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Europe, USSR, and North America(1945–Present)
Section 1: The Western World: An Overview
Section 2: The Western European Democracies
Section 3: North American Prosperity
Section 4: The Soviet Union: Rise and Fall of a Superpower
Section 5: A New Era in Eastern Europe
The Western World: An Overview
• What issues troubled Europe after the Cold War?
• How have recent economic and political trends affected the West?
• How has Europe moved toward greater unity?
• How have social trends changed the West?
1
Europe After the Cold War
• Russia and the nations of Eastern Europe turned to the West for loans and investments to build capitalist economies. The Russian Mafia offers “protection” and threatens capitalism.
• Ethnic clashes, especially in the Balkans, created conflicts that threatened European peace. UN and Clinton sent troops; Kosovo is its own area. Milosevic with ethnic cleansing of Serbia—killing Muslim Croats.
• The nuclear peril, although reduced, still remains. Accidents like Chernobyl affect globe, although Germany and France rely on nuclear power; unaccounted for nukes make us all fret.
• NATO faced the debate as to whether it should become Europe’s peacekeeper and protector of human rights. Is UN enough? IMF, World Bank, and NGOs (all try to step up, but tend to meddle)
1
Economic and Political Trends
The West faced growing competition from other parts of the world, causing many factories to close.
Economies changed when most new jobs were created in service industries.
The gap between the rich and the poor grew.
In 1973, OPEC cut oil production and raised prices. The higher prices caused inflation and slowed economic growth.
In 1979, OPEC again raised prices, triggering a severe recession, in which business slowed and unemployment rates rose.
After 1945, governments extended the welfare state. Governments took on a larger role in national economies.
Conservatives condemned the drift from the free enterprise system toward socialism.
ECONOMIC SHIFTS
THE OIL SHOCKTHE WELFARE STATE
Postwar governments in France, Italy, and Germany adopted many policies favored by the left.: Socialist coalitions
1
Welfare-State Spending in Britain, 1975 – 19801
Toward European Unity • In 1952, six nations — France, West Germany, Belgium, Italy, the
Netherlands, and Luxembourg — set up the European Coal and Steel Community. This agency set prices and regulated the coal and steel industries of member states.
• In 1957, the same six nations formed the European Community (EC) or Common Market. Its goal was free trade. It also set up the European Parliament.
• In 1973, Britain, Denmark, and Ireland were admitted to the Common Market.
• In the 1980s and 1990s, the Common Market expanded and took on the name European Union (EU). The EU pushed for complete economic unity and greater political unity. Started as a free trade zone, but this success led to greater cooperation.
1
European Union,
1957 – 2000
1
Treaty of Rome
Treaty of Maastricht
Global Trade/Trade Blocs• Trade blocs have a range of reasons to “protect” the trade interests of their region:
(1) To establish some form of regional control regarding trade that fulfills the interests of nations within that region;(2) To establish tariffs that protect intra-regional trade from “outside” forces;(3) To promote regional security and political concerns or to develop trade in such as way as to enhance the security in the region;(4) To promote South-to-South trade, e.g., between Africa and Asia, and between Latin American countries;(5) To promote economic and technical cooperation among developing countries (Malaysiaexports.com);
• They also use several measures to restrain global competition:(1) import quotas (limiting the amount of imports into the country so that domestic consumers buy products made by their countries in their region);(2) customs delays (establishing bureaucratic formalities that slow down the ability for the imported product from abroad to enter the domestic market;(3) subsidies (government financial assistances toward sectors of the home economy so that they have an influx of capital);(4) boycotts and technical barriers;(5) bribes and voluntary restraints.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international organization designed by its founders to supervise and liberalize international trade. The organization officially commenced on January 1, 1995 under the Marrakech Agreement, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which commenced in 1947.
European Union• In Europe, the Maastricht Treaty, which succeeded the Treaty of Rome and called for the
creation of a union (and hence the change in name from European Community to European Union), created a monetary union and has the ultimate goal of creating a political union, with member countries switch adopting a common currency and a common central bank. A monetary union represents the fourth level of integration among politically independent countries.
• The European Union (EU) consists of fifteen countries (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom). On January 1, 1999, the eleven countries of the so-called euro-zone (excluding EU members Denmark, Greece, Sweden, and the United Kingdom) embarked on a venture that created the world's second-largest economic zone, after the United States. The seeds for the euro were sown three decades ago. In 1969, Pierre Werner, a former prime minister of Luxembourg, was asked to chair a think-tank on how an European monetary union (EMU) could be achieved by 1980. The Werner Report, published in October 1970, outlined a three-phase plan that was very similar to the blueprint ultimately adopted in the Maastricht Treaty, signed on February 7, 1992. Like the Maastricht Treaty, the plan envisioned the replacement of local currencies by a single currency. However, the EMU was put on hold following the monetary chaos created by the first oil crisis. The next step on the path to monetary union was the creation of the European monetary system (EMS) in the late 1970s. Except for the United Kingdom, all member states of the European Union joined the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), which determined bilateral currency exchange rates. Currencies of the, by then, nine member states could still fluctuate, but movements were limited to a margin of 2.25 percent. The EMS also led to the European currency unit (ecu)—in some sense the predecessor of the euro. Note the ecu never became a physical currency.
Migration to Western Europe
Immigrants threaten European cultures; their populations have usually been Homogeneous!
Social Trends
Class lines blurred as prosperity spread.
More and more people joined the middle class.
Most people faced greater opportunities.
Women in the West made progress toward legal and economic equality.
Women narrowed the gender gap in hiring, promotion, and pay.
Western families had fewer children than in the past.
Children stayed in school longer.The divorce rate climbed.
Social change speeded up after 1945.
SOCIAL CLASSES ETHNIC DIVERSITY
WOMEN FAMILY LIFE
1
Since the 1950s, many immigrants from former colonies in Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean had settled in Europe. Some Europeans resented the newcomers.
Many immigrants faced discrimination and segregation.
The Western European Democracies
• How did Britain’s policies change after World War II?
• How did French power and prosperity revive?
• How did Germany reunify?
• What problems have other democratic nations faced?
2
Britain: Changing Policies
Britain joined the Common Market.
Britain gave up global leadership to the United States, but remained a leader in the UN and NATO.
WORLD ROLE
Voters elected the Conservative party and reduced social welfare programs.
Voters elected the Labour party and created the welfare state.
THE WEL-FARE STATE
1970sPOST
WORLD WAR II
2
Voters elected the Labour party, which pledged to follow a “third way” between the traditional right and left.
British nationalism led some leaders to reject greater European unity.
1990s2000 to Present
New PM just elected:David Cameron and Nick Clegg with aCoalition of politicalParties.
Britain has backed the US in effortsTo combat terrorism.EU membership solid, but refuses to give up local currency at home.
France: Revival and ProsperityFrance emerged from World War II greatly weakened.
The Fourth Republic, set up in 1946, was ineffective. Bloody colonial wars in Algeria and Vietnam drained and demoralized the country.
In 1958, Charles de Gaulle set up the Fifth Republic. He made peace with Algeria and gave up other French colonies and worked to restore French prestige and power.
In the 1980s, French socialists, led by Francois Mitterand, won power as a global recession hit. The economic crisis forced Mitterand to encourage the growth of private business.
In 1995, Jacques Chirac took a very conservative approach and cut government spending. Over the years, France has built the fourth largest economy in the world, but had huge unemployment and fears immigration creating too much diversity.
Nicholas Sarkozy is in and actually likes the US. Mon Dieu!
2
How Did Germany Reunify?• In 1969, West German chancellor Willy Brandt tried to
ease tensions with East Germany.
• In 1989, as Soviet communism declined, Germany was able to move toward reunification. Without Soviet backing, East German leaders were ousted. People from both Germanys tore down the Berlin Wall.
• In 1990, German votes approved reunification.
2
Other Democratic Nations
In 1967, military rulers came to power. Greece and Turkey almost went to war over Cyprus. In 1975, Greece returned to democratic rule. But the economy is rocky!
Portugal was economically underdeveloped with a large peasant population. When the authoritarian government finally collapsed, Portugal adopted a democratic government. Portugal’s economy grew rapidly.
Spain was economically underdeveloped with a large peasant population. When Francisco Franco finally died, Spain adopted a democratic gov’t. The Spanish economy grew rapidly.
Political divisions and regional differences led to instability. Corruption, financial scandals, and the Mafia added to the instability.Despite these problems, Italy made economic gains and ranked as a leading industrial nation.
ITALY SPAIN
PORTUGAL GREECE
2
North American Prosperity
• What actions has the United States taken as a global superpower?
• What developments have shaped the economy, government, and society of the United States?
• What issues has Canada faced in recent years?
3
The United States: A Global SuperpowerThe United States built bases overseas and organized military alliances from Europe to Southeast Asia.The United States provided economic aid to help Europe rebuild and to assist emerging nations. The United States became involved in the Korean and Vietnam wars in hopes of preventing the spread of communism.As conflicts erupted in various regions, the United States tried to resolve some of them:• In 1991, it led a multinational force against Iraqi invaders of Kuwait.•We have removed the Taliban fromAfghanistan and are still looking for Osama there.• It provided peacekeeping forces to end bloody civil wars in Bosnia and Kosovo.
3
American Economy and Government
In the postwar decades, American businesses expanded into markets around the globe. American industries faced competition from Asian and other nations.The government’s role in the economy grew.
In the 1980s, government spending and tax cuts greatly increased the national budget deficit.
In the 1990s, the economy rebounded due to Reaganomics!The US economy suffered a recession recently.
During the 1960s, the government expanded social programs to help the poor and disadvantaged.
In the 1980s, conservatives challenged the growth of government and reduced spending on social programs. At the same time, military spending increased.
America entered the twenty-first century enjoying peace, prosperity, and unrivaled military power.
And then 911!
ECONOMY GOVERNMENT
3
Civil Rights and Society
• Many states denied equality to various minority groups. They faced legal segregation, or separation, in education and housing, and discrimination in jobs and voting.
• By 1956, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., emerged as a leader of the civil rights movement. King organized boycotts and led peaceful marches to end segregation in the United States.
• Congress outlawed segregation. Despite this, racial prejudice survived and poverty and unemployment still plagued many African Americans.
During the 1950s and 1960s, many social changes took place. Some were linked to the civil rights movement that set out to end discrimination and ensure equal rights for all Americans.
3
What Issues Has Canada Faced in Recent Years?
• Since the 1950s, Canada has become increasingly diverse, with newcomers from Europe, Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean.
• Quebec’s French-speaking people demanded more autonomy within Canada. Some Canadians favored separatism. They voted 2x, but did not separate.
• Many Canadians have resented the cultural domination of their neighbor, the United States.
• Economic competition with the United States led to the creation of the North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA).
• Canada and the United States agreed to work together for a common solution to the problem of pollution.
3
The Soviet Union: Rise and Fall of a Superpower
• What ideas guided Soviet political, economic, and foreign policy?
• Why did the Soviet Union collapse?
• What problems have Russia and the other republics faced since the fall of the Soviet Union?
4
Soviet Government and Economy
Khrushchev pursued a policy of de-Stalinization and sought a thaw in the Cold War.
Brezhnev suppressed dissidents, people who spoke out against the government.
The Soviet Union rebuilt its shattered industries.
Citizens enjoyed benefits such as low rent, cheap bread, free health care, and day care for children.
Collectivized agriculture remained unproductive.
The Soviet Union could not match the free-market economies of the West in producing consumer goods.
People spent hours waiting on line to buy food and other goods.
Because workers had lifetime job security, they had little incentive to produce better-quality goods.
GOVERNMENT ECONOMY
4
Soviet Foreign Policy
Soviet-American relations swung back and forth between confrontation and détente.
The Soviet Union sought allies among the developing nations.
The Soviets offered military and economic aid in order to win and keep allies.
Stalin and his successors asserted Soviet control over Eastern Europe.
Khrushchev set up the Warsaw Pact to suppress dissent within Eastern Europe.
UNITED STATESDEVELOPING WORLD
EASTERN EUROPE
4
Collapse of the Soviet Union: Cause and Effect4
Low output of crops and consumer goods
Cold War led to high military spending
Ethnic and nationalist movements
Denial of rights and freedoms
War with Afghanistan
Food and fuel shortages
Demonstrations in the Baltic states
Gorbachev’s rise to power
Soviet Union breaks up into 15 republicsRussian republic approves a new constitution
Changeover to market economy in RussiaCold War ends Yeltsin to Putin to MevedevWar in Chechnya
EffectsImmediate Causes
Long-Term
Causes
Problems in The Russian Republic
• The changeover to a market economy caused unemployment to soar and prices to skyrocket.
• Criminals flourished, and gangs preyed on the new business class.
• In 1998, Russia defaulted, or failed to make payments, on much of its foreign debt.
• The value of Russia’s currency collapsed. People lost their savings and their jobs. Suddenly, the good old days look good!
• Minorities within Russia sought greater autonomy or independence. Countries with resources and wealth decide to bail.
4
The Other Republics
• The new nations faced unrest, corruption, and political divisions.
• In some countries, authoritarian rulers gained power.
• Ethnic conflict erupted in republics with a mix of national groups.
• Other conflicts arose over border disputes.
• The new nations endured hard times as they switched to market economies.
4
A New Era in Eastern Europe
• How did Eastern European nations oppose Soviet domination and strive for democracy?
• What were the effects of the fall of communism?
• What were the causes and effects of civil war in Yugoslavia?
5
Soviet Domination of Eastern Europe5
1945 After World War II, Soviet armies occupy much of Eastern Europe.
1949 Most Eastern European countries are under communist rule.
1956 Hungary withdraws from Warsaw Pact and ends one-party rule; Soviet troops crush Hungarian uprising.
1968 Czechoslovakia introduces reforms; Soviets use force to restore communist dictatorship. Alexander Dubchek was Gorby’s hero! The “Velvet revolution” breaks it into two countries.
1980 Polish government, under Soviet pressure, cracks down on trade union movement and arrests its leaders. Lech Walesa and Solidarity.
Fall of Communist Governments
• Eastern European countries withdrew from the Warsaw Pact and requested that Soviet troops leave.
• Eastern European nations set out to build stable governments and free-market economies.
• The many changes contributed to rising inflation, high unemploy-ment, and crime waves.
• Consumer goods became more plentiful, but many people could not afford them.
• Former communists were sometimes returned to office when people became disillusioned with reform.
• In the 1990s, Eastern European nations looked to the West for aid.
• Ethnic tension arose in some areas, especially Balkans/Yugoslavia.
5
New Nations in Eastern Europe5
Civil War in Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia consisted of a broad mixture of ethnic and religious groups.
Tito had silenced nationalist and religious unrest for decades. When he died, nationalism tore Yugoslavia apart. Who knew!
Communism fell.
Four of the six republics declared independence.
Tens of thousands of Bosnian Muslims were killed in a campaign of ethnic cleansing with Milosevic. The Balkan region remained unstable.
New nations needed massive aid to rebuild.
Large numbers of refugees remained in temporary shelter for years after the war.
Ethnic feuds were hard to contain.
CAUSES EFFECTS
5
East Asia and Southeast Asia(1945–Present)
Section 1: Japan Becomes an Economic Superpower
Section 2: From Revolution to Reform in China
Section 3: The Asian Tigers
Section 4: Southeast Asia and the Pacific Rim
• What factors made Japan’s recovery an economic miracle?
• How did Japan interact economically and politically with other nations?
• How are patterns of life changing in Japan?
1
Recovery and Economic MiracleIn 1945, Japan lay in ruins. What factors allowed Japan to recover and produce an economic miracle?
• Japan’s success was based on producing goods for export. At first, the nation manufactured textiles. Later, it shifted to making steel, and then to high technology. • While Japan had to rebuild from scratch, the nation had successfully industrialized in the past. Thus, it was able to quickly build efficient, modern factories and adapt the latest technology.• Japan benefited from an educated, highly skilled work force. • Japanese workers saved much of their money. These savings gave banks the capital to invest in industrial growth.• Japan did not have to spend money on maintaining a large military force.
1
Japanese Motor Vehicle
Exports, 1997
1
Economic and Political Interaction
• The oil crisis of the 1970s brought home Japan’s dependence on the world market. In response to the economic challenge the oil crisis presented, Japan sought better relations with oil-producing nations of the Middle East.
• Japan has had to deal with nations that still held bitter memories of World War II. Japan was slow to apologize for its wartime actions. In the 1990s, Japanese leaders offered some public regrets for the destruction of the war years.
• For many years, Japan took a back seat in international politics. More recently, it has taken on a larger world role. Today, Japan ranks as the world’s largest donor of foreign aid.
1
Changing Patterns of Life• In the 1990s, Japan faced a terrible economic depression. • Many workers lost the security of guaranteed lifetime employment,
and confidence was undermined. • In the 1990s, charges of corruption greatly weakened Japan’s
dominant political party, the LDP. Some younger, reform-minded politicians broke with the LDP, threatening its monopoly on power.
• Today, most Japanese live in crowded cities in tiny, cramped apartments.
• While women have legal equality, traditional attitudes keep them in subordinate positions in the workplace.
• For decades, Japanese sacrificed family life to work long hours. Many younger Japanese, however, want more time to enjoy themselves. Some older Japanese worry that the old work ethic is weakening.
1
From Revolution to Reform in China
• What were the effects of communist policies in China?
• What challenges did China face during the Cold War?
• How did calls for political reform led to repression?
• What challenges face China today?
2
Communist PoliciesAlthough some reforms did result in more access to education and greater equality, people in China paid a heavy cost for Mao’s programs. During the 1950s and 1960s, two efforts in particular led to economic disaster and tremendous loss of life.
In the “Great Leap Forward,” Mao urged people to make a superhuman effort to increase farm output.
• Food output slowed and backyard industries turned out low-quality, useless goods.
• A terrible famine occurred. Between 1959 and 1961, up to 30 million Chinese starved to death.
The goal of the Cultural Revolution was to purge China of “bourgeois” tendencies. • The Cultural Revolution convulsed China. Schools and factories closed. The economy slowed, and civil war threatened.
2
China and the Cold War
Stalin sent economic aid and technical experts to China, but he and Mao disagreed on many issues.
China and the Soviet Union competed for influence in developing nations.
By 1960, border disputes and clashes over ideology led the Soviets to withdraw all aid and advisers from China.
At first, the United States refused to recognize the People’s Republic of China and for years tried to isolate China.
Slowly, relations improved.
In 1979, the United States set up formal diplomatic relations with China.
RELATIONS WITH THE SOVIET UNION
RELATIONS WITH THE UNITED STATES
2
"Tank man” blocks a column of tanks heading east on Beijing's Chang'an Boulevard (Avenue of Eternal Peace) near Tiananmen Square during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. This photo was taken from the sixth floor of the Beijing Hotel, about half a mile away, through a 400mm lens. We see bags in his left hand indicating that he must have been on his way home from shopping which raises the question of whether this was a student protester or a man standing up for students. The name and fate of the man is unknown. This photo was taken on June 5, 1989, by Jeff Widener (The Associated Press).
Tiananmen Square
By the late 1980s, some Chinese were demanding greater political freedom and economic reform.
The crackdown showed that China’s Communist leaders were determined to maintain control. To them, order was more important than political freedom.
In 1989, thousands of demonstrators occupied Tiananmen Square and called for democracy.
The government sent in troops and tanks. Thousands of demonstrators were killed or wounded.
2
Challenges TodayChina’s human rights abuses have brought strong pressure from trading partners such as the United States.
Population growth strained the economy and posed a challenge for the future.
As communist ideology weakened, government corruption became a growing problem.
Many state-run industries were inefficient, but could not be closed without risking high unemployment and economic chaos.
Inequalities between rich and poor urban and rural Chinese continued to grow.
2
The Asian Tigers
• How has China influenced Taiwan and Hong Kong?
• How did Singapore modernize?
• Why has Korea remained divided for more than 50 years?
3
Asian TigersThe term “Asian tigers” refers to Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and South Korea.
• All four are small Asian lands that became “newly industrialized countries” by the 1980s. • They are known for their aggressive economic growth. • Although they differ in important ways, all followed similar roads
to modernization after 1945.• All four were influenced by China.• In each, the Confucian ethic shaped attitudes about work. • All four had stable governments that invested in education.
3
Taiwan and Hong Kong
Taiwan was ruled by China until 1895, when it fell to Japan.
The Japanese built some industry, providing a foundation for later growth.
Taiwan first set up light industries and later, developed heavy industry. After the Cold War, Taiwanese businesses invested in companies on the Chinese mainland.
Britain won Hong Kong from China after the Opium War.
Hong Kong’s prosperity was based largely on trade and light industry.
Hong Kong also became a world financial center.
Hong Kong’s amazing growth was due in part to its location on China’s doorstep.
In 1997, Britain returned Hong Kong to China.
Both Taiwan and Hong Kong have deep cultural and historical links to China.
TAIWAN HONG KONG
3
How Did Singapore Modernize?During his 30 years in power, Prime Minister Lee Kwan Yew:
• supported a free-market economy• attracted foreign capital by keeping labor costs low• expanded Singapore’s seaport into one of the world’s busiest
harbors • welcomed skilled immigrants• insisted on education for all of Singapore’s people• encouraged high-tech industries, manufacturing, finance, and
tourism • followed a Confucian model of development, emphasizing hard
work and saving money
3
The Two Koreas
After World War II, the Soviet Union and the United States divided Korea along the 38th parallel.
Before long, North Korea became a communist ally of the Soviet Union. The United States backed noncommunist South Korea.
In 1950, North Korea attacked South Korea. The war turned into a stalemate.
In 1953, both sides signed an armistice, or end to fighting. The armistice has held for 50 years, but no peace treaty has ever been negotiated.
3
Korean War, 1950 – 1953
3
Southeast Asia and the Pacific Rim
• How did war affect Vietnam and Cambodia?
• What challenges faced the Philippines and the developing nations of Southeast Asia?
• Why is the Pacific Rim a vital region?
4
War in Vietnam and Cambodia
Communists fought against noncommunists supported by the United States for control of Vietnam.
After the United States withdrew from the war, the North Vietnamese reunited the country under communist rule. The communist victors imposed harsh rule in the south.
Vietnam had to rebuild a land destroyed by war. Recently, VN has become more open economically to the market economy & trade
During the Vietnam War, fighting spilled over into neighboring Cambodia.
In 1970, the United States bombed and then invaded Cambodia.
When the United States left, communist guerrillas called Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, slaughtered more than a million Cambodians.
In 1979, Vietnam invaded and occupied Cambodia. Land mines cover huge % of Cambodia*
In mainland Southeast Asia, an agonizing liberation struggle tore apart the region once known as French Indochina.
VIETNAM CAMBODIA
4
Vietnam War,
1968 – 1975
4
The PhilippinesIn 1946, the Philippines gained freedom after almost 50 years of American rule.
In 1965, Ferdinand Marcos was elected president. Marcos promised reform but became a dictator.
In 1986, the people of the Philippines forced Marcos to leave in what was called the “people power” revolution.
Corazón Aquino became president and restored the fragile democracy.
Challenges:
• The country enjoyed economic growth during the 1990s, but many people remained poor.
• Government corruption and guerrilla wars threatened the nation’s stability.• The Philippines experienced rapid urbanization.• Natural disasters caused setbacks.• Many enterprising Filipinos left the country.
4
Developing Nations of Southeast Asia
Southeast Asian nations faced many problems after independence.They lacked experience in self-government.They faced complex ethnic and religious conflicts. Demands for political freedom and social justice were frequent.
For years, repressive military rulers battled rebel ethnic minorities. They isolated the country and imposed state socialism.
In 1990, the government held elections. The opposition party won, but the military rejected the election results.
Geography posed an obstacle to unity in Indonesia.
Under authoritarian rule, Indonesia made great economic progress.
The 1997 Asian financial crisis led to riots against the government.
A new government was elected and faced many problems.
MYANMAR INDONESIA
4
The Pacific Rim
• By the 1990s, the volume of trade across the Pacific Rim was greater than that across the Atlantic. The region has potential for further growth.
• Countries on the Pacific Rim formed a huge market that lured investors, especially multinational corporations.
• The development of the Pacific Rim promises to bring the Americas and Asia closer together.
In the modern global economy, Southeast Asia and East Asia are part of a vast region known as the Pacific Rim. It includes countries in Asia and the Americas that border the Pacific Ocean.
4
South Asia and the Middle East
(1945–Present)
Section 1: Nations of South Asia
Section 2: Forces Shaping the Modern Middle East
Section 3: Nation Building in the Middle East:Three Case Studies
Section 4: The Middle East and the World
Nations of South Asia
• Why was India partitioned?
• How has India dealt with political, economic, and social change?
• What problems did Pakistan and Bangladesh face?
• How is South Asia linked to world affairs?
1
Why Was India Partitioned?
After World War II, Britain finally agreed to Indian demand for independence.
Muslims insisted on their own state, Pakistan.
Riots between Hindus and Muslims persuaded Britain to partition, or divide, the subcontinent.
In 1947, British officials created Hindu India and Muslim Pakistan.
As Hindus and Muslims crossed the borders, violence erupted in Northern India.
Ten million refugees fled their homes. At least a million people, including Mohandas Gandhi, were killed.
Even after the worst violence ended, Hindu-Muslim tensions persisted.
1
Partition of India,
1947
1
Cause and Effect: Partition of India1
Muslim conquest of northern India in 1100s
British imperialism in India
Nationalists organize the Indian National Congress in 1885
Muslim nationalists form separate Muslim League in 1906
Long-TermCauses
World War II weakens European colonial empires
Pressure from Indian nationalists increases
Insistence by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League that Muslims have their own state
Rioting between Hindus and Muslims throughout northern India
Short-TermCauses
Violence erupts as millions of Hindus and Muslims cross the border between India and Pakistan
Gandhi is assassinated by Hindu extremists
India and Pakistan become centers of Cold War rivalry
Establishment of the state of Bangladesh
Effects
Continuing clash between India and Pakistan over Kashmir
Nuclear arms race as both India and Pakistan refuse to sign Non-Proliferation Treaty
Connections to Today
Urbanization undermined some traditions, but most Indians continued to live in villages.
The government tried to end discrimination based on caste. However, deep prejudice continued.
India adopted a socialist model to expand agriculture and industry.
Rapid population growth hurt efforts to improve living conditions.
An economic slowdown forced India to privatize some industries and make foreign investment easier.
India’s constitution set up a federal system.For 40 years after independence, the Nehru family led India.
India’s size and diversity have contributed to religious and regional divisions.Today, India is the world’s largest democratic nation.
SOCIALECONOMICPOLITICAL
India: Political, Economic, and Social Change1
After independence, military leaders seized power and ruled as dictators.
When civilian leaders were finally elected, the military continued to intervene.
The country lacked natural resources for industry.
Ethnic rivalries fueled conflicts.Severe economic problems and corruption plagued the government.
Forty percent of the nation’s budget goes to repaying foreign debt.
In 1971, Bengalis declared independence for Bangladesh.
Geography has made it difficult to rise out of poverty.
Explosive population growth has further strained resources.
Since the early 1990s, civilian governments have worked to encourage foreign investments.
PAKISTAN BANGLADESH
1
How is South Asia Linked to World Affairs?
• India and Pakistan achieved their independence as the Cold War began.
• Pakistan accepted military aid from the United States, while India signed a treaty of friendship with the Soviet Union.
• When the Cold War ended, both India and Pakistan sought aid from the western powers.
• Regional conflicts bred global concern after both India and Pakistan acquired nuclear weapons.
1
Forces Shaping the Modern Middle East
• How have diversity and nationalism shaped the Middle East?
• What political and economic patterns have emerged?
• Why has an Islamic revival spread across the region?
• How do women’s lives vary in the Middle East?
2
Diversity and Nationalism
Most people in the Middle East today are Muslims, but Jews and Christians still live there.
Middle Eastern people speak more than 30 different languages.
Every country is home to minority groups.
Muslims share the same faith but belong to different national groups. Often, such differences have created divisions.
After World War I, Arab nationalists opposed the mandate system that placed Arab territories under European control.
The Pan-Arab dream of a united Arab state foundered, but the Arab League continued to promote Arab solidarity.
DIVERSITY NATIONALISM
2
Political and Economic Patterns
Some nations turned to socialism to end foreign economic control and modernize rapidly.
To get capital, governments took foreign loans.
Heavy borrowing left many nations deeply in debt.
Most of the region has limited rainfall.
Oil-rich countries have built desalinization plants.
Individual nations have built dams to supply water.Nations must seek ways to use water cooperatively.
Oil-rich nations built roads, hospitals, and schools. Poorer countries lacked the capital needed for development.
Most Middle Eastern nations developed authoritarian governments.
GOVERNMENT
WATER
OIL
ECONOMICS
2
World Crude Oil Production
2
Water Resources
in the Middle
East
2
Islamic RevivalFor more than 1,300 years, the Quran and Sharia provided guidance on all aspects of life.
During the Age of Imperialism, westerners urged Muslim nations to modernize and to adopt western forms of secular government and law.
Some Middle Eastern leaders adopted western models of development, promising economic progress and social justice.
By the 1970s, in the face of failed development and repressive regimes, many Muslim leaders called for a return to Sharia.
Islamic reformers, called fundamentalists by the West, did not reject modernization, but they did reject westernization.
2
Women in the Muslim WorldConditions for women vary greatly from country to country in the modern Middle East.
Since the 1950s, women in most countries have won voting rights and equality before the law. In other countries, though, laws and traditions emerged that limited women’s right to vote, work, or even drive cars.
The changes have taken place at different rates in different places:• In Turkey, Syria, and Egypt, many urban women gave up long-held practices such as wearing hejab, or cover.• Conservative countries like Saudi Arabia and Iran have opposed the spread of western secular influences among women.
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Nation Building in the Middle East: Three Case Studies
• What issues has Turkey faced?
• Why was Egypt a leader in the Arab world?
• What were the causes and results of the revolution in Iran?
3
What Issues Has Turkey Faced?
• At the beginning of the Cold War, the Soviets tried to expand southward into Turkey.
• Turkey struggled to build a stable government.
• Modernization and urbanization brought social turmoil. Outlawing of the fez and Kemal Attaurk
• In 1999, a series of powerful earthquakes shook western Turkey, including major industrial areas.
• Kurdish nationalists fought for autonomy.
• Turkey waged a long struggle over Cyprus.
• Turkey was divided politically, with secular politicians on one side and Islamic reformers on the other.
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Egypt: A Leader in the Arab WorldIn the 1950s, Gamal Abdel Nasser set out to modernize Egypt and end western domination. He:• nationalized the Suez Canal• led two wars against Israel• employed socialist economic policies, which had limited success• built the Aswan High DamAnwar al-Sadat came to power in the 1970s. He:• opened Egypt to foreign investment and private business • became the first Arab leader to make peace with IsraelSadat’s successor, Hosni Mubarak:• reaffirmed the peace with Israel• mended fences with his Arab neighbors • faced serious domestic problems
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Iran’s Ongoing RevolutionBecause of its vast oil fields, Iran became a focus of western interests.
In 1945, western powers backed Shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavi, despite opposition from Iranian nationalists.
In the 1970s, the shah’s enemies rallied behind Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, who condemned western influences and accused the shah of violating Islamic law.
The shah was forced into exile and Khomeini’s supporters proclaimed an Islamic Republic.
Revolutionaries bitterly denounced the West. They attacked corruption, replaced secular courts with religious ones, dismantled women’s rights, and banned everything western. While, at first, they allowed some open discussion, before long they were suppressing opponents.
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The Middle East and the World
• How did the Cold War increase tensions in the Middle East?
• Why has the Arab-Israeli conflict been difficult to resolve?
• Why did conflicts arise in Lebanon and the Persian Gulf?
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The Cold War and the Middle East
• In their global rivalry, each of the superpowers tried to line up allies in the Middle East.
• Each superpower sold arms to its ally in the region.
• In the Arab-Israeli conflict, the United States helped Israel, while the Soviet Union gave aid to the Arabs.
• During and after the Cold War, the development of weapons of mass destruction in the Middle East became a global concern.
During the Cold War, both the United States and the Soviet Union sought access to the oil and waterways of the Middle East. Superpower rivalries had a far-reaching impact on the region.
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Arab-Israeli Issues
Palestinians demanded that part of Jerusalem become the capital of a future Palestinian nation.
After years of fighting and negotiations, peace in Israel remains an elusive goal. A number of specific issues continue to divide the two sides.
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Palestinians demanded the right to return to lands they fled during the Arab Israeli wars.
Many Israelis insisted on the survival of Israeli settlements that had been built on these occupied lands.
Israeli conservatives insisted that Jerusalem remain undivided as the capital of Israel.
Arab-Israeli
Conflict, 1948 -1995
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Civil War in Lebanon
• The Muslim population began to increase, disturbing the balance among Maronites (a Christian sect) and Sunni and Shiite Muslims. This led to unrest.
• Palestinian refugees entering Lebanon from occupied territories strained resources.
• PLO guerrillas in refugee camps in Lebanon crossed into Israel to attack civilian and military targets.
In 1975, Lebanon was plunged into seemingly endless civil war. • Christian and Muslim militias battled for control of Beirut, the capital city. • Israel invaded the south, while Syria occupied eastern Lebanon.
By 1990, Lebanese leaders finally restored some measure of order.
In the 1970s, the Arab-Israeli conflict fueled tensions in nearby Lebanon.
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Wars in the Persian Gulf
Border disputes, oil wealth, foreign intervention, and ambitious rulers fed tensions along the Persian Gulf.
In 1980, Iraqi dictator, Saddam Hussein invaded Iran.• The resulting war dragged on for eight years, ending in a stalemate. For both nations, the human and economic toll was enormous.
In 1990, Iraqi troops invaded the oil-rich nation of Kuwait.• In the Gulf War, the United States organized a coalition of United Nations/American, European, and Arab powers to drive Iraqi forces out of Kuwait.
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Wars in the
Persian Gulf,
1980 – 1991
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Africa(1945–Present)
Chapter 36: Africa (1945–Present)
Section 1: Achieving Independence
Section 2: Programs for Development
Section 3: Three Nations: A Closer Look
Section 4: Struggles in Southern Africa
Achieving Independence
• How did colonialism contribute to a growing spirit of nationalism?
• What routes to freedom did Ghana, Kenya, and Algeria follow?
• How did the Cold War affect Africa?
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The Colonial Legacy
• After liberation, the pattern of economic dependence established during the colonial period continued.
• During the colonial period, Europeans undermined Africa’s traditional political system.
• Colonial doctors addressed some diseases, such as yellow fever, smallpox, and malaria. Colonial governments did not emphasize general health care, however.
• At independence, African nations inherited borders drawn by colonial powers. These borders often caused immense problems.
Western imperialism had a complex and contradictory impact on Africa. Some changes brought real gains. Others had a destructive effect on African life that is felt down to the present.
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A Growing Spirit of Nationalism
Most were western educated. Leaders organized political parties, which published newspapers, held rallies, and mobilized support for independence.
After the war, most Europeans had had their fill of fighting.
In response to growing demands for independence, Britain and France introduced political reforms that would lead to independence.
Japanese victories in Asia shattered the West’s reputation as an unbeatable force.
Africans who fought for the Allies resented the discrimination and second-class status they returned to at home.
Nationalist Leaders
The Global Setting
Impact of World War II
In 1945, the rising tide of nationalism was sweeping over European colonial empires. Around the world, liberation would follow this tide.
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Routes to Freedom
Muslim Algerian nationalists used guerrilla warfare to win independence from France.
During eight years of fighting, hundreds of thousands of Algerians, and thousands of French, were killed.
In 1962, Algeria won independence.
Before World War II, Jomo Kenyatta became a spokesman for the Kikuyu, who had been displaced by white settlers.
Radical leaders turned to guerrilla warfare.
The British imprisoned Kenyatta and killed or imprisoned thousands of Kikuyu.
In 1963, Kenya won its independence.
Kwame Nkrumah tried to win independence for the British trading colony Gold Coast. He organized strikes and boycotts.
Nkrumah was imprisoned.In 1957, Gold Coast won independence.Nkrumah named the new country Ghana, after the ancient West African empire.
ALGERIAKENYAGHANA
During the great liberation, each African nation had its own leaders and its own story.
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The Cold War and Africa
• By supplying arms to rival governments, the superpowers boosted the power of the military in many countries and contributed to instability.
• Cold War rivalries affected local conflicts within Africa. The Soviet Union and the United States supported rival groups in the liberation struggles.
• Weapons supplied by the superpowers enabled rival clans, militias, or guerrilla forces to spread violence across many lands.
African nations emerged into a world dominated by rival blocs led by the United States and the Soviet Union.
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Programs for Development
• What were barriers to unity and stability in Africa?
• What economic choices did African nations make?
• What critical issues affect African nations today?
• How has modernization affected patterns of life?
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Barriers to Unity and Stability
• Once freedom was won, many Africans felt their first loyalty to their own ethnic group, not to a national government.
• Civil wars, some of which were rooted in colonial history, erupted in many new nations.
• Faced with divisions that threatened national unity, many early
leaders turned to a one-party system.
• When bad government led to unrest, the military often seized power.
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Economic Choices
Lenders required developing nations to make tough economic reforms before extending new loans.
In the short term, these reforms increased unemployment and led to higher prices the poor could not pay.
Many governments kept food prices artificially low to satisfy poor city people. As a result, farmers used their land for export crops or produced only for themselves. Many governments neglected rural development in favor of industrial projects.
Governments pushed to grow more cash crops for export.
As a result, countries that once fed their people from their own land had to import food.
Many new nations chose socialism. Some nations set up mixed economies, with both private and state-run enterprises.
SOCIALISM OR CAPITALISM CASH CROPS OR FOOD
URBAN OR RURAL NEEDS THE DEBT CRISIS
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Critical Issues
The AIDS epidemic spread rapidly across parts of Africa. In 1998,it was estimated that more than 21 million people were infected with the virus.
Once forests were cleared, heavy rains washed nutrients from the soil and destroyed its fertility.
The rising population put a staggering burden on Africa’s developing economies.
In the 1970s and 1980s, prolonged drought contributed to famine in parts of Africa.
POPULATION EXPLOSION
DROUGHT AND FAMINE
DEFORESTATION
AIDS
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Population
Pyramids
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Kenya
Nigeria
South Africa
Ages
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Ages
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Ages
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60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Males Females
Males
Males
Females
Females
Percentage of male population Percentage of female population
Percentage of male population Percentage of female population
Population Pyramids
Ages
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Ages
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Ages
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Desertification in Africa
Desertification is the spread of desert areas.
Overgrazing and farming remove topsoil and speed up the process of desertification.
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Old and New Patterns
Messages of reform based on Islamic traditions and the call for social justice were welcomed by many Islamic Africans.
In some areas, it stimulated deeper religious commitment.
Christianity has grown since its introduction to Africa centuries ago. Christian churches often combine Christian and traditional African beliefs.
As men moved to cities, rural women took on the sole responsibility of providing for their children. Most constitutions promised women generous rights. In reality, most women’s lives continued to be ruled by traditional laws.
Urbanization contributed to the development of a larger national identity.
However, it weakened traditional cultures and undermined ethnic and kinship ties.
In Africa, as elsewhere, modernization disrupted old ways.
URBANIZATION WOMEN
CHRISTIANITY ISLAMIC REVIVAL
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Three Nations: A Closer Look
• What were some pressures for change in Nigeria?
• What effects did dictatorship have on the Congo?
• What was the outcome of Tanzania’s experiment in socialism?
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Pressures for Change in NigeriaAt independence, Nigeria drew up a constitution to protect various regional interests. The system did not work and ethnic rivalries increased. When Ibo leaders declared the independent state of Biafra, civil war broke out. By the time Biafra surrendered, almost a million people had died.
During the 1970s oil boom, Nigeria set up industries and borrowed heavily from the West.
Between 1960 and 1985, rural people flooded to the cities. While the cities grew, Nigeria ignored its farmers. Once a food exporter, Nigeria began importing expensive grain.
When oil prices fell, the economy almost collapsed.
During Nigeria’s debt crisis in the 1980s, General Ibrahim Babangida imposed harsh economic reforms to restore economic stability.
In 1993, elections were held, but Babangida and his military successors set aside election results and cracked down on critics.
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Dictatorship in CongoAfter World War II, Belgium was determined to keep the Congo and did nothing to prepare the colony for freedom.
In 1960, Belgium suddenly rushed the Congo to independence.
With some 200 ethnic groups and no sense of unity, the new nation quickly split apart.
Civil war raged for almost three years.
In 1965, Mobutu Sese Seko seized power and renamed the country Zaire.
For the next 30 years, Mobutu built an increasingly brutal dictatorship.
In the late 1990s, ethnic violence in neighboring countries spilled into Zaire. Mobutu was at last overthrown.Continuing power struggles within the country led to continuing violence.
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Tanzania’s first president, Julius Nyerere, sought to improve rural life, build a classless society, and create a self-reliant economy.
To carry out his programs, Nyerere embraced “African socialism.” Nyerere claimed that this system was based on African village traditions of cooperation and shared responsibility.
Under African socialism, rural farmers were encouraged to live in large villages and farm the land collectively.Under this arrangement, Nyerere believed farm output would increase.
Nyerere’s experiment did not work as planned. Many families had to be forcibly moved to the village collectives, farm output did not rise, and high oil prices, inflation, and a bloated bureaucracy plunged Tanzania into debt.
Nyerere’s successor, Ali Hassan Mwinyi moved Tanzania toward a market economy. These moves brought some improvement.
Tanzania’s Experiment in Socialism3
Struggles in Southern Africa
• What challenges faced Zimbabwe?
• How did the long struggle to end apartheid lead to a new South Africa?
• How did the Cold War affect nations of southern Africa?
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What Challenges Faced Zimbabwe?
In 1980, Southern Rhodesia became the nation of Zimbabwe. The new nation faced severe challenges after years of war:
• International sanctions had damaged the economy.• Droughts had caused problems. • Recovery was slowed by a power struggle between nationalist leaders, Robert Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo.• When Mugabe prevailed and became president, he called for a one-party system and tolerated little opposition.• In 2000, tensions over land ownership led to renewed violence.
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South Africa’s Long Struggle
In the late 1980s, President F. W. de Klerk abandoned apartheid, lifted the ban on the ANC, and freed Mandela. In 1994, Mandela was elected president in South Africa’s first multiracial elections. Mandela welcomed longtime political foes into his government.
From the beginning, black South Africans protested apartheid. In 1912, the African National Congress (ANC) was set up to oppose white domination. Nelson Mandela mobilized young South Africans to take part in acts of civil disobedience against apartheid laws. As protests continued, government violence increased.
In 1910, South Africa won self-rule from Britain. Over the next decades, the white minority government imposed apartheid, a system of racial laws which separated the races and kept the black majority in a subordinate position.
APARTHEID BLACK RESISTANCE TOWARD REFORM
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Other Nations of Southern Africa
Portugal was unwilling to relinquish its colonies in Angola and Mozambique. In 1975,after fifteen years of fighting, Angola and Mozambique won independence. After independence, bitter civil wars raged, fueled by Cold War rivalries. The United States and South Africa saw the struggles in southern Africa as a threat because some of the liberation leaders were socialists. The end of the Cold War helped stop the conflict.
Instead of preparing the territory for independence, South Africa backed the oppressive regime run by the white minority.
By the 1960s, the Southwest African People’s Organization (SWAPO) turned to armed struggle to win independence.The struggle became part of the Cold War, with the Soviet Union and Cuba lending their support to the independence movement.
When the Cold War ended, Namibia was finally able to win independence.
PORTUGUESE COLONIES: Angola & Mozambique
NAMIBIA
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Outlook and Gains
In literature, film, and the arts, Africans made major contributions to global culture.
Africa has enormous potential for growth.
With free-market reforms, countries such as Ghana enjoyed economic growth.
Most African nations sought to improve health care and created family planning programs.
Governments recognized the profound effect population growth had on standards of living.
As governments set up more schools, literacy rates rose. Universities trained a new generation of leaders.A few countries promoted higher
education for women.
Despite many setbacks, African nations have made progress.
EDUCATION HEALTH CARE
ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY CULTURE
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Latin America(1945–Present)
Section 1: Forces Shaping Modern Latin America
Section 2: Latin America, the United States,and the World
Section 3: Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean
Section 4: Focus on Argentina and Brazil
Forces Shaping Modern Latin America
• Why is Latin America a culturally diverse region?
• What conditions contributed to unrest in Latin American countries?
• What forces shaped political, economic, and social patterns in Latin America?
1
Why Is Latin America a Diverse Region?
Conquest• After 1492, Europeans imposed their civilization
on Native Americans.
Immigration• Since the late 1800s, immigrants from Europe
and Asia have contributed to the diversity.
Intermarriage• As Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans
mingled, they created new cultures.
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Ethnic Diversity in Latin America1
Sources of Unrest
• A growing gulf between the rich and the poor fueled discontent in the postwar era.
• A population explosion contributed to poverty.
• Pressure on the land contributed to a great migration that sent millions of peasants to the cities.
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Political Forces in Latin America
Most Latin American states had constitutions modeled on those of France and the United States. Yet, real democracy seemed difficult to achieve in nations plagued by poverty and inequality.• Conflict between conservatives and reformers contributed to political
instability in many nations.• Military leaders held power in many Latin American nations. • During the 1960s and 1970s, guerrillas and urban terrorists battled
repressive governments in many Latin American countries. • By the mid-1980s, inflation, debt, and growing protests led repressive leaders to step aside. • A number of countries held elections to replace military governments with civilian governments. • Heavy debt burden and economic slowdowns have threatened the success of elected rulers, putting the stability of democratic governments in the region in doubt.
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Economic DevelopmentBy the 1960s, Latin America faced growing competition from African and Asian nations.
To reduce dependence on imported goods, many governments encouraged the development of local industries. This policy, called import substitution, had mixed success.
Over the past 60 years, large areas of land were opened up to farming. Much of the best farmland belonged to agribusiness. Commercial agriculture increased the need to import food.
In the 1980s, the region was rocked by economic crisis.
In the 1990s, free trade organizations, such as NAFTA, opened Latin American economies to larger markets. The mutual support and expanded markets of these organizations did bring some economic growth in the years around 2000.
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Changing Social Patterns
The Catholic Church has remained a powerful force. During the 1960s and 1970s, the Church crusaded for social justice and an end to poverty. This movement became known as liberation theology.
Upper-class women had access to education and careers.
Rural women often faced hardship and poverty.
Women struggled to win change.
City life weakened the extended family.
The struggle to make a living caused some families to fall apart.
In large cities, thousands of abandoned or runaway children roamed the streets.
RELIGIONWOMENURBANIZATION
In Latin America, as elsewhere, urbanization brought social upheaval.
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Latin America, the United States, and the World
• How did communist rule affect Cuba?
• What policies did the United States follow in Latin America?
• What global issues have linked Latin America to other regions in the world?
2
Communism in CubaIn the late 1950s, Fidel Castro turned Cuba into a communist state. Castro:• nationalized foreign-owned sugar plantations and other businesses• put most land under government control• distributed land to peasants
Effects of communist rule:Castro imposed harsh authoritarian rule.Conditions for the poor improved, basic health care was provided for all, the literacy rate increased, and equality for women was promoted.Critics were jailed or silenced and hundreds of thousands fled to the United States. When the Cold War ended, Soviet aid disappeared, and Cuba’s economy collapsed.
2
The United States and Latin America
• The United States was the leading investor and trading partner for most nations in Latin America.
• During the Cold War, the United States intervened repeatedly in Latin America to protect its interests and to prevent the spread of communism.
• The United States saw itself as the defender of democracy and capitalism and the source of humanitarian aid. Many Latin Americans, however, resented living under the shadow of the “colossus of the north.”
• Latin American nations and the United States worked together in the Organization of American States (OAS). The organization was formed in 1948 to promote democracy, economic cooperation, and human rights.
2
Regional and Global Issues
Poverty, civil war, and repressive governments caused Latin American immigration to the United States to increase rapidly after the 1970s.
Pressure increased in the United States to halt illegal immigration.
Developing nations insisted that they needed to exploit their land and other resources if they wanted economic growth. This came at the expense of the environment.
Drug cartels in Latin America began exporting ever-larger quantities of cocaine and other drugs.
In the 1980s, the United States declared a “war on drugs,” pressing Latin American governments to cooperate with these efforts.
Regional trading blocs gained importance in the 1990s. Such groups created larger markets by lowering trade barriers among neighboring countries. Examples: NAFTA, Mercosur
REGIONAL TIES THE DRUG WARS
MIGRATIONDEVELOPMENT VS ENVIRONMENT
2
Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean
• What conditions have changed and what conditions have remained the same in Mexico?
• Why did Central American countries suffer civil wars?
• What were the causes of Haiti’s political and economic struggles?
3
Continuity and Change in Mexico
After the Mexican Revolution, government officials became committed to improving conditions for the poor. At the end of the 1900s, however, Mexico remained a disturbing mix of poverty and prosperity.
Since the Mexican Revolution, a single party — the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) — dominated Mexican politics. In the 1990s, the PRI began to lose its monopoly on power.
In the 1930s, the Mexican government distributed millions of acres of land to peasants. Over the years, as economic conditions worsened, many peasants migrated to towns and cities. The population of Mexico City mushroomed from 1.5 million in 1940 to about 20 million in 1995.
3
War and Peace in Central America
During a vicious civil war, right-wing death squads slaughtered anyone thought to sympathize with the leftists.
The United States pressed for reform, but at the same time provided weapons and other aid to help the military battle rebel guerrillas.
Fearing communist influence, the United States helped oust Guatemala’s reformist government in 1954.
While the military regained power, decades of civil war ensued, during which the government routinely tortured and murdered critics.
In 1979, revolutionaries called Sandinistas ousted the ruling Somoza family.
Fearing that Nicaragua would become socialist, the United States secretly backed the “contras” in a long civil war against the Sandinistas.
EL SALVADORGUATEMALANICARAGUA
In Central America, unrest threatened and discontent grew. Fearing the spread of communism, the United States intervened repeatedly in the region.
3
The Impact of Hurricane Mitch
Hurricane Mitch dealt a devastating social and economic blow to Central America, whose nations were just recovering from decades of civil war.
3
Struggle in Haiti
Haiti is the poorest state in the Western Hemisphere, lacking adequate roads, electricity, and other services.
The weakness of the government discouraged foreign investment.
A skewed distribution of wealth put most of the productive land in the hands of one or two percent of the citizens. Hit by earthquake recently, and world compassion moved in to help.
Haiti endured brutal dictatorial rule from 1957 until 1986.
A succession of military leaders then ruled the nation until 1990. In 1990, in its first free elections, Jean-Bertrand Aristide was chosen as president. Aristide was overthrown by a military coup, but restored to power by the United States.
ECONOMIC STRUGGLES
POLITICAL STRUGGLES
3
Focus on Argentina and Brazil
• What challenges has democracy faced in Argentina?
• How did Brazil’s government change in recent times?
• Why did Brazil’s “economic miracle” have limited success?
4
From Dictatorship to Democracy in Argentina
From 1946 to 1955, the authoritarian government of Juan Perón stifled opposition.
In 1955, Perón was ousted by a military coup.
For two decades, the military was in and out of power.
In 1973, Perón returned to power. When he died the next year, his second wife, Isabel Perón, became president. When she faced economic and political crises, the military took over.
To combat leftist guerrillas, the army waged a “dirty war,” torturing and murdering as many as 20,000 people.
In 1983, an elected government restored democracy. Despite some setbacks, democratic rule survived.
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Economic Activity in Argentina
4
Government in BrazilBetween 1930 and 1945, dictator Getúlio Vargas allied himself with the working poor.
In 1945, the military overthrew Vargas.
The military allowed elected presidents to rule for the next 20 years.
In 1964, economic problems and fear of communism led the military to take over again.
In the mid-1980s, the military eased their grip on power. Brazilians voted directly for a president for the first time in 29 years.
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Urbanization in Brazil4
Brazil’s Economic Miracle
Beginning in the 1930s, Brazil diversified its economy and, for a time, chalked up impressive growth. Brazil’s prosperity enriched only a few. To most Brazilians, it brought little or no benefit.
In the 1980s, Brazil faced a host of economic problems — from inflation to a staggering debt. One of the greatest economic problems was the unequal distribution of land.
In the 1990s, President Fernando Henrique Cardoso, provided strong leadership for Brazil. His policies promoted rapid economic growth and helped limit inflation. He promised to distribute land to 300,000 families.
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