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1. Study and understanding the meaning and use of following graphics contents, data types and global variables. A ) COLOR C ) graphics_driver E) graphics_mode B ) fill_pattern D ) graphics_errors A)COLORS COLORS, CGA_COLORS, and EGA_COLORS (Enumerated Constants for Colors) These tables show the symbolic constants used to set text attributes on CGA and EGA monitors. (Defined in CONIO.H.) the drawing colors available for BGI functions running on CGA and EGA monitors. (Defined in GRAPHICS.H.)The COLORS constants are used by these text mode functions: textattr, textbackground , textcolor The CGA_COLORS and EGA_COLORS constants are used by these BGI graphics functions: setallpalette setbkcolor setcolor setpalette Valid colors depend on the current graphics driver and current graphics mode. COLORS (text mode) Back- Fore- Constant Value grnd? grnd? BLACK 0 Yes Yes BLUE 1 Yes Yes GREEN 2 Yes Yes CYAN 3 Yes Yes RED 4 Yes Yes MAGENTA 5 Yes Yes BROWN 6 Yes Yes LIGHTGRAY 7 Yes Yes DARKGRAY 8 No Yes LIGHTBLUE 9 No Yes LIGHTGREEN 10 No Yes LIGHTCYAN 11 No Yes LIGHTRED 12 No Yes LIGHTMAGENTA 13 No Yes YELLOW 14 No Yes WHITE 15 No Yes .............................. BLINK 128 No *** To display blinking characters in text mode, add BLINK to the foreground color.(Defined in CONIO.H.) CGA_COLORS (graphics mode)In this table, the palette listings CGA0,CGA1, CGA2, and CGA3 refer to the fourpredefined four-color palettes available on CGA (and compatible) systems. Palette Constant assigned to this color number (pixel value) Number 1 2 3 CGA0 CGA_LIGHTGREEN CGA_LIGHTRED CGA_YELLOW CGA1 CGA_LIGHTCYAN CGA_LIGHTMAGENTA CGA_WHITE CGA2 CGA_GREEN CGA_RED CGA_BROWN CGA3 CGA_CYAN CGA_MAGENTA CGA_LIGHTGRAY

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You can select the background color (entry 0)in each of these palettes, but the other colors are fixed. EGA_ COLORS (graphics mode) Constant Value Constant Value EGA_BLACK 0 EGA_DARKGRAY 56 EGA_BLUE 1 EGA_LIGHTBLUE 57 EGA_GREEN 2 EGA_LIGHTGREEN 58 EGA_CYAN 3 EGA_LIGHTCYAN 59 EGA_RED 4 EGA_LIGHTRED 60 EGA_MAGENTA 5 EGA_LIGHTMAGENTA 61 EGA_LIGHTGRAY 7 EGA_YELLOW 62 EGA_BROWN 20 EGA_WHITE 63 B ) fill_pattern Enum: Fill patterns for getfillsettings and setfillstyle. Names Value Means Fill With... EMPTY_FILL 0 Background color SOLID_FILL 1 Solid fill LINE_FILL 2 --- LTSLASH_FILL 3 /// SLASH_FILL 4 ///, thick lines BKSLASH_FILL 5 \\\, thick lines LTBKSLASH_FILL 6 \\\ HATCH_FILL 7 Light hatch XHATCH_FILL 8 Heavy crosshatch INTERLEAVE_FILL 9 Interleaving lines WIDE_DOT_FILL 10 Widely spaced dots CLOSE_DOT_FILL 11 Closely spaced dots USER_FILL 12 User-defined fill pattern All but EMPTY_FILL fill with the current fill color. EMPTY_FILL uses the current background color. C ) graphics_driver Enum: BGI graphics drivers Constant Value DETECT 0 (requests autodetection) CGA 1 MCGA 2 EGA 3 EGA64 4 EGAMONO 5 IBM8514 6 HERCMONO 7 ATT400 8

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VGA 9 PC3270 10 D ) graphics_errors graphics_errors <GRAPHICS.H> Enum: Error return code from graphresult Error graphics_errors code constant Corresponding error message string 0 grOk No error -1 grNoInitGraph (BGI) graphics not installed (use initgraph) -2 grNotDetected Graphics hardware not detected -3 grFileNotFound Device driver file not found -4 grInvalidDriver Invalid device driver file -5 grNoLoadMem Not enough memory to load driver -6 grNoScanMem Out of memory in scan fill -7 grNoFloodMem Out of memory in flood fill -8 grFontNotFound Font file not found -9 grNoFontMem Not enough memory to load font -10 grInvalidMode Invalid graphics mode for selected driver -11 grError Graphics error -12 grIOerror Graphics I/O error -13 grInvalidFont Invalid font file -14 grInvalidFontNum Invalid font number -15 grInvalidDeviceNum Invalid device number -18 grInvalidVersion Invalid version number E) graphics_modes Enum: Graphics modes for each BGI driver Graphics driver graphics_modes Value Column x Row Palette Pages CGA CGAC0 0 320 x 200 C0 1 CGAC1 1 320 x 200 C1 1 CGAC2 2 320 x 200 C2 1 CGAC3 3 320 x 200 C3 1 CGAHI 4 640 x 200 2 color 1 MCGA MCGAC0 0 320 x 200 C0 1 MCGAC1 1 320 x 200 C1 1 MCGAC2 2 320 x 200 C2 1 MCGAC3 3 320 x 200 C3 1 MCGAMED 4 640 x 200 2 color 1 MCGAHI 5 640 x 480 2 color 1 EGA EGALO 0 640 x 200 16 color 4 EGAHI 1 640 x 350 16 color 2 EGA64 EGA64LO 0 640 x 200 16 color 1

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EGA64HI 1 640 x 350 4 color 1 EGA-MONO EGAMONOHI 3 640 x 350 2 color 1* EGAMONOHI 3 640 x 350 2 color 2** HERC HERCMONOHI 0 720 x 348 2 color 2 ATT400 ATT400C0 0 320 x 200 C0 1 ATT400C1 1 320 x 200 C1 1 ATT400C2 2 320 x 200 C2 1 ATT400C3 3 320 x 200 C3 1 ATT400MED 4 640 x 200 2 color 1 ATT400HI 5 640 x 400 2 color 1 VGA VGALO 0 640 x 200 16 color 2 VGAMED 1 640 x 350 16 color 2 PC3270 PC3270HI 0 720 x 350 2 color 1 IBM8514 IBM8514HI 1 1024 x 760 256 color IBM8514LO 0 640 x 480 256 color * 64K on EGAMONO card ** 256K on EGAMONO card

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2. Study and understand the meaning and use of following graphics function. a) Closegraph b) detectgraph c) getbkcolor d)getcolor e)getmaxx f)getmaxy g) getpixel h) getx i) gety j) grapherrormsg k) graphresult l) initgraph m)outtext n)outtexttxy o)putpixel p) setbkcolor q ) setcolor r) setfillpattern a) Closegraph Syntax: #include <graphics.h> void closegraph(void); Description: closegraph deal locates all memory allocated by the graphics system, then restores the screen to the mode it was in before you called initgraph. (The graphics system deal locates memory, such as the drivers, fonts, and an internal buffer, through a call to_graphfreemem.) Return Value None. b) detectgraph Syntax: #include <graphics.h> void detectgraph(int *graphdriver, int *graphmode); Description: detectgraph detects your system's graphics adapter and chooses the mode that provides the highest resolution for that adapter. If no graphics hardware is detected, *graphdriver is set to grNotDetected (-2), and graphresult returns grNotDetected (-2). *graphdriver is an integer that specifies the graphics driver to be used. You can give it a value using a constant of the graphics_drivers enumeration type defined in graphics.h and listed as follows:

graphics_drivers constant Numeric value

DETECT 0 (requests autodetect)

CGA 1

MCGA 2

EGA 3

EGA64 4

EGAMONO 5

IBM8514 6

HERCMONO 7

ATT400 8

VGA 9

PC3270 10

*graphmode is an integer that specifies the initial graphics mode (unless *graphdriver equals DETECT; in which case, *graphmode is set to the highest resolution available for the detected driver). You can give *graphmode a value using a constant of the graphics_modes enumeration type defined in graphics.h and listed as follows.

Graphics Columns

Driver graphics_mode Value x Rows Palette Pages

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CGA CGAC0 0 320 x 200 C0 1

CGAC1 1 320 x 200 C1 1

CGAC2 2 320 x 200 C2 1

CGAC3 3 320 x 200 C3 1

CGAHI 4 640 x 200 2 color 1

MCGA MCGAC0 0 320 x 200 C0 1

MCGAC1 1 320 x 200 C1 1

MCGAC2 2 320 x 200 C2 1

MCGAC3 3 320 x 200 C3 1

MCGAMED 4 640 x 200 2 color 1

MCGAHI 5 640 x 480 2 color 1

EGA EGALO 0 640 x 200 16 color 4

EGAHI 1 640 x 350 16 color 2

EGA64 EGA64LO 0 640 x 200 16 color 1

EGA64HI 1 640 x 350 4 color 1

EGA-MONO EGAMONOHI 3 640 x 350 2 color 1 w/64K

EGAMONOHI 3 640 x 350 2 color 2 w/256K

HERC HERCMONOHI 0 720 x 348 2 color 2

ATT400 ATT400C0 0 320 x 200 C0 1

ATT400C1 1 320 x 200 C1 1

ATT400C2 2 320 x 200 C2 1

ATT400C3 3 320 x 200 C3 1

ATT400MED 4 640 x 200 2 color 1

ATT400HI 5 640 x 400 2 color 1

VGA VGALO 0 640 x 200 16 color 2

VGAMED 1 640 x 350 16 color 2

VGAHI 2 640 x 480 16 color 1

PC3270 PC3270HI 0 720 x 350 2 color 1

IBM8514 IBM8514HI 0 640 x 480 256 color ?

IBM8514LO 0 1024 x 768 256 color ?

Return Value : None. c) getbkcolor Syntax #include <graphics.h> int getbkcolor(void); Description getbkcolor returns the current background color. (See the table in setbkcolor for details.) Return Value getbkcolor returns the current background color.

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d) getcolor Syntax #include <graphics.h> int getcolor(void); Description getcolor returns the current drawing color. The drawing color is the value to which pixels are set when lines and so on are drawn. For example, in CGAC0 mode, the palette contains four colors: the background color, light green, light red, and yellow. In this mode, if getcolor returns 1, the current drawing color is light green. Return Valuen :getcolor returns the current drawing color. e) getmaxx Syntax #include <graphics.h> int getmaxx(void); Description getmaxx returns the maximum (screen-relative) x value for the current graphics driver and mode. For example, on a CGA in 320*200 mode, getmaxx returns 319. getmaxx is invaluable for centering, determining the boundaries of a region onscreen, and so on. Return Value : getmaxx returns the maximum x screen coordinate. f)getmaxx Syntax #include <graphics.h> int getmaxy(void); Description getmaxy returns the maximum (screen-relative) y value for the current graphics driver and mode. For example, on a CGA in 320*200 mode, getmaxy returns 199. getmaxy is invaluable for centering, determining the boundaries of a region onscreen, and so on. Return Value : getmaxy returns the maximum y screen coordinate. g) getpixel Syntax #include <graphics.h> unsigned getpixel(int x, int y); Description getpixel gets the color of the pixel located at (x,y). Return Value : getpixel returns the color of the given pixel. h) getx Syntax #include <graphics.h> int getx(void); Description getx finds the current graphics position's x-coordinate. The value is viewport-relative. Return Value : getx returns the x-coordinate of the current position.

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i) gety Syntax: #include <graphics.h> int gety(void); Description: gety returns the current graphics position's y-coordinate. The value is viewport-relative. Return Value : gety returns the y-coordinate of the current position. j) grapherrormsg Syntax #include <graphics.h> char * grapherrormsg(int errorcode); Description grapherrormsg returns a pointer to the error message string associated with errorcode, the value returned by graphresult. Refer to the entry for errno in the Library Reference, Chapter 4, for a list of error messages and mnemonics. Return Value : grapherrormsg returns a pointer to an error message string. k) graphresult Syntax #include <graphics.h> int graphresult(void); Description graphresult returns the error code for the last graphics operation that reported an error and resets the error level to grOk. The following table lists the error codes returned by graphresult. The enumerated type graph_errors defines the errors in this table. graph_errors is declared in graphics.h.

code constant Corresponding error message string

0 grOk No error

-1 grNoInitGraph (BGI) graphics not installed (use initgraph)

-2 grNotDetected Graphics hardware not detected

-3 grFileNotFound Device driver file not found

-4 grInvalidDriver Invalid device driver file

-5 grNoLoadMem Not enough memory to load driver

-6 grNoScanMem Out of memory in scan fill

-7 grNoFloodMem Out of memory in flood fill

-8 grFontNotFound Font file not found

-9 grNoFontMem Not enough memory to load font

-10 grInvalidMode Invalid graphics mode for selected driver

-11 grError Graphics error

-12 grIOerror Graphics I/O error

-13 grInvalidFont Invalid font file

-14 grInvalidFontNum Invalid font number

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-15 grInvalidDeviceNum Invalid device number

-18 grInvalidVersion Invalid version number

Note: The variable maintained by graphresult is reset to 0 after graphresult has been called. Therefore, you should store the value of graphresult into a temporary variable and then test it. Return Value : graphresult returns the current graphics error number, an integer in the range -15 to 0; grapherrormsg returns a pointer to a string associated with the value returned by graphresult. l) initgraph Syntax #include <graphics.h> void initgraph(int *graphdriver, int *graphmode, char *pathtodriver); Description initgraph initializes the graphics system by loading a graphics driver from disk (or validating a registered driver), and putting the system into graphics mode. To start the graphics system, first call the initgraph function. initgraph loads the graphics driver and puts the system into graphics mode. You can tell initgraph to use a particular graphics driver and mode, or to autodetect the attached video adapter at run time and pick the corresponding driver. If you tell initgraph to autodetect, it calls detectgraph to select a graphics driver and mode. initgraph also resets all graphics settings to their defaults (current position, palette, color, viewport, and so on) and resets graphresult to 0. Normally, initgraph loads a graphics driver by allocating memory for the driver (through _graphgetmem), then loading the appropriate .BGI file from disk. As an alternative to this dynamic loading scheme, you can link a graphics driver file (or several of them) directly into your executable program file. pathtodriver specifies the directory path where initgraph looks for graphics drivers. initgraph first looks in the path specified in pathtodriver, then (if they are not there) in the current directory. Accordingly, if pathtodriver is null, the driver files (*.BGI) must be in the current directory. This is also the path settextstyle searches for the stroked character font files (*.CHR). *graphdriver is an integer that specifies the graphics driver to be used. You can give it a value using a constant of the graphics_drivers enumeration type, which is defined in graphics.h and listed below.

graphics_drivers constant Numeric value

DETECT 0 (requests autodetect)

CGA 1

MCGA 2

EGA 3

EGA64 4

EGAMONO 5

IBM8514 6

HERCMONO 7

ATT400 8

VGA 9

PC3270 10

*graphmode is an integer that specifies the initial graphics mode (unless *graphdriver equals DETECT; in which case, *graphmode is set by initgraph to the highest resolution available for

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the detected driver). You can give *graphmode a value using a constant of the graphics_modes enumeration type, which is defined in graphics.h and listed below. graphdriver and graphmode must be set to valid values from the following tables, or you will get unpredictable results. The exception is graphdriver = DETECT. Palette listings C0, C1, C2, and C3 refer to the four predefined four-color palettes available on CGA (and compatible) systems. You can select the background color (entry #0) in each of these palettes, but the other colors are fixed.

Palette Number Three Colors

0 LIGHTGREEN LIGHTRED YELLOW

1 LIGHTCYAN LIGHTMAGENTA WHITE

2 GREEN RED BROWN

3 CYAN MAGENTA LIGHTGRAY

After a call to initgraph, *graphdriver is set to the current graphics driver, and *graphmode is set to the current graphics mode.

Graphics Columns

Driver graphics_mode Value x Rows Palette Pages

CGA CGAC0 0 320 x 200 C0 1

CGAC1 1 320 x 200 C1 1

CGAC2 2 320 x 200 C2 1

CGAC3 3 320 x 200 C3 1

CGAHI 4 640 x 200 2 color 1

MCGA MCGAC0 0 320 x 200 C0 1

MCGAC1 1 320 x 200 C1 1

MCGAC2 2 320 x 200 C2 1

MCGAC3 3 320 x 200 C3 1

MCGAMED 4 640 x 200 2 color 1

MCGAHI 5 640 x 480 2 color 1

EGA EGALO 0 640 x 200 16 color 4

EGAHI 1 640 x 350 16 color 2

EGA64 EGA64LO 0 640 x 200 16 color 1

EGA64HI 1 640 x 350 4 color 1

EGA-MONO EGAMONOHI 3 640 x 350 2 color 1 w/64K

EGAMONOHI 3 640 x 350 2 color 2 w/256K

HERC HERCMONOHI 0 720 x 348 2 color 2

ATT400 ATT400C0 0 320 x 200 C0 1

ATT400C1 1 320 x 200 C1 1

ATT400C2 2 320 x 200 C2 1

ATT400C3 3 320 x 200 C3 1

ATT400MED 4 640 x 200 2 color 1

ATT400HI 5 640 x 400 2 color 1

VGA VGALO 0 640 x 200 16 color 2

VGAMED 1 640 x 350 16 color 2

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VGAHI 2 640 x 480 16 color 1

PC3270 PC3270HI 0 720 x 350 2 color 1

IBM8514 IBM8514HI 0 640 x 480 256 color ?

IBM8514LO 0 1024 x 768 256 color ?

Return Value : initgraph always sets the internal error code; on success, it sets the code to 0. If an error occurred, *graphdriver is set to -2, -3, -4, or -5, and graphresult returns the same value as listed below:

Constant Name Number Meaning

grNotDetected -2 Cannot detect a graphics card

grFileNotFound -3 Cannot find driver file

grInvalidDriver -4 Invalid driver

grNoLoadMem -5 Insufficient memory to load driver

m) outtext Syntax #include <graphics.h> void outtext(char *textstring); Description outtext displays a text string in the viewport, using the current font, direction, and size. outtext outputs textstring at the current position (CP). If the horizontal text justification is LEFT_TEXT and the text direction is HORIZ_DIR, the CP's x-coordinate is advanced by textwidth(textstring). Otherwise, the CP remains unchanged. To maintain code compatibility when using several fonts, use textwidth and textheight to determine the dimensions of the string. If a string is printed with the default font using outtext, any part of the string that extends outside the current viewport is truncated. outtext is for use in graphics mode; it will not work in text mode. Return Value : None. n) outtextxy Syntax #include <graphics.h> void outtextxy(int x, int y, char *textstring); Description outtextxy displays a text string in the viewport at the given position (x, y), using the current justification settings and the current font, direction, and size. To maintain code compatibility when using several fonts, use textwidth and textheight to determine the dimensions of the string. If a string is printed with the default font using outtext or outtextxy, any part of the string that extends outside the current viewport is truncated. outtextxy is for use in graphics mode; it will not work in text mode. Return Value : None. o) putpixel Syntax #include <graphics.h> void putpixel(int x, int y, int color);

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Description putpixel plots a point in the color defined by color at (x,y). Return Value : None. p)setbkcolor Syntax #include <graphics.h> void setbkcolor(int color); Description setbkcolor sets the background to the color specified by color. The argument color can be a name or a number as listed below. (These symbolic names are defined in graphics.h.)

Name Value

BLACK 0

BLUE 1

GREEN 2

CYAN 3

RED 4

MAGENTA 5

BROWN 6

LIGHTGRAY 7

DARKGRAY 8

LIGHTBLUE 9

LIGHTGREEN 10

LIGHTCYAN 11

LIGHTRED 12

LIGHTMAGENTA 13

YELLOW 14

WHITE 15

For example, if you want to set the background color to blue, you can call setbkcolor(BLUE) /* or */ setbkcolor(1)On CGA and EGA systems, setbkcolor changes the background color by changing the first entry in the palette. If you use an EGA or a VGA, and you change the palette colors with setpalette or setallpalette, the defined symbolic constants might not give you the correct color. This is because the parameter to setbkcolor indicates the entry number in the current palette rather than a specific color (unless the parameter passed is 0, which always sets the background color to black). Return Value :None. q)setcolor Syntax #include <graphics.h> void setcolor(int color); Description setcolor sets the current drawing color to color, which can range from 0 to getmaxcolor. The current drawing color is the value to which pixels are set when lines, and so on are drawn. The drawing colors shown below are available for the CGA and EGA, respectively.

Palette Number Three Colors

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0 LIGHTGREEN LIGHTRED YELLOW

1 LIGHTCYAN LIGHTMAGENTA WHITE

2 GREEN RED BROWN

3 CYAN MAGENTA LIGHTGRAY

Name Value

BLACK 0

BLUE 1

GREEN 2

CYAN 3

RED 4

MAGENTA 5

BROWN 6

LIGHTGRAY 7

DARKGRAY 8

LIGHTBLUE 9

LIGHTGREEN 10

LIGHTCYAN 11

LIGHTRED 12

LIGHTMAGENTA 13

YELLOW 14

WHITE 15

You select a drawing color by passing either the color number itself or the equivalent symbolic name to setcolor. For example, in CGAC0 mode, the palette contains four colors: the background color, light green, light red, and yellow. In this mode, either setcolor(3) or setcolor(CGA_YELLOW) selects a drawing color of yellow. Return Value:None. r) setfillpattern Syntax #include <graphics.h> void setfillpattern(char *upattern, int color); Description setfillpattern is like setfillstyle, except that you use it to set a user-defined 8x8 pattern rather than a predefined pattern. upattern is a pointer to a sequence of 8 bytes, with each byte corresponding to 8 pixels in the pattern. Whenever a bit in a pattern byte is set to 1, the corresponding pixel is plotted. Return Value : None.

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3. Write a program to draw pixels into the various location of the VDU. Program: #include<iostream.h> #include<conio.h> #include<graphics.h> #include<dos.h> void main() { int gd=DETECT,gm; int x,y; cout<<"enter the x or y Quordinates x,y="; cin>>x>>y; initgraph(&gd,&gd,"c:\\turboc3\\bgi"); int r1,r2; r1=getmaxx(); r2=getmaxy(); while(!kbhit()) { delay(100); cleardevice(); for(int i=x;i<r1;i+=30) { for(int j=y;j<r2;j+=30) putpixel(i,j,15); } } getch(); closegraph(); } Output:

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4 . Write a program to transfer the origin of monitor from top left corner to center of the monitor. Program: #include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> #include<graphics.h> #include<math.h> void translate(); void main() { int ch; int gd=DETECT,gm; initgraph(&gd,&gm,"c:\\turboc3\\bgi"); setcolor(6); printf("Object: "); rectangle(100,175,175,100); int tx,ty; setcolor(2); outtextxy(240,10,"TRANSLATION"); outtextxy(238,20,"------------"); printf("\nEnter tx: "); scanf("%d",&tx); printf("\nEnter ty: "); scanf("%d",&ty); cleardevice(); rectangle(100,150,150,100); printf("\nAfter Translation"); rectangle(100+tx,150+ty,150+tx,100+ty); getch(); closegraph(); } Output:

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5. Write a program to implement Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) line Drawing algorithm. Program: #include <graphics.h> #include <stdio.h> #include<conio.h> #include <math.h> #include<dos.h> void main( ) { float x,y,x1,y1,x2,y2,dx,dy,pixel; int i,gd,gm; printf("Enter the value of x1 : "); scanf("%f",&x1); printf("Enter the value of y1 : "); scanf("%f",&y1); printf("Enter the value of x2 : "); scanf("%f",&x2); printf("Enter the value of y1 : "); scanf("%f",&y2); detectgraph(&gd,&gm); initgraph(&gd,&gm,"c:\\turboc3\\bgi"); dx=abs(x2-x1); dy=abs(y2-y1); if(dx>=dy) pixel=dx; else pixel=dy; dx=dx/pixel; dy=dy/pixel; x=x1; y=y1; i=1; while(i<=pixel) { putpixel(x,y,1); x=x+dx; y=y+dy; i=i+1; delay(100); } getch(); closegraph(); } Output:

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6. Write a program to implement the Bresenhams line drawing algorithm. Program: # include <stdio.h> # include <conio.h> # include <graphics.h> void main() { int dx,dy,x,y,p,x1,y1,x2,y2; int gd,gm; clrscr(); printf("\n\n\tEnter the co-ordinates of first point : "); scanf("%d %d",&x1,&y1); printf("\n\n\tEnter the co-ordinates of second point : "); scanf("%d %d",&x2,&y2); dx = (x2 - x1); dy = (y2 - y1); p = 2 * (dy) - (dx); x = x1; y = y1; detectgraph(&gd,&gm); initgraph(&gd,&gm,"c:\\turboc3\\bgi"); putpixel(x,y,WHITE); while(x <= x2) { if(p < 0) { x=x+1; y=y; p = p + 2 * (dy); } else { x=x+1; y=y+1; p = p + 2 * (dy - dx); } putpixel(x,y,WHITE); } getch(); closegraph(); }

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Output:

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7. Write a program to implement midpoint (Bresenhams) circle generation algorithm. Program: #include <stdio.h> #include<conio.h> #include <dos.h> #include <graphics.h> void circleBres(int, int, int); void drawCircle(int, int, int, int); void main() { int xc, yc, r; int gd = DETECT, gm; initgraph(&gd, &gm, "c:\\turboc3\\bgi"); printf("Enter center coordinates of circle: "); scanf("%d %d", &xc, &yc); printf("Enter radius of circle: "); scanf("%d", &r); circleBres(xc, yc, r); } void circleBres(int xc, int yc, int r) { int x = 0, y = r; int d = 3 - 2 * r; while (x < y) { drawCircle(xc, yc, x, y); x++; if (d < 0) d = d + 4 * x + 6; else { y--; d = d + 4 * (x - y) + 10; } drawCircle(xc, yc, x, y); delay(50); } } void drawCircle(int xc, int yc, int x, int y) { putpixel(xc+x, yc+y, WHITE); putpixel(xc-x, yc+y, WHITE); putpixel(xc+x, yc-y, WHITE); putpixel(xc-x, yc-y, WHITE); putpixel(xc+y, yc+x, WHITE); putpixel(xc-y, yc+x, WHITE); putpixel(xc+y, yc-x, WHITE); putpixel(xc-y, yc-x, WHITE); getch(); }

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Output:

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8. Write a program to show the following attribute of output primitives. A) Line style B) Color C) Intensity A) Line styles Program: #include <graphics.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <string.h> #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main() { int gd=DETECT,gm; int s; char *lname[]={"SOLID LINE","DOTTED LINE","CENTER LINE", "DASHED LINE","USERBIT LINE"}; initgraph(&gd,&gm,"c:\\turboc3\\bgi"); clrscr(); cleardevice(); printf("Line styles:"); for (s=0;s<5;s++) { setlinestyle(s,1,3); line(100,30+s*50,250,250+s*50); outtextxy(255,250+s*50,lname[s]); } getch(); closegraph(); } Output:

B)Color Program: #include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h>

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main() { clrscr(); textcolor(RED); cprintf("C programming \n "); textcolor(BLUE); cprintf("C programming \n "); textcolor(GREEN); cprintf("C programming \n "); textcolor(YELLOW); cprintf("C programming \n "); textcolor(BROWN); cprintf("C programming \n "); getch(); return 0; } Output:

C)Intensity: Hue, Intensity, Brightness The Hue (or simply, the "colour") is the dominant Wavelength or dominant frequency

Energy distribution of a light source with a dominant frequency near the red end of the frequency range .The integration of the energy for all the visible wavelengths is proportional to the intensity of the colour. Intensity : Radiant Energy emitted per unit of time, per unit solid angle, and per unit projected area of the source (related to the luminance of the source) Brightness : perceived intensity of light.

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9. Write a program to implement the following aria fill algorithm. A) Boundary fill B) Flood fill C) Scan line algorithm A) Boundary Fill algorithm Program: #include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> #include<graphics.h> #include<dos.h> void fill_right(int x,int y); void fill_left(int x,int y); void main() { int gd=DETECT,gm,x,y,n,i; clrscr(); initgraph(&gd,&gm,"c:\\turboc3\\bgi"); printf("*** Boundary Fill algorithm ***"); /*- draw object -*/ line (50,50,200,50); line (200,50,200,300); line (200,300,50,300); line (50,300,50,50); /*- set seed point -*/ x=100; y=100; fill_right(x,y); fill_left(x-1,y); getch(); } void fill_right(int x,int y) { if((getpixel(x,y) != WHITE)&&(getpixel(x,y) != RED)) { putpixel(x,y,RED); fill_right(++x,y); x=x-1; fill_right(x,y-1); fill_right(x,y+1); } delay(1); } void fill_left(int x,int y) { if((getpixel(x,y) != WHITE)&&(getpixel(x,y) != RED)) { putpixel(x,y,RED); fill_left(--x,y); x=x+1; fill_left(x,y-1); fill_left(x,y+1); } delay(1); } Output:

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B) Flood Fill Program: #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> #include <graphics.h> #include <dos.h> void flood(int,int,int,int); void main() { int gd,gm=DETECT; clrscr(); detectgraph(&gd,&gm); initgraph(&gd,&gm,"c:\\turboc3\\bgi"); rectangle(50,50,100,100); flood(55,55,12,0); getch(); } void flood(int x,int y, int fill_col, int old_col) { if(getpixel(x,y)==old_col) { delay(10); putpixel(x,y,fill_col); flood(x+1,y,fill_col,old_col); flood(x-1,y,fill_col,old_col); flood(x,y+1,fill_col,old_col); flood(x,y-1,fill_col,old_col); } } Output:

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C) Scan line Program: # include <iostream.h> # include <graphics.h> # include <conio.h> # include <math.h> class Edge { public: int yUpper; float xIntersect; float dxPerScan; Edge *next; }; class PointCoordinates { public: float x; float y; PointCoordinates( ) { x=0; y=0; } }; class LineCoordinates { public: float x_1; float y_1; float x_2; float y_2; LineCoordinates( ) { x_1=0;

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y_1=0; x_2=0; y_2=0; } LineCoordinates(const float x1,const float y1, const float x2,const float y2) { x_1=x1; y_1=y1; x_2=x2; y_2=y2; } }; void show_screen( ); void Fill_polygon(const int,const int [],const int); void insertEdge(Edge *,Edge *); void makeEdgeRec(const PointCoordinates,const PointCoordinates, const int,Edge *,Edge *[]); void buildEdgeList(const int,const PointCoordinates [],Edge *[]); void buildActiveList(const int,Edge *,Edge *[]); void fillScan(const int,const Edge *,const int); void deleteAfter(Edge []); void updateActiveList(const int,Edge []); void resortActiveList(Edge []); const int yNext(const int,const int,const PointCoordinates []); void Polygon(const int,const int []); void Line(const int,const int,const int,const int); int main( ) { int driver=VGA; int mode=VGAHI; initgraph(&driver,&mode,"..\\Bgi"); show_screen( ); int n=10; int polygon_points[20]={ 220,340 , 220,220 , 250,170 , 270,200 , 300,140 , 320,240 , 320,290 , 420,220 ,420,340 , 220,340 }; setcolor(15); Polygon(10,polygon_points); Fill_polygon(n,polygon_points,9); getch( ); return 0; } void Fill_polygon(const int n,const int ppts[],const int fill_color) { Edge *edges[480]; Edge *active; PointCoordinates *pts=new PointCoordinates[n]; for(int count_1=0;count_1<n;count_1++) { pts[count_1].x=(ppts[(count_1*2)]); pts[count_1].y=(ppts[((count_1*2)+1)]); } for(int count_2=0;count_2<640;count_2++)

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{ edges[count_2]=new Edge; edges[count_2]->next=NULL; } buildEdgeList(n,pts,edges); active=new Edge; active->next=NULL; for(int count_3=0;count_3<480;count_3++) { buildActiveList(count_3,active,edges); if(active->next) { fillScan(count_3,active,fill_color); updateActiveList(count_3,active); resortActiveList(active); } } Polygon(n,ppts); delete pts; } const int yNext(const int k,const int cnt,const PointCoordinates pts[]) { int j; if((k+1)>(cnt-1)) j=0; else j=(k+1); while(pts[k].y==pts[j].y) { if((j+1)>(cnt-1)) j=0; else j++; } return (pts[j].y); } void insertEdge(Edge *list,Edge *edge) { Edge *p; Edge *q=list; p=q->next; while(p!=NULL) { if(edge->xIntersect<p->xIntersect) p=NULL; else { q=p; p=p->next; }

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edge->next=q->next; q->next=edge; } void makeEdgeRec(const PointCoordinates lower,const PointCoordinates upper, const int yComp,Edge *edge,Edge *edges[]) { edge->dxPerScan=((upper.x-lower.x)/(upper.y-lower.y)); edge->xIntersect=lower.x; if(upper.y<yComp) edge->yUpper=(upper.y-1); else edge->yUpper=upper.y; insertEdge(edges[lower.y],edge); } void buildEdgeList(const int cnt,const PointCoordinates pts[],Edge *edges[]) { Edge *edge; PointCoordinates v1; PointCoordinates v2; int yPrev=(pts[cnt-2].y); v1.x=pts[cnt-1].x; v1.y=pts[cnt-1].y; for(int count=0;count<cnt;count++) { v2=pts[count]; if(v1.y!=v2.y) { edge=new Edge; if(v1.y<v2.y) makeEdgeRec(v1,v2,yNext(count,cnt,pts),edge,edges); else makeEdgeRec(v2,v1,yPrev,edge,edges); } yPrev=v1.y; v1=v2; } } void buildActiveList(const int scan,Edge *active,Edge *edges[]) { Edge *p; Edge *q; p=edges[scan]->next; while(p) { q=p->next; insertEdge(active,p); p=q; } } void fillScan(const int scan,const Edge *active,const int fill_color) {

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Edge *p1; Edge *p2; p1=active->next; while(p1) { p2=p1->next; for(int count=p1->xIntersect;count<=p2->xIntersect;count++) putpixel(count,scan,fill_color); p1=p2->next; } } void deleteAfter(Edge * q) { Edge *p=q->next; q->next=p->next; delete p; } void updateActiveList(const int scan,Edge *active) { Edge *q=active; Edge *p=active->next; while(p) { if(scan>=p->yUpper) { p=p->next; deleteAfter(q); } else { p->xIntersect=(p->xIntersect+p->dxPerScan); q=p; p=p->next; } } } void resortActiveList(Edge *active) { Edge *q; Edge *p=active->next; active->next=NULL; while(p) { q=p->next; insertEdge(active,p); p=q; }

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} void Polygon(const int n,const int coordinates[]) { if(n>=2) { Line(coordinates[0],coordinates[1], coordinates[2],coordinates[3]); for(int count=1;count<(n-1);count++) Line(coordinates[(count*2)],coordinates[((count*2)+1)], coordinates[((count+1)*2)], coordinates[(((count+1)*2)+1)]); } } void Line(const int x_1,const int y_1,const int x_2,const int y_2) { int color=getcolor( ); int x1=x_1; int y1=y_1; int x2=x_2; int y2=y_2; if(x_1>x_2) { x1=x_2; y1=y_2; x2=x_1; y2=y_1; } int dx=abs(x2-x1); int dy=abs(y2-y1); int inc_dec=((y2>=y1)?1:-1); if(dx>dy) { int two_dy=(2*dy); int two_dy_dx=(2*(dy-dx)); int p=((2*dy)-dx); int x=x1; int y=y1; putpixel(x,y,color); while(x<x2) { x++; if(p<0) p+=two_dy; else { y+=inc_dec; p+=two_dy_dx; } putpixel(x,y,color); } } else

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{ int two_dx=(2*dx); int two_dx_dy=(2*(dx-dy)); int p=((2*dx)-dy); int x=x1; int y=y1; putpixel(x,y,color); while(y!=y2) { y+=inc_dec; if(p<0) p+=two_dx; else { x++; p+=two_dx_dy; } putpixel(x,y,color); } } } void show_screen( ) { setfillstyle(1,1); bar(178,26,450,38); settextstyle(0,0,1); setcolor(15); outtextxy(5,5,""); outtextxy(5,17,""); outtextxy(5,29,""); outtextxy(5,41,""); outtextxy(5,53,""); setcolor(11); outtextxy(185,29,"Scan Line Polygon Fill Algorithm"); setcolor(15); for(int count=0;count<=30;count++) outtextxy(5,(65+(count*12)),""); outtextxy(5,438,""); outtextxy(5,450,""); outtextxy(5,462,""); setcolor(12); outtextxy(229,450,""); } Output:

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Page | 34

10. Write a program to perform translation of two dimensional objects. Program: # include <iostream.h> # include <graphics.h> # include <conio.h> # include <math.h void show_screen( ); void apply_translation(const int,int [],const int,const int); void multiply_matrices(const int[3],const int[3][3],int[3]); void Polygon(const int,const int []); void Line(const int,const int,const int,const int); int main( ) { int driver=VGA; int mode=VGAHI; initgraph(&driver,&mode,"..\\Bgi"); show_screen( ); int polygon_points[8]={ 270,290, 320,190, 370,290, 270,290 }; setcolor(15); Polygon(4,polygon_points); setcolor(15); settextstyle(0,0,1); outtextxy(50,415,"*** Use Arrow Keys to apply Translation."); int key_code_1=0; int key_code_2=0; char Key_1=NULL; char Key_2=NULL; do { Key_1=NULL; Key_2=NULL; key_code_1=0; key_code_2=0; Key_1=getch( ); key_code_1=int(Key_1); if(key_code_1==0) { Key_2=getch( ); key_code_2=int(Key_2); } if(key_code_1==27) break; else if(key_code_1==0) { if(key_code_2==72) { setfillstyle(1,0); bar(40,70,600,410); apply_translation(4,polygon_points,0,-25); setcolor(10);

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Polygon(4,polygon_points); } else if(key_code_2==75) { setfillstyle(1,0); bar(40,70,600,410); apply_translation(4,polygon_points,-25,0); setcolor(12); Polygon(4,polygon_points); } else if(key_code_2==77) { setfillstyle(1,0); bar(40,70,600,410); apply_translation(4,polygon_points,25,0); setcolor(14); Polygon(4,polygon_points); } else if(key_code_2==80) { setfillstyle(1,0); bar(40,70,600,410); apply_translation(4,polygon_points,0,25); setcolor(9); Polygon(4,polygon_points); } } } while(1); return 0; } void apply_translation(const int n,int coordinates[],const int Tx,const int Ty) { for(int count_1=0;count_1<n;count_1++) { int matrix_a[3]={coordinates[(count_1*2)], coordinates[((count_1*2)+1)],1}; int matrix_b[3][3]={ {1,0,0} , {0,1,0} ,{ Tx,Ty,1} }; int matrix_c[3]={0}; multiply_matrices(matrix_a,matrix_b,matrix_c); coordinates[(count_1*2)]=matrix_c[0]; coordinates[((count_1*2)+1)]=matrix_c[1]; } } void multiply_matrices(const int matrix_1[3],const int matrix_2[3][3],int matrix_3[3]) { for(int count_1=0;count_1<3;count_1++) { for(int count_2=0;count_2<3;count_2++) matrix_3[count_1]+= (matrix_1[count_2]*matrix_2[count_2][count_1]); } }

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void Polygon(const int n,const int coordinates[]) { if(n>=2) { Line(coordinates[0],coordinates[1],coordinates[2],coordinates[3]); for(int count=1;count<(n-1);count+ Line(coordinates[(count*2)],coordinates[((count*2)+1)],coordinates[((count+1)*2)], coordinates[(((count+1)*2)+1)]); } } void Line(const int x_1,const int y_1,const int x_2,const int y_2) { int color=getcolor( ); int x1=x_1; int y1=y_1; int x2=x_2; int y2=y_2; if(x_1>x_2) { x1=x_2; y1=y_2; x2=x_1; y2=y_1; } int dx=abs(x2-x1); int dy=abs(y2-y1); int inc_dec=((y2>=y1)?1:-1); if(dx>dy) { int two_dy=(2*dy); int two_dy_dx=(2*(dy-dx)); int p=((2*dy)-dx); int x=x1; int y=y1; putpixel(x,y,color); while(x<x2) { x++; if(p<0) p+=two_dy; else { y+=inc_dec; p+=two_dy_dx; } putpixel(x,y,color); } } else { int two_dx=(2*dx);

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int two_dx_dy=(2*(dx-dy)); int p=((2*dx)-dy); int x=x1; int y=y1; putpixel(x,y,color); while(y!=y2) { y+=inc_dec; if(p<0) p+=two_dx; else { x++; p+=two_dx_dy; } putpixel(x,y,color); } } } void show_screen( ) { setfillstyle(1,1); bar(205,26,430,38); settextstyle(0,0,1); setcolor(15); outtextxy(5,5,""); outtextxy(5,17,""); outtextxy(5,29,""); outtextxy(5,41,""); outtextxy(5,53,""); setcolor(11); outtextxy(210,29,"Translation Transformation"); setcolor(15); for(int count=0;count<=30;count++) outtextxy(5,(65+(count*12)),""); outtextxy(5,438,""); outtextxy(5,450,""); outtextxy(5,462,""); setcolor(12); outtextxy(229,450,"Press any Key to exit."); }

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Output:

After Translation

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11. Write a program to perform scaling of two dimensional objects. A) About the origin B) About fixed point Program: # include <iostream.h> # include <graphics.h> # include <conio.h> # include <math.h> void show_screen( ); void apply_fixed_point_scaling(const int,int [],const float, const float,const int,const int); void multiply_matrices(const float[3],const float[3][3],float[3]); void Polygon(const int,const int []); void Line(const int,const int,const int,const int); int main( ) { int driver=VGA; int mode=VGAHI; initgraph(&driver,&mode,"..\\Bgi"); show_screen( ); int polygon_points[10]={ 270,290, 270,190, 370,190, 370,290, 270,290 }; setcolor(15); Polygon(5,polygon_points); setcolor(15); settextstyle(0,0,1); outtextxy(50,400,"*** (320,240) is taken as Fixed Point."); outtextxy(50,415,"*** Use '+' and '-' Keys to apply Scaling."); int key_code=0; char Key=NULL; do { Key=NULL; key_code=0; Key=getch( ); key_code=int(Key); if(key_code==0) { Key=getch( ); key_code=int(Key); } if(key_code==27) break; else if(key_code==43) { setfillstyle(1,0); bar(40,70,600,410); apply_fixed_point_scaling(5,polygon_points, 1.1,1.1,320,240); setcolor(10); Polygon(5,polygon_points); } else if(key_code==45) {

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setfillstyle(1,0); bar(40,70,600,410); apply_fixed_point_scaling(5,polygon_points, 0.9,0.9,320,240); setcolor(12); Polygon(5,polygon_points); } } while(1); return 0; } void apply_fixed_point_scaling(const int n,int coordinates[],const float Sx,const float Sy, const int xf,const int yf) { for(int count_1=0;count_1<n;count_1++) { float matrix_a[3]={coordinates[(count_1*2)] coordinates[((count_1*2)+1)],1}; float matrix_b[3][3]={ {Sx,0,0} , {0,Sy,0} ,{ ((1-Sx)*xf),((1-Sy)*yf),1} }; float matrix_c[3]={0}; multiply_matrices(matrix_a,matrix_b,matrix_c); coordinates[(count_1*2)]=(int)(matrix_c[0]+0.5); coordinates[((count_1*2)+1)]=(int)(matrix_c[1]+0.5); } } void multiply_matrices(const float matrix_1[3],const float matrix_2[3][3],float matrix_3[3]) { for(int count_1=0;count_1<3;count_1++) { for(int count_2=0;count_2<3;count_2++) matrix_3[count_1]+= (matrix_1[count_2]*matrix_2[count_2][count_1]); } } void Polygon(const int n,const int coordinates[]) { if(n>=2) { Line(coordinates[0],coordinates[1], coordinates[2],coordinates[3]); for(int count=1;count<(n-1);count++) Line(coordinates[(count*2)],coordinates[((count*2)+1)], coordinates[((count+1)*2)], coordinates[(((count+1)*2)+1)]); } } void Line(const int x_1,const int y_1,const int x_2,const int y_2) { int color=getcolor( ); int x1=x_1; int y1=y_1; int x2=x_2; int y2=y_2; if(x_1>x_2) {

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x1=x_2; y1=y_2; x2=x_1; y2=y_1; } int dx=abs(x2-x1); int dy=abs(y2-y1); int inc_dec=((y2>=y1)?1:-1); if(dx>dy) { int two_dy=(2*dy); int two_dy_dx=(2*(dy-dx)); int p=((2*dy)-dx); int x=x1; int y=y1; putpixel(x,y,color); while(x<x2) { x++; if(p<0) p+=two_dy; else { y+=inc_dec; p+=two_dy_dx; } putpixel(x,y,color); } } else { int two_dx=(2*dx); int two_dx_dy=(2*(dx-dy)); int p=((2*dx)-dy); int x=x1; int y=y1; putpixel(x,y,color); while(y!=y2) { y+=inc_dec; if(p<0) p+=two_dx; else { x++; p+=two_dx_dy; } putpixel(x,y,color); } }

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} void show_screen( ) { setfillstyle(1,1); bar(170,26,460,38); settextstyle(0,0,1); setcolor(15); outtextxy(5,5,""); outtextxy(5,17,""); outtextxy(5,29,""); outtextxy(5,41,""); outtextxy(5,53,""); setcolor(11); outtextxy(178,29,"Fixed-Point Scaling Transformation"); setcolor(15); for(int count=0;count<=30;count++) outtextxy(5,(65+(count*12)),""); outtextxy(5,438,""); outtextxy(5,450,""); outtextxy(5,462,""); setcolor(12); outtextxy(229,450,"Press any Key to exit."); } Output:

Page | 43

12. Write a program to perform the Rotation of two dimensional objects. A) About the origin B) About fixed point Program: # include <iostream.h> # include <graphics.h> # include <conio.h> # include <math.h> void show_screen( ); void apply_pivot_point_rotation(const int,int [],float,const int,const int); void multiply_matrices(const float[3],const float[3][3],float[3]); void Polygon(const int,const int []); void Line(const int,const int,const int,const int); int main( ) { int driver=VGA; int mode=VGAHI; initgraph(&driver,&mode,"..\\Bgi"); show_screen( ); int polygon_points[8]={ 250,290, 320,190, 390,290, 250,290 }; setcolor(15); Polygon(5,polygon_points); setcolor(15); settextstyle(0,0,1); outtextxy(50,400,"*** (320,240) is taken as Fix Point."); outtextxy(50,415,"*** Use '+' and '-' Keys to apply Rotation."); int key_code=0; char Key=NULL; do { Key=NULL; key_code=0; Key=getch( ); key_code=int(Key); if(key_code==0) { Key=getch( ); key_code=int(Key); } if(key_code==27) break; else if(key_code==43) { setfillstyle(1,0); bar(40,70,600,410); apply_pivot_point_rotation(4,polygon_points,5,320,240); setcolor(10); Polygon(4,polygon_points); } else if(key_code==45) {

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setfillstyle(1,0); bar(40,70,600,410); apply_pivot_point_rotation(4,polygon_points,-5,320,240); setcolor(12); Polygon(4,polygon_points); } } while(1); return 0; } void apply_pivot_point_rotation(const int n,int coordinates[], float angle,const int xr,const int yr) { angle*=(M_PI/180); for(int count_1=0;count_1<n;count_1++) { float matrix_a[3]={coordinates[(count_1*2)],coordinates[((count_1*2)+1)],1}; float temp_1=(((1-cos(angle))*xr)+(yr*sin(angle))); float temp_2=(((1-cos(angle))*yr)-(xr*sin(angle))); float matrix_b[3][3]={ { cos(angle),sin(angle),0 } ,{ temp_1,temp_2,1 } }; float matrix_c[3]={0}; multiply_matrices(matrix_a,matrix_b,matrix_c); coordinates[(count_1*2)]=(int)(matrix_c[0]+0.5); coordinates[((count_1*2)+1)]=(int)(matrix_c[1]+0.5); } } void multiply_matrices(const float matrix_1[3],const float matrix_2[3][3],float matrix_3[3]) { for(int count_1=0;count_1<3;count_1++) { for(int count_2=0;count_2<3;count_2++) matrix_3[count_1]+= (matrix_1[count_2]*matrix_2[count_2][count_1]); } } void Polygon(const int n,const int coordinates[]) { if(n>=2) { Line(coordinates[0],coordinates[1], coordinates[2],coordinates[3]); for(int count=1;count<(n-1);count++) Line(coordinates[(count*2)],coordinates[((count*2)+1)],coordinates[((count+1)*2)], coordinates[(((count+1)*2)+1)]); } } void Line(const int x_1,const int y_1,const int x_2,const int y_2) { int color=getcolor( ); int x1=x_1; int y1=y_1; int x2=x_2; int y2=y_2;

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if(x_1>x_2) { x1=x_2; y1=y_2; x2=x_1; y2=y_1; } int dx=abs(x2-x1); int dy=abs(y2-y1); int inc_dec=((y2>=y1)?1:-1); if(dx>dy) { int two_dy=(2*dy); int two_dy_dx=(2*(dy-dx)); int p=((2*dy)-dx); int x=x1; int y=y1; putpixel(x,y,color); while(x<x2) { x++; if(p<0) p+=two_dy; else { y+=inc_dec; p+=two_dy_dx; } putpixel(x,y,color); } } else { int two_dx=(2*dx); int two_dx_dy=(2*(dx-dy)); int p=((2*dx)-dy); int x=x1; int y=y1; putpixel(x,y,color); while(y!=y2) { y+=inc_dec; if(p<0) p+=two_dx; else { x++; p+=two_dx_dy; }

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putpixel(x,y,color); } } } void show_screen( ) { setfillstyle(1,1); bar(140,26,485,38); settextstyle(0,0,1); setcolor(15); outtextxy(5,5,""); outtextxy(5,17,""); outtextxy(5,29,""); outtextxy(5,41,""); outtextxy(5,53,""); setcolor(11); outtextxy(150,29,"Rotation Transformation along Fix Point"); setcolor(15); for(int count=0;count<=30;count++) outtextxy(5,(65+(count*12)),""); outtextxy(5,438,""); outtextxy(5,450,""); outtextxy(5,462,""); setcolor(12); outtextxy(229,450,"Press any Key to exit."); } Output:

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13. Write a program to perform reflection of two dimensional objects. A) Y=0(X-axis) B) X=0(Y-axis) C) Y=X Program: # include <iostream.h> # include <graphics.h> # include <conio.h> # include <math.h> void show_screen( ); void apply_reflection_along_x_axis(const int,int []); void apply_reflection_along_y_axis(const int,int []); void apply_reflection_wrt_origin(const int,int []); void multiply_matrices(const int[3],const int[3][3],int[3]); void Polygon(const int,const int []); void Line(const int,const int,const int,const int); int main( ) { int driver=VGA; int mode=VGAHI; initgraph(&driver,&mode,"..\\Bgi"); show_screen( ); setcolor(15); Line(320,100,320,400); Line(315,105,320,100); Line(320,100,325,105); Line(315,395,320,400); Line(320,400,325,395); Line(150,240,500,240); Line(150,240,155,235); Line(150,240,155,245); Line(500,240,495,235); Line(500,240,495,245); settextstyle(2,0,4); outtextxy(305,85,"y-axis"); outtextxy(305,402,"y'-axis"); outtextxy(505,233,"x-axis"); outtextxy(105,233,"x'-axis"); outtextxy(380,100,"Original Object"); outtextxy(380,385,"Reflection along x-axis"); outtextxy(135,100,"Reflection along y-axis"); outtextxy(135,385,"Reflection w.r.t origin"); int polygon_points[8]={ 350,200, 380,150, 470,200, 350,200 }; int x_polygon[8]={ 350,200, 380,150, 470,200, 350,200 }; int y_polygon[8]={ 350,200, 380,150, 470,200, 350,200 }; int origin_polygon[8]={ 350,200, 380,150, 470,200, 350,200 }; setcolor(15); Polygon(4,polygon_points); apply_reflection_along_x_axis(4,x_polygon); setcolor(12); Polygon(4,x_polygon); apply_reflection_along_y_axis(4,y_polygon);

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setcolor(14); Polygon(4,y_polygon); apply_reflection_wrt_origin(4,origin_polygon); setcolor(10); Polygon(4,origin_polygon); getch( ); return 0; } void apply_reflection_along_x_axis(const int n,int coordinates[]) { for(int count=0;count<n;count++) { int matrix_a[3]={coordinates[(count*2)],coordinates[((count*2)+1)],1}; int matrix_b[3][3]={ {1,0,0} , {0,-1,0} ,{ 0,0,1} }; int matrix_c[3]={0}; multiply_matrices(matrix_a,matrix_b,matrix_c); coordinates[(count*2)]=matrix_c[0]; coordinates[((count*2)+1)]=(480+matrix_c[1]); } } void apply_reflection_along_y_axis(const int n,int coordinates[]) { for(int count=0;count<n;count++) { int matrix_a[3]={coordinates[(count*2)],coordinates[((count*2)+1)],1}; int matrix_b[3][3]={ {-1,0,0} , {0,1,0} ,{ 0,0,1} }; int matrix_c[3]={0}; multiply_matrices(matrix_a,matrix_b,matrix_c); coordinates[(count*2)]=(640+matrix_c[0]); coordinates[((count*2)+1)]=matrix_c[1]; } } void apply_reflection_wrt_origin(const int n,int coordinates[]) { for(int count=0;count<n;count++) { int matrix_a[3]={coordinates[(count*2)], coordinates[((count*2)+1)],1}; int matrix_b[3][3]={ {-1,0,0} , {0,-1,0} ,{ 0,0,1} }; int matrix_c[3]={0}; multiply_matrices(matrix_a,matrix_b,matrix_c); coordinates[(count*2)]=(640+matrix_c[0]); coordinates[((count*2)+1)]=(480+matrix_c[1]); } } void multiply_matrices(const int matrix_1[3], const int matrix_2[3][3],int matrix_3[3]) { for(int count_1=0;count_1<3;count_1++) { for(int count_2=0;count_2<3;count_2++) matrix_3[count_1]+= (matrix_1[count_2]*matrix_2[count_2][count_1]);

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} } void Polygon(const int n,const int coordinates[]) { if(n>=2) { Line(coordinates[0],coordinates[1],coordinates[2],coordinates[3]); for(int count=1;count<(n-1);count++) Line(coordinates[(count*2)],coordinates[((count*2)+1)], coordinates[((count+1)*2)], coordinates[(((count+1)*2)+1)]); } } void Line(const int x_1,const int y_1,const int x_2,const int y_2) { int color=getcolor( ); int x1=x_1; int y1=y_1; int x2=x_2; int y2=y_2; if(x_1>x_2) { x1=x_2; y1=y_2; x2=x_1; y2=y_1; } int dx=abs(x2-x1); int dy=abs(y2-y1); int inc_dec=((y2>=y1)?1:-1); if(dx>dy) { int two_dy=(2*dy); int two_dy_dx=(2*(dy-dx)); int p=((2*dy)-dx); int x=x1; int y=y1; putpixel(x,y,color); while(x<x2) { x++; if(p<0) p+=two_dy; else { y+=inc_dec; p+=two_dy_dx; } putpixel(x,y,color); } }

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else { int two_dx=(2*dx); int two_dx_dy=(2*(dx-dy)); int p=((2*dx)-dy); int x=x1; int y=y1; putpixel(x,y,color); while(y!=y2) { y+=inc_dec; if(p<0) p+=two_dx; else { x++; p+=two_dx_dy; } putpixel(x,y,color); } } } void show_screen( ) { setfillstyle(1,1); bar(208,26,430,38); settextstyle(0,0,1); setcolor(15); outtextxy(5,5,""); outtextxy(5,17,""); outtextxy(5,29,""); outtextxy(5,41,""); outtextxy(5,53,""); setcolor(11); outtextxy(218,29,"___________ Reflection ___________"); setcolor(15); for(int count=0;count<=30;count++) outtextxy(5,(65+(count*12)),""); outtextxy(5,438,""); outtextxy(5,450,""); outtextxy(5,462,""); setcolor(12); outtextxy(229,450,"Press any Key to exit."); } Output:

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Program: # include <iostream.h> # include <graphics.h> # include <conio.h> # include <math.h> void show_screen( ); void apply_reflection_about_line_yex(const int,int []); void apply_reflection_about_line_yemx(const int,int []); void apply_reflection_along_x_axis(const int,int []); void apply_reflection_along_y_axis(const int,int []); void apply_rotation(const int,int [],float); void multiply_matrices(const float[3],const float[3][3],float[3]); void Polygon(const int,const int []); void Line(const int,const int,const int,const int); void Dashed_line(const int,const int,const int,const int,const int=0); int main( ) { int driver=VGA; int mode=VGAHI; initgraph(&driver,&mode,"..\\Bgi"); show_screen( ); setcolor(15); Line(320,100,320,400); Line(315,105,320,100); Line(320,100,325,105); Line(315,395,320,400); Line(320,400,325,395); Line(150,240,500,240); Line(150,240,155,235); Line(150,240,155,245); Line(500,240,495,235); Line(500,240,495,245); Dashed_line(160,400,460,100,0); Dashed_line(180,100,480,400,0); settextstyle(2,0,4); outtextxy(305,85,"y-axis");

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outtextxy(305,402,"y'-axis"); outtextxy(505,233,"x-axis"); outtextxy(105,233,"x'-axis"); outtextxy(350,100,"Reflection about the line y=x"); outtextxy(115,100,"Reflection about the line y=-x"); int x_polygon[8]={ 340,200, 420,120, 370,120, 340,200 }; int y_polygon[8]={ 300,200, 220,120, 270,120, 300,200 }; setcolor(15); Polygon(4,x_polygon); Polygon(4,y_polygon); apply_reflection_about_line_yex(4,x_polygon); apply_reflection_about_line_yemx(4,y_polygon); setcolor(7); Polygon(4,x_polygon); Polygon(4,y_polygon); getch( ); return 0; } void apply_reflection_about_line_yex(const int n,int coordinates[]) { apply_rotation(n,coordinates,45); apply_reflection_along_x_axis(n,coordinates); apply_rotation(n,coordinates,-45); } void apply_reflection_about_line_yemx(const int n,int coordinates[]) { apply_rotation(n,coordinates,45); apply_reflection_along_y_axis(n,coordinates); apply_rotation(n,coordinates,-45); } void apply_rotation(const int n,int coordinates[],float angle) { float xr=320; float yr=240; angle*=(M_PI/180); for(int count_1=0;count_1<n;count_1++) { float matrix_a[3]={coordinates[(count_1*2)],coordinates[((count_1*2)+1)],1}; float temp_1=(((1-cos(angle))*xr)+(yr*sin(angle))); float temp_2=(((1-cos(angle))*yr)-(xr*sin(angle))); float matrix_b[3][3]={ { cos(angle),sin(angle),0 } , { -sin(angle),cos(angle),0 } , { temp_1,temp_2,1 } }; float matrix_c[3]={0}; multiply_matrices(matrix_a,matrix_b,matrix_c); coordinates[(count_1*2)]=(int)(matrix_c[0]+0.5); coordinates[((count_1*2)+1)]=(int)(matrix_c[1]+0.5); } } void apply_reflection_along_x_axis(const int n,int coordinates[]) { for(int count=0;count<n;count++)

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{ float matrix_a[3]={coordinates[(count*2)],coordinates[((count*2)+1)],1}; float matrix_b[3][3]={ {1,0,0} , {0,-1,0} ,{ 0,0,1} }; float matrix_c[3]={0}; multiply_matrices(matrix_a,matrix_b,matrix_c); coordinates[(count*2)]=matrix_c[0]; coordinates[((count*2)+1)]=(480+matrix_c[1]); } } void apply_reflection_along_y_axis(const int n,int coordinates[]) { for(int count=0;count<n;count++) { float matrix_a[3]={coordinates[(count*2)],coordinates[((count*2)+1)],1}; float matrix_b[3][3]={ {-1,0,0} , {0,1,0} ,{ 0,0,1} }; float matrix_c[3]={0}; multiply_matrices(matrix_a,matrix_b,matrix_c); coordinates[(count*2)]=(640+matrix_c[0]); coordinates[((count*2)+1)]=matrix_c[1]; } } void multiply_matrices(const float matrix_1[3], const float matrix_2[3][3],float matrix_3[3]) { for(int count_1=0;count_1<3;count_1++) { for(int count_2=0;count_2<3;count_2++) matrix_3[count_1]+= (matrix_1[count_2]*matrix_2[count_2][count_1]); } } void Polygon(const int n,const int coordinates[]) { if(n>=2) { Line(coordinates[0],coordinates[1], coordinates[2],coordinates[3]); for(int count=1;count<(n-1);count++) Line(coordinates[(count*2)],coordinates[((count*2)+1)],coordinates[((count+1)*2)], coordinates[(((count+1)*2)+1)]); } } void Line(const int x_1,const int y_1,const int x_2,const int y_2) { int color=getcolor( ); int x1=x_1; int y1=y_1; int x2=x_2; int y2=y_2; if(x_1>x_2) { x1=x_2; y1=y_2;

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x2=x_1; y2=y_1; } int dx=abs(x2-x1); int dy=abs(y2-y1); int inc_dec=((y2>=y1)?1:-1); if(dx>dy) { int two_dy=(2*dy); int two_dy_dx=(2*(dy-dx)); int p=((2*dy)-dx); int x=x1; int y=y1; putpixel(x,y,color); while(x<x2) { x++; if(p<0) p+=two_dy; else { y+=inc_dec; p+=two_dy_dx; } putpixel(x,y,color); } } else { int two_dx=(2*dx); int two_dx_dy=(2*(dx-dy)); int p=((2*dx)-dy); int x=x1; int y=y1; putpixel(x,y,color); while(y!=y2) { y+=inc_dec; if(p<0) p+=two_dx; else { x++; p+=two_dx_dy; } putpixel(x,y,color); } } } void Dashed_line(const int x_1,const int y_1,const int x_2,

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const int y_2,const int line_type) { int count=0; int color=getcolor( ); int x1=x_1; int y1=y_1; int x2=x_2; int y2=y_2; if(x_1>x_2) { x1=x_2; y1=y_2; x2=x_1; y2=y_1; } int dx=abs(x2-x1); int dy=abs(y2-y1); int inc_dec=((y2>=y1)?1:-1); if(dx>dy) { int two_dy=(2*dy); int two_dy_dx=(2*(dy-dx)); int p=((2*dy)-dx); int x=x1; int y=y1; putpixel(x,y,color); while(x<x2) { x++; if(p<0) p+=two_dy; else { y+=inc_dec; p+=two_dy_dx; } if((count%2)!=0 && line_type==0) putpixel(x,y,color); else if((count%5)!=4 && line_type==1) putpixel(x,y,color); else if((count%10)!=8 && (count%10)!=9 && line_type==2) putpixel(x,y,color); else if((count%20)!=18 && (count%20)!=19 && line_type==3) putpixel(x,y,color); else if((count%12)!=7 && (count%12)!=8 && (count%12)!=10 && (count%12)!=11 && line_type==4) putpixel(x,y,color); count++; } }

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else { int two_dx=(2*dx); int two_dx_dy=(2*(dx-dy)); int p=((2*dx)-dy); int x=x1; int y=y1; putpixel(x,y,color); while(y!=y2) { y+=inc_dec; if(p<0) p+=two_dx; else { x++; p+=two_dx_dy; } if((count%2)!=0 && line_type==0) putpixel(x,y,color); else if((count%5)!=4 && line_type==1) putpixel(x,y,color); else if((count%10)!=8 && (count%10)!=9 && line_type==2) putpixel(x,y,color); else if((count%20)!=18 && (count%20)!=19 && line_type==3) putpixel(x,y,color); else if((count%12)!=7 && (count%12)!=8 && (count%12)!=10 && (count%12)!=11 && line_type==4) putpixel(x,y,color); count++; } } } void show_screen( ) { setfillstyle(1,1); bar(208,26,430,38); settextstyle(0,0,1); setcolor(15); outtextxy(5,5,""); outtextxy(5,17,""); outtextxy(5,29,""); outtextxy(5,41,""); outtextxy(5,53,""); setcolor(11); outtextxy(218,29,"_____ Reflection _____"); setcolor(15); for(int count=0;count<=30;count++) outtextxy(5,(65+(count*12)),"");

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outtextxy(5,438,""); outtextxy(5,450,""); outtextxy(5,462,""); setcolor(12); outtextxy(229,450,"Press any Key to exit."); } Output:

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14. Write a program to perform shearing transformation in X direction. Program: # include <iostream.h> # include <graphics.h> # include <conio.h> # include <math.h> void show_screen( ); void apply_x_direction_shear(const int,int [],const float); void multiply_matrices(const float[3],const float[3][3],float[3]); void Polygon(const int,const int []); void Line(const int,const int,const int,const int); int main( ) { int driver=VGA; int mode=VGAHI; initgraph(&driver,&mode,"..\\Bgi"); show_screen( ); int polygon_points[10]={ 270,340, 270,140, 370,140, 370,340, 270,340 }; setcolor(15); Polygon(5,polygon_points); setcolor(15); settextstyle(0,0,1); outtextxy(50,415,"*** Use Left and Right Arrow Keys to apply X-Direction Shear."); int key_code_1=0; int key_code_2=0; char Key_1=NULL; char Key_2=NULL; do { Key_1=NULL; Key_2=NULL; key_code_1=0; key_code_2=0; Key_1=getch( ); key_code_1=int(Key_1); if(key_code_1==0) { Key_2=getch( ); key_code_2=int(Key_2); } if(key_code_1==27) break; else if(key_code_1==0) { if(key_code_2==75) { setfillstyle(1,0); bar(40,70,600,410); apply_x_direction_shear(5,polygon_points,-0.1);

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setcolor(12); Polygon(5,polygon_points); } else if(key_code_2==77) { setfillstyle(1,0); bar(40,70,600,410); apply_x_direction_shear(5,polygon_points,0.1); setcolor(10); Polygon(5,polygon_points); } } } while(1); return 0; } void apply_x_direction_shear(const int n,int coordinates[],const float Sh_x) { for(int count=0;count<n;count++) { float matrix_a[3]={coordinates[(count*2)],coordinates[((count*2)+1)],1}; float matrix_b[3][3]={ {1,0,0} , {Sh_x,1,0} ,{ 0,0,1} }; float matrix_c[3]={0}; multiply_matrices(matrix_a,matrix_b,matrix_c); coordinates[(count*2)]=(matrix_c[0]+0.5); coordinates[((count*2)+1)]=(matrix_c[1]+0.5); } } void multiply_matrices(const float matrix_1[3], const float matrix_2[3][3],float matrix_3[3]) { for(int count_1=0;count_1<3;count_1++) { for(int count_2=0;count_2<3;count_2++) matrix_3[count_1]+= (matrix_1[count_2]*matrix_2[count_2][count_1]); } } void Polygon(const int n,const int coordinates[]) { if(n>=2) { Line(coordinates[0],coordinates[1],coordinates[2],coordinates[3]); for(int count=1;count<(n-1);count++) Line(coordinates[(count*2)],coordinates[((count*2)+1)], coordinates[((count+1)*2)], coordinates[(((count+1)*2)+1)]); } } void Line(const int x_1,const int y_1,const int x_2,const int y_2) { int color=getcolor( );

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int x1=x_1; int y1=y_1; int x2=x_2; int y2=y_2; if(x_1>x_2) { x1=x_2; y1=y_2; x2=x_1; y2=y_1; } int dx=abs(x2-x1); int dy=abs(y2-y1); int inc_dec=((y2>=y1)?1:-1); if(dx>dy) { int two_dy=(2*dy); int two_dy_dx=(2*(dy-dx)); int p=((2*dy)-dx); int x=x1; int y=y1; putpixel(x,y,color); while(x<x2) { x++; if(p<0) p+=two_dy; else { y+=inc_dec; p+=two_dy_dx; } putpixel(x,y,color); } } else { int two_dx=(2*dx); int two_dx_dy=(2*(dx-dy)); int p=((2*dx)-dy); int x=x1; int y=y1; putpixel(x,y,color); while(y!=y2) { y+=inc_dec; if(p<0) p+=two_dx; else {

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x++; p+=two_dx_dy; } putpixel(x,y,color); } } } void show_screen( ) { setfillstyle(1,1); bar(184,26,460,38); settextstyle(0,0,1); setcolor(15); outtextxy(5,5,""); outtextxy(5,17,""); outtextxy(5,29,""); outtextxy(5,41,""); outtextxy(5,53,""); setcolor(11); outtextxy(194,29,"X-Direction Shear Transformation"); setcolor(15); for(int count=0;count<=30;count++) outtextxy(5,(65+(count*12)),""); outtextxy(5,438,""); outtextxy(5,450,""); outtextxy(5,462,""); setcolor(12); outtextxy(229,450,"Press any Key to exit."); } Output:

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15. Write a program to perform two successive translations. Program: # include <iostream.h> # include <graphics.h> # include <conio.h> # include <math.h> void show_screen( ); void apply_translation(const int,int [],const int,const int); void multiply_matrices(const int[3],const int[3][3],int[3]); void Polygon(const int,const int []); void Line(const int,const int,const int,const int); int main( ) { int driver=VGA; int mode=VGAHI; initgraph(&driver,&mode,"..\\Bgi"); show_screen( ); int polygon_points[8]={ 270,290, 320,190, 370,290, 270,290 }; setcolor(15); Polygon(4,polygon_points); setcolor(15); settextstyle(0,0,1); outtextxy(50,415,"*** Use Arrow Keys to apply Translation."); int key_code_1=0; int key_code_2=0; char Key_1=NULL; char Key_2=NULL; do { Key_1=NULL; Key_2=NULL; key_code_1=0; key_code_2=0; Key_1=getch( ); key_code_1=int(Key_1); if(key_code_1==0) { Key_2=getch( ); key_code_2=int(Key_2); } if(key_code_1==27) break; else if(key_code_1==0) { if(key_code_2==72) { setfillstyle(1,0); bar(40,70,600,410); apply_translation(4,polygon_points,0,-25);

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setcolor(10); Polygon(4,polygon_points); } else if(key_code_2==75) { setfillstyle(1,0); bar(40,70,600,410); apply_translation(4,polygon_points,-25,0); setcolor(12); Polygon(4,polygon_points); } else if(key_code_2==77) { setfillstyle(1,0); bar(40,70,600,410); apply_translation(4,polygon_points,25,0); setcolor(14); Polygon(4,polygon_points); } else if(key_code_2==80) { setfillstyle(1,0); bar(40,70,600,410); apply_translation(4,polygon_points,0,25); setcolor(9); Polygon(4,polygon_points); } } } while(1); return 0; } void apply_translation(const int n,int coordinates[], const int Tx,const int Ty) { for(int count_1=0;count_1<n;count_1++) { int matrix_a[3]={coordinates[(count_1*2)],coordinates[((count_1*2)+1)],1}; int matrix_b[3][3]={ {1,0,0} , {0,1,0} ,{ Tx,Ty,1} }; int matrix_c[3]={0}; multiply_matrices(matrix_a,matrix_b,matrix_c); coordinates[(count_1*2)]=matrix_c[0]; coordinates[((count_1*2)+1)]=matrix_c[1]; } } void multiply_matrices(const int matrix_1[3], const int matrix_2[3][3],int matrix_3[3]) { for(int count_1=0;count_1<3;count_1++) { for(int count_2=0;count_2<3;count_2++) matrix_3[count_1]+= (matrix_1[count_2]*matrix_2[count_2][count_1]);

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} } void Polygon(const int n,const int coordinates[]) { if(n>=2) { Line(coordinates[0],coordinates[1], coordinates[2],coordinates[3]); for(int count=1;count<(n-1);count++) Line(coordinates[(count*2)],coordinates[((count*2)+1)], coordinates[((count+1)*2)], coordinates[(((count+1)*2)+1)]); } } void Line(const int x_1,const int y_1,const int x_2,const int y_2) { int color=getcolor( ); int x1=x_1; int y1=y_1; int x2=x_2; int y2=y_2; if(x_1>x_2) { x1=x_2; y1=y_2; x2=x_1; y2=y_1; } int dx=abs(x2-x1); int dy=abs(y2-y1); int inc_dec=((y2>=y1)?1:-1); if(dx>dy) { int two_dy=(2*dy); int two_dy_dx=(2*(dy-dx)); int p=((2*dy)-dx); int x=x1; int y=y1; putpixel(x,y,color); while(x<x2) { x++; if(p<0) p+=two_dy; else { y+=inc_dec; p+=two_dy_dx; } putpixel(x,y,color); } }

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else { int two_dx=(2*dx); int two_dx_dy=(2*(dx-dy)); int p=((2*dx)-dy); int x=x1; int y=y1; putpixel(x,y,color); while(y!=y2) { y+=inc_dec; if(p<0) p+=two_dx; else { x++; p+=two_dx_dy; } putpixel(x,y,color); } } } void show_screen( ) { setfillstyle(1,1); bar(205,26,430,38); settextstyle(0,0,1); setcolor(15); outtextxy(5,5,""); outtextxy(5,17,""); outtextxy(5,29,""); outtextxy(5,41,""); outtextxy(5,53,""); setcolor(11); outtextxy(210,29,"Translation Transformation"); setcolor(15); for(int count=0;count<=30;count++) outtextxy(5,(65+(count*12)),""); outtextxy(5,438,""); outtextxy(5,450,""); outtextxy(5,462,""); setcolor(12); outtextxy(229,450,"Press any Key to exit."); }

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Output:

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16. Write a program to perform two successive Rotations. Program: # include <iostream.h> # include <graphics.h> # include <conio.h> # include <math.h> void show_screen( ); void apply_rotation(const int,int [],float); void multiply_matrices(const float[3],const float[3][3],float[3]); void Polygon(const int,const int []); void Line(const int,const int,const int,const int); int main( ) { int driver=VGA; int mode=VGAHI; initgraph(&driver,&mode,"..\\Bgi"); show_screen( ); int polygon_points[8]={ 250,290, 320,190, 390,290, 250,290 }; setcolor(15); Polygon(5,polygon_points); setcolor(15); settextstyle(0,0,1); outtextxy(50,415,"*** Use '+' and '-' Keys to apply Rotation."); int key_code=0; char Key=NULL; do { Key=NULL; key_code=0; Key=getch( ); key_code=int(Key); if(key_code==0) { Key=getch( ); key_code=int(Key); } if(key_code==27) break; else if(key_code==43) { setfillstyle(1,0); bar(40,70,600,410); apply_rotation(4,polygon_points,5); setcolor(10); Polygon(4,polygon_points); } else if(key_code==45) { setfillstyle(1,0);

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bar(40,70,600,410); apply_rotation(4,polygon_points,-5); setcolor(12); Polygon(4,polygon_points); } } while(1); return 0; } void apply_rotation(const int n,int coordinates[],float angle) { angle*=(M_PI/180); for(int count_1=0;count_1<n;count_1++) { float matrix_a[3]={coordinates[(count_1*2)],coordinates[((count_1*2)+1)],1}; float matrix_b[3][3]={ { cos(angle),sin(angle),0 } ,{ -sin(angle),cos(angle),0 } ,{ 0,0,1 } }; float matrix_c[3]={0}; multiply_matrices(matrix_a,matrix_b,matrix_c); coordinates[(count_1*2)]=(int)(matrix_c[0]+0.5); coordinates[((count_1*2)+1)]=(int)(matrix_c[1]+0.5); } } void multiply_matrices(const float matrix_1[3],const float matrix_2[3][3],float matrix_3[3]) { for(int count_1=0;count_1<3;count_1++) { for(int count_2=0;count_2<3;count_2++) matrix_3[count_1]+= (matrix_1[count_2]*matrix_2[count_2][count_1]); } } void Polygon(const int n,const int coordinates[]) { if(n>=2) { Line(coordinates[0],coordinates[1], coordinates[2],coordinates[3]); for(int count=1;count<(n-1);count++) Line(coordinates[(count*2)],coordinates[((count*2)+1)], coordinates[((count+1)*2)], coordinates[(((count+1)*2)+1)]); } } void Line(const int x_1,const int y_1,const int x_2,const int y_2) { int color=getcolor( ); int x1=x_1; int y1=y_1; int x2=x_2; int y2=y_2; if(x_1>x_2) { x1=x_2;

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y1=y_2; x2=x_1; y2=y_1; } int dx=abs(x2-x1); int dy=abs(y2-y1); int inc_dec=((y2>=y1)?1:-1); if(dx>dy) { int two_dy=(2*dy); int two_dy_dx=(2*(dy-dx)); int p=((2*dy)-dx); int x=x1; int y=y1; putpixel(x,y,color); while(x<x2) { x++; if(p<0) p+=two_dy; else { y+=inc_dec; p+=two_dy_dx; } putpixel(x,y,color); } } else { int two_dx=(2*dx); int two_dx_dy=(2*(dx-dy)); int p=((2*dx)-dy); int x=x1; int y=y1; putpixel(x,y,color); while(y!=y2) { y+=inc_dec; if(p<0) p+=two_dx; else { x++; p+=two_dx_dy; } putpixel(x,y,color); } } } void show_screen( )

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{ setfillstyle(1,1); bar(212,26,412,38); settextstyle(0,0,1); setcolor(15); outtextxy(5,5,""); outtextxy(5,17,""); outtextxy(5,29,""); outtextxy(5,41,""); outtextxy(5,53,""); setcolor(11); outtextxy(222,29,"______ Rotation ______ "); setcolor(15); for(int count=0;count<=30;count++) outtextxy(5,(65+(count*12)),""); outtextxy(5,438,""); outtextxy(5,450,""); outtextxy(5,462,""); setcolor(12); outtextxy(229,450,""); } Output:

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17. Write a program to perform two successive scaling. Program: # include <iostream.h> # include <graphics.h> # include <conio.h> # include <math.h> void show_screen( ); void apply_scaling(const int,int [],const float,const float); void multiply_matrices(const float[3],const float[3][3],float[3]); void Polygon(const int,const int []); void Line(const int,const int,const int,const int); int main( ) { int driver=VGA; int mode=VGAHI; initgraph(&driver,&mode,"..\\Bgi"); show_screen( ); int polygon_points[10]={ 270,290, 270,190, 370,190, 370,290, 270,290 }; setcolor(15); Polygon(5,polygon_points); setcolor(15); settextstyle(0,0,1); outtextxy(50,415,"*** Use '+' and '-' Keys to apply Scaling."); int key_code=0; char Key=NULL; do { Key=NULL; key_code=0; Key=getch( ); key_code=int(Key); if(key_code==0) { Key=getch( ); key_code=int(Key); } if(key_code==27) break; else if(key_code==43) { setfillstyle(1,0); bar(40,70,600,410); apply_scaling(5,polygon_points,1.1,1.1); setcolor(10); Polygon(5,polygon_points); } else if(key_code==45) { setfillstyle(1,0); bar(40,70,600,410);

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apply_scaling(5,polygon_points,0.9,0.9); setcolor(12); Polygon(5,polygon_points); } } while(1); return 0; } void apply_scaling(const int n,int coordinates[],const float Sx,const float Sy) { for(int count_1=0;count_1<n;count_1++) { float matrix_a[3]={coordinates[(count_1*2)], coordinates[((count_1*2)+1)],1}; float matrix_b[3][3]={ {Sx,0,0} , {0,Sy,0} ,{ 0,0,1} }; float matrix_c[3]={0}; multiply_matrices(matrix_a,matrix_b,matrix_c); coordinates[(count_1*2)]=(int)(matrix_c[0]+0.5); coordinates[((count_1*2)+1)]=(int)(matrix_c[1]+0.5); } } void multiply_matrices(const float matrix_1[3],const float matrix_2[3][3],float matrix_3[3]) { for(int count_1=0;count_1<3;count_1++) { for(int count_2=0;count_2<3;count_2++) matrix_3[count_1]+= (matrix_1[count_2]*matrix_2[count_2][count_1]); } } void Polygon(const int n,const int coordinates[]) { if(n>=2) { Line(coordinates[0],coordinates[1], coordinates[2],coordinates[3]); for(int count=1;count<(n-1);count++) Line(coordinates[(count*2)],coordinates[((count*2)+1)],coordinates[((count+1)*2)], coordinates[(((count+1)*2)+1)]); } } void Line(const int x_1,const int y_1,const int x_2,const int y_2) { int color=getcolor( ); int x1=x_1; int y1=y_1; int x2=x_2; int y2=y_2; if(x_1>x_2) { x1=x_2; y1=y_2;

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x2=x_1; y2=y_1; } int dx=abs(x2-x1); int dy=abs(y2-y1); int inc_dec=((y2>=y1)?1:-1); if(dx>dy) { int two_dy=(2*dy); int two_dy_dx=(2*(dy-dx)); int p=((2*dy)-dx); int x=x1; int y=y1; putpixel(x,y,color); while(x<x2) { x++; if(p<0) p+=two_dy; else { y+=inc_dec; p+=two_dy_dx; } putpixel(x,y,color); } } else { int two_dx=(2*dx); int two_dx_dy=(2*(dx-dy)); int p=((2*dx)-dy); int x=x1; int y=y1; putpixel(x,y,color); while(y!=y2) { y+=inc_dec; if(p<0) p+=two_dx; else { x++; p+=two_dx_dy; } putpixel(x,y,color); } } } void show_screen( ) {

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setfillstyle(1,1); bar(218,26,413,38); settextstyle(0,0,1); setcolor(15); outtextxy(5,5,""); outtextxy(5,17,""); outtextxy(5,29,""); outtextxy(5,41,""); outtextxy(5,53,""); setcolor(11); outtextxy(226,29,"Scaling Transformation"); setcolor(15); for(int count=0;count<=30;count++) outtextxy(5,(65+(count*12)),""); outtextxy(5,438,""); outtextxy(5,450,""); outtextxy(5,462,""); setcolor(12); outtextxy(229,450,"Press any Key to exit."); } Output: