Controversy and Controversy and Creativity Creativity

Controversy Controversy ► Controversy is the conflict that arises when one’s Controversy is the conflict that arises when one’s

ideas, information, conclusions, theories and ideas, information, conclusions, theories and opinions are incompatible with those of another opinions are incompatible with those of another person, and the two seek to reach agreement.person, and the two seek to reach agreement.

► AristotleAristotle► Controversies are resolved by engaging in Controversies are resolved by engaging in

‘deliberate discourse’- the discussion of the ‘deliberate discourse’- the discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of proposed advantages and disadvantages of proposed actions-aimed at synthesizing novel solutions.actions-aimed at synthesizing novel solutions.

When a group has to make an When a group has to make an important decision…important decision…

►Research and prepare a positionResearch and prepare a position►Present and advocate their positionPresent and advocate their position►Engage in an important discussionEngage in an important discussion►Reverse perspectiveReverse perspective►Reach a decision through consensus as to Reach a decision through consensus as to

which course of action to implement.which course of action to implement.

Debate Debate

►Debate exists when two or more individuals Debate exists when two or more individuals argue positions that are incompatible with argue positions that are incompatible with one another and a judge declares the one another and a judge declares the winner depending on the basis of who winner depending on the basis of who presented their position the best.presented their position the best.

Individualistic decision-making Individualistic decision-making

►When isolated individuals independently When isolated individuals independently decide on a course of action without talking decide on a course of action without talking with one another. with one another.

► Key to effective decision making is to have a mixture of Key to effective decision making is to have a mixture of cooperative and competitive elements within the same cooperative and competitive elements within the same team. team.

► The greater the cooperative elements and less the The greater the cooperative elements and less the competitive elements, the more constructive the competitive elements, the more constructive the controversy. controversy.

► Cooperative elements alone do not ensure maximal Cooperative elements alone do not ensure maximal productivity.productivity.

► Effective decision-making thrives on what controversy has Effective decision-making thrives on what controversy has to offer. to offer.

► Decisions by their very nature are controversial, as Decisions by their very nature are controversial, as alternative solutions are suggested and considered before alternative solutions are suggested and considered before agreement is reached. agreement is reached.

Avoidance of controversyAvoidance of controversy► 20-25% managers’ time spent directly in dealing with 20-25% managers’ time spent directly in dealing with

conflicts.conflicts.

Janz and Tjosvold (1985) determined in an interview study Janz and Tjosvold (1985) determined in an interview study the cost of interpersonal conflicts in employee time, the cost of interpersonal conflicts in employee time, materials and project days. They involvedmaterials and project days. They involved

► Refusing to communicate directlyRefusing to communicate directly► Ignoring suggestions and adviceIgnoring suggestions and advice► Being disinterested in learning from othersBeing disinterested in learning from others► Looking at things from only one’s point of viewLooking at things from only one’s point of view► Involving only others who support his point of viewInvolving only others who support his point of view► Embarrassing and blaming othersEmbarrassing and blaming others

If a group is to make effective If a group is to make effective decisions competently…decisions competently…

► Controversy should be encouraged, sought out Controversy should be encouraged, sought out and has to be deliberately structured.and has to be deliberately structured.

► Why does this not happen?Why does this not happen?► Fear Fear ► Ignorance on how to engage in controversyIgnorance on how to engage in controversy► Lack of training on how to engage in controversyLack of training on how to engage in controversy► Anti-conflict culturesAnti-conflict cultures► Group normsGroup norms► Inertia-the power of status quoInertia-the power of status quo

Experts in decision makingExperts in decision making

►Seeing the whole world versus my world.Seeing the whole world versus my world.►Over-estimation of their expertiseOver-estimation of their expertise►Process information in a biased mannerProcess information in a biased manner(accepting relevant information confirming his (accepting relevant information confirming his

decisions at a face value and critically decisions at a face value and critically evaluating disconfirming evidence). evaluating disconfirming evidence).

What about a group with experts from What about a group with experts from different areas?different areas?

Controversy Controversy Compared with concurrence seeking, debate and Compared with concurrence seeking, debate and

individualistic efforts, controversy tends to…individualistic efforts, controversy tends to…► Dig in to the problem, raise issues and settle them Dig in to the problem, raise issues and settle them

in ways that would benefit the cause.in ways that would benefit the cause.► Generate more potential solutions.Generate more potential solutions.► Yield more creative insights in to the problem.Yield more creative insights in to the problem.► View the problem from different angles.View the problem from different angles.► Lead to reformulating the problem from a different Lead to reformulating the problem from a different

orientation.orientation.► High degree of emotional involvement and High degree of emotional involvement and

commitment in solving the problem. commitment in solving the problem.

Task involvement and controversy Task involvement and controversy

►Task involvement refers to the quality and Task involvement refers to the quality and quantity of physical and psychological quantity of physical and psychological energy that individuals invest in their efforts energy that individuals invest in their efforts to achieve.to achieve.

► Individuals who engaged in controversies Individuals who engaged in controversies tended to enjoy and experience positive tended to enjoy and experience positive attitudes towards the task than members attitudes towards the task than members who were engaged in concurrence seeking who were engaged in concurrence seeking discussions and individualistic efforts.discussions and individualistic efforts.

Personal attraction among members Personal attraction among members and controversy and controversy

►Controversy promotes greater liking and Controversy promotes greater liking and social support among members.social support among members.

►Spirited disagreement and intellectual Spirited disagreement and intellectual challenge can build people in deeper and challenge can build people in deeper and more meaningful relationships.more meaningful relationships.

Psychological health and Psychological health and controversy controversy

►Task oriented self esteem Task oriented self esteem ►Perspective-taking accuracy Perspective-taking accuracy

Process of controversyProcess of controversy► Categorizing, organizing and deriving conclusions Categorizing, organizing and deriving conclusions

from present information and experiences.from present information and experiences.► Involvement in controversy (actively representing Involvement in controversy (actively representing

and elaborating the position and rationale & being and elaborating the position and rationale & being challenged by opposing views).challenged by opposing views).

► Experiencing conceptual conflict, uncertainty and Experiencing conceptual conflict, uncertainty and disequilibrium.disequilibrium.

► Epistemic curiosity-active search for more Epistemic curiosity-active search for more information and understanding opposing positions information and understanding opposing positions and rationale.and rationale.

Process of controversyProcess of controversy► Re-conceptualization: accuracy of perspective Re-conceptualization: accuracy of perspective

taking, incorporation of opponents’ information and taking, incorporation of opponents’ information and position change: transition to higher stages of position change: transition to higher stages of cognitive reasoning.cognitive reasoning.

► Productivity: high quality decision making, high Productivity: high quality decision making, high creativity, achievement and retention, high creativity, achievement and retention, high continuing motivation.continuing motivation.

► Positive attitudes: interpersonal attraction, Positive attitudes: interpersonal attraction, perceived peer support, self-esteem; liking for perceived peer support, self-esteem; liking for decision topic and controversy.decision topic and controversy.

Conditions determining the Conditions determining the constructiveness of controversy constructiveness of controversy

►Cooperative contextCooperative context►Heterogeneity of participants Heterogeneity of participants ►Distribution of information among group Distribution of information among group

members members ►Level of group members’ social skillsLevel of group members’ social skills►Member’s ability to engage in rational Member’s ability to engage in rational

argument argument

Majority opinion versus minority Majority opinion versus minority opinionopinion

►Majority normally tend to silence the non-Majority normally tend to silence the non-conformists and reject the deviants.conformists and reject the deviants.

►Minority is normally silenced.Minority is normally silenced.►Minority influence occurs when group Minority influence occurs when group

members in the members in the opinion minorityopinion minority persuade persuade members in the members in the opinion majorityopinion majority to change to change their opinion.their opinion.

Opinion minorities are persuasive Opinion minorities are persuasive when… when…

► They remain steady in their views.They remain steady in their views.► They once held the majority position.They once held the majority position.► They are willing to compromise a bit.They are willing to compromise a bit.► They have at least some support from others.They have at least some support from others.► They present their ideas as compatible with the They present their ideas as compatible with the

majority view, but just a bit ahead of the curve.majority view, but just a bit ahead of the curve.► All group members want to make an accurate All group members want to make an accurate

decision; hence they play close attention to the decision; hence they play close attention to the quality of the argument.quality of the argument.

Structuring constructive Structuring constructive controversies controversies

1.1. Propose several courses of action that will Propose several courses of action that will solve the problem under consideration. solve the problem under consideration.

2.2. Form advocacy teamsForm advocacy teams

3. Engage in controversy procedure 3. Engage in controversy procedure -preparing a persuasive presentation-preparing a persuasive presentation-each team presents without being interrupted-each team presents without being interrupted-open discussion-open discussion-advocacy teams reverse perspectives by sincerely and forcefully -advocacy teams reverse perspectives by sincerely and forcefully

presenting the best case for the opposing position.presenting the best case for the opposing position.-group members drop their advocacy and reach a decision by consensus -group members drop their advocacy and reach a decision by consensus

based on their best reasoned judgment.based on their best reasoned judgment.-group members decide how well the group functioned and how their -group members decide how well the group functioned and how their

performance may be improved during the next controversy.performance may be improved during the next controversy.

4. Implement a decision 4. Implement a decision

Creative problem solving Creative problem solving

►Creativity is the process of bringing Creativity is the process of bringing something new into existence.something new into existence.

The creative processThe creative process► The creative process consists of a series of over-The creative process consists of a series of over-

lapping phases.lapping phases.► -the group members must recognize that a -the group members must recognize that a

problem exists and that it is challenging enough to problem exists and that it is challenging enough to motivate them to solve it.motivate them to solve it.

► -members must gather the necessary knowledge -members must gather the necessary knowledge and resources within the group and plan a log-and resources within the group and plan a log-term effort to solve the problem.term effort to solve the problem.

► -a cooperative context must be highlighted in order -a cooperative context must be highlighted in order for the necessary level of social support to be for the necessary level of social support to be achieved in the team.achieved in the team.

The creative processThe creative process► Group members need to seek out different perspectives Group members need to seek out different perspectives

and different ways of viewing the problem.and different ways of viewing the problem.► -members need to experience a period of incubation during -members need to experience a period of incubation during

which they feel frustrated that they have failed to produce which they feel frustrated that they have failed to produce an adequate solution to the problem and they feel an adequate solution to the problem and they feel temporarily withdrawn from the issue (‘creative thinking is temporarily withdrawn from the issue (‘creative thinking is typified by periods of intense application and periods f typified by periods of intense application and periods f inactivity’-Treffinger et al, 1974)inactivity’-Treffinger et al, 1974)

► Group members formulate a new and unique solution to Group members formulate a new and unique solution to the problem, how to implement it and test it against reality.the problem, how to implement it and test it against reality.

Developing and fostering creativity Developing and fostering creativity

►Reaffirm the cooperative goal of making the Reaffirm the cooperative goal of making the best decision.best decision.

►Promote controversy among ideas, Promote controversy among ideas, opinions, information, theories and opinions, information, theories and perceptions.perceptions.

►Set aside time for members to reflect on the Set aside time for members to reflect on the diverse ideas and perspectives generated.diverse ideas and perspectives generated.

►Meet the final decision but do not rush the Meet the final decision but do not rush the decision. Creative insights cannot be decision. Creative insights cannot be hurried.hurried.

Methods of generating novel ideasMethods of generating novel ideas

► Part-changing method (chairs-listing 15 different Part-changing method (chairs-listing 15 different colours, shapes and sizes and invent new kind of colours, shapes and sizes and invent new kind of chair)chair)

► Checkerboard method (inventing a checkerboard Checkerboard method (inventing a checkerboard figure with spaces for entering words and phrases, figure with spaces for entering words and phrases, on vertical and horizontal axes)on vertical and horizontal axes)

► Checklist method (list of things that you need to Checklist method (list of things that you need to look for-change colour, change size etc.)look for-change colour, change size etc.)

► Find-something similar (solving the traffic problem Find-something similar (solving the traffic problem by observing bees and ants)by observing bees and ants)

Methods of generating novel ideas-Methods of generating novel ideas-Synectics Synectics

► Gordon (1961) stresses the importance of psychological Gordon (1961) stresses the importance of psychological states in achieving creativity and the use of states in achieving creativity and the use of metaphorsmetaphors in in achieving the proper psychological state. He suggests achieving the proper psychological state. He suggests using 3 interrelated techniques for making the strange using 3 interrelated techniques for making the strange appear familiar and the similar strange.appear familiar and the similar strange.

► Personal analogy-how it feels to be a part of the Personal analogy-how it feels to be a part of the phenomenon being studied.phenomenon being studied. Incomplete sentences- ‘if I am Incomplete sentences- ‘if I am a horse I would…a horse I would…

► Direct analogy-group members are asked to think of a Direct analogy-group members are asked to think of a parallel situation-parallel situation-how a book is like a light bulbhow a book is like a light bulb

► Compressed conflict-members are forced to perceive an Compressed conflict-members are forced to perceive an object from two different frames of reference- object from two different frames of reference- giving giving examples of repulsive attraction and cooperative examples of repulsive attraction and cooperative competition competition

Self-learningSelf-learning

►Open and closed systems (358-359) Open and closed systems (358-359)