreement

The Forest Service has signed aConservation Agreement with the Fishand Wildlife Service which willpromote the conservation of lynx andits habitat on federal lands. It identifiesactions the Forest Service will take toreduce or eliminate adverse effects orrisk to the lynx and its habitat. Theseactions are a result of considering thenew information about the Canada lynxcontained in the Lynx Science Reportand the Lynx Conservation AssessmentStrategy.

What has been accomplished toaddress lynx conservation on Federallymanaged lands?The Forest Service, the Bureau of LandManagement (BLM), National ParkService (NPS), and the Servicerecognized that Federal agencies have asignificant role in the conservation oflynx. They established a Lynx SteeringCommittee in 1998 consisting ofrepresentatives from each agency. TheSteering Committee provides oversightand guidance to teams established toaddress various lynx conservationissues on Federal lands. One teamdeveloped the Lynx ConservationAssessment and Strategy; another teamdeveloped the Science Report; a thirdteam prepared a biological assessmentto evaluate the effects of Forest Serviceand BLM Land Management Plans onlynx. All of these efforts are intended toplan and implement sound conservationactions and management decisions forlynx on Federal lands.

Why was the Lynx ConservationAssessment and Strategy developed?How will it be used in Section 7consultations?The Lynx Conservation Assessmentand Strategy (LCAS) was developed toprovide a consistent and effectiveapproach to conserving lynx on Federallands in the contiguous United States.It was developed by the Forest Service,

Bureau of Land Management (BLM),National Park Service, and the Service.The overall goals of the LCAS were torecommend lynx conservationmeasures, provide a basis for reviewingthe adequacy with regard to lynxconservation of Forest Service andBLM land and resource managementplans, and facilitate conferencing andconsultation under section 7 of the Act,should the lynx be listed. It will alsoprovide a blueprint to guide recoveryefforts.

What was the determination of thedraft biological assessment (DBA) ofthe effects of National Forest Serviceand BLM Land Management Plans onlynx?The DBA determined that Federal landmanagement plans are likely toadversely affect the lynx. The DBAidentified potential effects resultingfrom 57 Forest Service Land andResource Management Plans (Plans)and 56 BLM Land Use Plans (Plans)within the 16-State area where lynxwere proposed for listing. The directionfound in the Plans was compared todirection proposed in the LCAS. If itwas determined that a Plan mayadversely affect either an individuallynx or a population segment throughfailure to meet any one of theprogrammatic conservation measuresin the LCAS, then the Plan was deemedoverall as likely to adversely affectlynx. In other words, a risk was deemedharmful to lynx if the possibility of anyadverse effect existed due to Plandirection or if the Plans did not addresslynx conservation issues.

The Federal agencies chose aconservative approach in determiningwhether Plans might result in adverseeffects to lynx. The determination wasbased only on what the Plans directedor allowed, not on a quantitativeassessment of the effects to lynx fromactual actions as a result of past orcurrent implementation of the Plans.We acknowledge that many activitiesallowed by Plans, such as timberharvest and road construction, arenever carried out for a variety ofreasons, such as funding limitations andenvironmental, wildlife or policyconsiderations.

The DBA evaluated 15 criteria thatmay contribute to some level of adverseeffects to either an individual lynx or apopulation segment through failure to

meet any one of the programmaticconservation measures in the LCAS.These criteria were denning habitat,foraging habitat, habitat conversion,precommercial thinning, firemanagement, landscape patterns, forestroads, developed recreation, non-winterdispersed recreation, winter dispersedrecreation, minerals and energy, habitatconnectivity, land tenure adjustments,management coordination, andmonitoring. Individually, these criteriamay not impart substantial impacts onthe DPS, however, current Plans doallow actions that cumulatively couldresult in significant detrimental effectsto the DPS. We cannot predict thefuture levels of impacts to lynx thatwould result from continuedimplementation of current Plans.However, the DBA concludes that thereis reasonable potential for adverseeffects to lynx as a result of actionsdirected or allowed by existing Plans.

Special 4(d) Rule

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serviceincluded in the final listing a special4(d) rule that will allow for the take andexport of lawfully obtained captive-bred lynx.

What are the requirements for captive-bred lynx?The special rule provides for the take oflawfully obtained captive-bred lynxwithout permit. It allows us to issueCITES export permits for captive-bred

lynx and captive-bred lynx skins,properly tagged with valid CITESexport tag.

What about State and Tribal huntingand trapping programs?The Service has also developed anaddition to the special 4(d) rule thatwill address the take of lynx that mayresult incidentally from State andTribal regulated hunting and trappingprograms. This addition to the specialrule is in the review process and isexpected to be published soon followedby a public comment period.