EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH I

ESCUELA: CIENCIAS DE LA EDUCACION MENCION: INGLES

NOMBRES: Lcda. Alexandra Zúñiga Ojeda

PERIODO: Abril - Agosto 2009

1

WelcomeSecond Bimester

2

General Objectives

To analyze various tools of research

To construct different types of instruments

To understand and analyze the different steps of the research proposal

TOOLS OF RESEARCH

CHAPTER 3

4

5

SampleA sample is a portion of the population. “Is a subgroup of the target population.” 6

PopulationIs a group ofindividualswho have the same characteristics.

Identify

Steps in Sampling Recognize the

population Identify the portion of

the population to which one can have access.

From the accessible population, one selects a sample.

7

Characteristics of the Sample

Importance:

Enables the researcher to study a portion of the population rather than the entire population.

Representative which means the selection of individuals are from the population under study.

Allows to generalize with confidence from the sample to the population. 8

9

1. Random Sampling

All members of the population have an equal and independent chance of being included.

Procedure: Assign a number to each individual

of the population. Use a random table (statistics books)

Example in the annex Nº 4 of your guide10

11

Excerpt from a Random Numbers Table

52 13 44 91 39 85 22 33 04 29 52 06

31 52 65 63 88 78 21 35 28 22 91 84

44 38 76 99 38 67 60 95 67 68 17 18

84 47 44 04 67 22 89 78 44 84 66 15

71 50 78 48 65 74 21 24 02 23 65 94

42 47 97 81 10 99 40 15 63 77 89 10

03 70 75 49 90 92 62 00 47 90 78 63

31 06 46 39 27 93 81 79 100 94 43 39

Source: Adapted from Kerlinger, 1972, p. 714

2. Stratified Sampling Researchers divide the population on

some specific characteristic.e.g. gender, age, occupation, etc.

Procedure: Divide the population by the stratum. Sample within each group in the

stratum.

12

The individuals selected are proportional to their representation

13

PopulationN= 9,0000

BoysN= 6,000

GirlsN= 3,000

Random Sampling

.66 of population

.33 of population

200

100

Sample =300

By: Creswell J. W. (2008)

“We can see that of the 9,000 Native American children in the state, 3,000 are girls and 6,000 are boys. A researcher decided to choose a sample of 300 from this population of 9,000 children. A simple random sample results in the selection of mostly boys because there are more boys than girls in the population.

14

To make sure that the researcher selects boys in proportion to their representation in the population, she divides the list of 9,000 children into boys and girls. Then one third of the sample (3,000/9,000) of the sample is chosen to be girls, and two thirds (6,000/9,000), boys. The stratification procedure consist of stratifying by the population into boys and girls and selecting individuals in proportion to their representation in the total population, resulting in 200 boys and 100 girls

15

3. Cluster Sampling It is used when the researcher cannot

easily identify the population or the population is extremely large.

The researcher would choose a number of schools randomly from a list of schools and then include all the students in those schools in the sample

The unit chosen is not an individual but a group of individuals who are naturally together.

16

17

New York

Some schools

Native Spanish students

Cluster Sampling

Example: A researcher conducting a study involving

Native Spanish students in New York. He would probably not have access to a list of the entire population; thus, it would be impossible to draw a simple random sample. So it would be more feasible to randomly select some schools (groups) and obtain a list of native Spanish students in each of those schools . Then the researcher randomly samples. Breaking down the process.

18

4. Systematic Sampling This procedure involves drawing a

sample by taking every kth case from a list of the population.

It is a slight variation of the simple random sampling.

It is more convenient because individuals do not have to be numbered and it does not require a random number table.

19

Example If the total of the population is 1000 (N) How many individuals I want in my

sample? 200 (n) So I divide N by n to determine the

sampling interval 5 (k)For instance:1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16…1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16…

20

Size of Sample

Select as large a sample as possible from the population. (It will be more representative.)

The larger the sample, the less the potential error.(Data will be more accurate and precise.)

Representativeness

21

Measuring Instruments It is important to select reliable

measuring instruments for the purpose of quantifying the behaviors and attributes he has chosen to study.

One has to select or develop scales and instruments that can measure characteristics such as intelligence, personality, motivation, and attitudes. 22

23

Interviews

It is a method of data collection.

It is widely used It is flexible. It allows creating a

cooperative atmosphere in which truthful information can be obtained.

24

Structured Interviews

The questions and the alternative answers are predetermined and rigidly followed by all respondents.

The answers can be easily classified.

25

Unstructured Interviews These are more informal Free questioning of the

subjects is possible regarding their views, attitudes, beliefs and other info.

26

These are more flexible. The interviewees are

given freedom to go beyond simple responses.

The question may deviate from the original plans and center in points that seem to be important.

The interviews need expert, skillful, and alert interviewers.

Help to generate and clarify the dimension present in the topic.

27

Questionnaires

Are time-consuming and expensive.

It is typically more efficient and practical than interviewing.

Allow the use of a larger sample. Are widely used in educational

research.

28

Structured Questionnaires

Contains the questions and the alternative answers to them.

The answers provided should include all possible responses.

They force subjects to choose one of a number of preselected answers.

29

Unstructured Questionnaires Do not include suggested answers. Give the respondents freedom to reveal

their opinions and attitudes. The information that respondents

generate is not easy to process and analyze.

Respondents may omit important information or emphasize thing that are of no interest to the researcher. 30

Validation of Questionnaires One way to validate a questionnaire is

by interviewing a random sample of the respondents and obtain their views on the same topics covered in it.

Some studies use direct observation of behavior as a criterion of the validity of questionnaire responses.

31

Tests

A test is a set of stimuli presented to an individual in order to elicit responses on the basis of which a numerical score can be assigned.

32

Achievement tests

Intelligence tests

Achievement Tests

Measure the mastery and proficiency of individuals in different areas of knowledge.

Types:StandardizedTeacher or research made

33

Standardized tests Published tests that have resulted

from careful and skillful preparation and cover broad academic objectives common to a large number of school systems.

Generalized tests such as the SAT are more often used as one measure among several, when making admissions decisions.

34

The use of norms gives an educator the basis for comparing his group with an estimate of the mean for all children at that grade level.

Wikipedia “the results can be empirically documented, therefore the test scores can be shown to have a relative degree of validity and reliability, as well as results which are generalizable … “

35

Teacher or research made

These tests are used when the standardized tests are not appropriate to the specific objectives of a research study.

36

The teacher or researcher should take grate care in preparing the test in relation to validity and reliability.

Intelligence Tests They attempt to measure more

general skills. Assess the subjects’ ability to

perceive relationships, solve problems, and apply knowledge in a variety of contexts.

A subject’s performance on such tests is partly dependent on his background and schooling.

37

Scales A scale is a set of numerical values

assigned to subjects, objects, or behaviors for the purpose of quantifying and measuring qualities.

In contrast to tests, scales do not indicate success or failure or strength and weakness.

38

Sociometric Techniques

Methods for quantitatively assessing and measuring interpersonal and group relationships.

The basic procedure involves requesting the members of a particular group to indicate their first, second, and subsequent choices.

39

Direct Observation

The researcher has to identify the behavior of interest and devises a systematic procedure for identifying, categorizing, and recording the behavior in either a natural or a staged situation.

40

Validity

Means that the individual’s scores from an instrument make sense, are meaningful, and enable you, as the researcher, to draw good conclusions from the sample you are studying to the population.

41

Factors that affect validity

A poor designed study Participant fatigue, stress, and

misunderstanding of questions on the instrument

Inability to make useful predictions from scores.

42

Content Validity

Is the extent to which the questions on the instrument and the scores from these questions are representative of all the possible questions that a researcher could ask about the content of skills.

43

Content Validity Researchers examine the plan and

the procedures used in construction the instrument.

They examine the information about the objectives of the instrument, the content areas, and the level of difficulty of the questions.

44

Face Validity Is a subjective evaluation by

expert judges as to what a measuring instrument appears to measure.

Example: When one makes a judgment as to

whether a test is valid for certain purposes by reading over the items but without any objective evaluation.

45

Sampling Validity

It is based upon expert judgment.

If the content validity of an instrument is based upon an adequate sampling of the potential questions from a defined universe of items.

46

The experts’ task involves: Defining carefully the behavior,

qualities, or content area to be measured.

Systematically subdividing the total area into categories that represent different aspects of that content area followed by making judgments as to whether or not there are enough items in each category.

47

Reliability

Means that scores from an instrument are stable and consistent. That is, scores should be nearly the same when researchers administer the instrument multiple times at different times.

48

Factors that affect reliability

Questions of instruments are ambiguous and unclear.

Procedures of test administration vary and are not standardize.

Participants are fatigued, are nervous, misinterpret questions or guess on tests.

49

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

CHAPTER 4

50

51

Stage 1: Plan the researchPROPOSAL

Identification of the problem Do we have to include culture in

the English programs? Why do students in our public

schools fail to learn English? How do adults learn a language?

52

Start to plan the research proposal

53

Project or Proposal

54

8. Theoretical background or literature review

9. Methodology (The design)Sampling, Instruments, methods and techniques

10. Working calendar

11. Resources (budget)

12. References

Project or Proposal

55

1. Title

2. Statement of the problem

3. Justification

4. Objectives

5. Hypotheses

6. Theoretical background or literature review

7. Methodology

8. Working calendar

9. Resources (budget)

10. References

Alvear Jannett (2009))

The title/topic

The name of the specific research problem or issue

Function: - To differentiate the proposal/

project from other ones.- To announce the content of the

proposal or project

56

Statement of the Problem

ACCESSING THE PROBLEM

Description of the problem Description of the background of

the problem.

57

Justification Creswell (2008) “it presents the reasons for

the importance of studying the issue or concern.”

Reasons

The relevance

Who will benefit from the project?

Expectations in the society, institution, community …

Feasibility and possibility

Time and resources 58

Objectives

Aims or objectives the researcher attempts to achieve

To identify Teaching Techniques used by English teachers.To determine the importance of the use of teaching techniques in English classrooms.

59

Theoretical Background or Literature Review

John Creswell (2008) “a written summary of journals articles, books and other documents that describes the past and current state of information; organizes the literature into topics; and documents a need for a proposal study”.

Document how your study adds to the existing information.

60

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a tentative theory or supposition provisionally stated by the researcher to explain certain facts, and to guide the investigation.

If the project is a survey the problem will be stated in question form.

If the project is designed to test a theory, the problem will be stated in hypothesis form.

61

Question form

Hypothesis form

62

Methodological design

HOW THE RESEARCH WILL BE CONDUCTED?

Decide the Population or sample

Determine the methods, techniques, and instruments.

63

Working Calendar

The purpose is to help to : Organize activities Set time for each one of the

activities Plan the whole research Guide the researcher to meet

deadlines64

Resources and Budget

List of human resources List of material resources Budget (financial sources)

65

References or Bibliography

List all the sources reviewed

Books Journals Magazines Electronic sources, etc

(ERIC database)66

Assignment second bimesterOBJECTIVE PART

Activity 1 True and false statements.

ESSAY PARTActivity 2

Construct a questionnaire using different structured-response modes to find out about the tests used by English teachers in their classrooms. 67

Activity 3Given the following topic “Teaching Techniques used by English teachers” elaborate the following stages of a research proposal

Statement of the problem Significance of the study Objectives Instrumentation

68

Questions???

69

70

71