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An Overview on Volkswagen Group

Submitted by

Zulfikar Pasha Dipto

ID no. B3160B024

BBA-3(A)

Communicative English

GED 1206

Program: BBA

Submitted to

Mahfuja Sultana

Assistant Professor

Date of Submission: 14th November, 2016

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Declaration

I hereby declare that this report has been written by me and not been previously submitted to any other University/ Institution/ Journal/ Organization.

This work I have presented does not have breach any copyright.

Zulfikar Pasha Dipto

ID: B3160B024, BBA 3(A)

Army Institute of Business Administration

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Acknowledgement

I would like to express my deepest appreciation to all those who provided me the possibility to complete this report. A special gratitude I give to our course adviser, Mrs. Mahfuja Sultana, whose contribution in stimulating suggestions and encouragement, helped me to coordinate my project especially in writing this report.

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Abstract

Volkswagen Group, shortly VW AG, is a German multinational automotive manufacturing company headquartered in Wolfsburg, Lower Saxony, Germany. It designs, manufactures and distributes passenger and commercial vehicles, motorcycles, engines, and turbo machinery and offers related services including financing, leasing and fleet management.

We use Secondary data to complete our research due to short length of time

Volkswagen group established in 1937 and the name of their first complete car was “Beetle”. They also make some Porsche type 60 cars. Then they have started to invent newer model of cars, acquire new companies like Audi, Bentley, Bugatti, Lamborghini, Scania, Man, Porsche etc. Now it becomes the biggest automotive companies in the world. Beside this manufacturers, Volkswagen produce cars & commercial vehicles using its own brand name and logo, which became more popular across the world.

This report is all about these companies like – managerial board, technical structure, motorsports, Scandal etc.

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CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Volkswagen Group, shortly VW AG, is a German multinational automotive manufacturing company headquartered in Wolfsburg, Lower Saxony, Germany. It designs, manufactures and distributes passenger and commercial vehicles, motorcycles, engines, and turbo machinery and offers related services including financing, leasing and fleet management. In 2015, it produced 9.93 million motor vehicles, the second-largest number of any company in the world, behind Toyota and ahead of General Motors. It has maintained the largest market share in Europe for over two decades. It ranked seventh in the 2016 Fortune Global 500 list of the world's largest companies.Volkswagen Group sells passenger cars under the Audi, Bentley, Bugatti, Lamborghini, Porsche, SEAT, Škoda and Volkswagen marques; motorcycles under the Ducati brand; and commercial vehicles under the marques MAN, Scania, Neoplan and Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles. It is divided into two primary divisions, the Automotive Division and the Financial Services Division, and has approximately 340 subsidiary companies. VW also has two major joint-ventures in China (FAW-Volkswagen and SAIC Volkswagen). The company has operations in approximately 150 countries and operates 100 production facilities across 27 countries.

1.1 Purpose of the study

This report will explain the overview of Volkswagen Group.

1.2 Scope of the study

This is not a complete research forever. In future, more researchers will work on it as previous and more data and information will be discovered and included.

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CHAPTER 2

Literature Review

According to Matthias Muller(11th January,2016, Ref. Emission Cheat Scandal), all of us know that, they have let down customers, authorities, regulators & the general public here in USA too. He added that they’re as well as he, himself felt sorry and also apologize for the problem going on with Volkswagen(http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/01/11/462682378/we-didnt-lie-volkswagen-ceo-says-of-emissions-scandal)

Almost six months after Volkswagen AG’s emissions cheating became public, Chief Executive Officer Matthias Mueller said talks with U.S. regulators on fixing the rigged engines may take a few more weeks or months.

Volkswagen AG is in talks with U.S. authorities to establish a national remediation fund and a separate one for California as punishment for pollution from its cars after the automaker cheated on diesel-emissions tests, said people familiar with the matter.

Volkswagen AG will pay owners of its polluting diesel cars as much as $7,000 each and agree to fund a program to offset air pollution, under a $10 billion settlement being negotiated for submission to a federal judge next week, said people familiar with the talks.

Volkswagen AG and U.S. officials have reached a framework deal under which the automaker would offer to buy back almost 500,000 diesel cars that used sophisticated software to evade U.S. emission rules, two people briefed on the matter said on Wednesday.

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CHAPTER 3

Methodology

Secondary Data Collection

Data collection is a process through which we collect data. Data can be collected in various methods like secondary data collection and primary data collection. A primary data collection refers to collecting data in fields and secondary data collection refers to the data that we collect from various web pages and books. We use this type of data collection to lessen our work or to save times.

Data collected

from various online media

Elimination and selection

process

Analyze process

Implementing new ideas

and solutions

Providing recommenda

tions

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3.1 Data collected from various external sourcesOur data has been collected from various external sources like webpages (the links are given in the reference) & also many books written by famous authors (also given in the reference).

3.2 Elimination and selection processAs we have collected many data from internet webpages and books, many data were eliminated and some specific legit information or data has been selected.

3.3 Analyze processAfter collecting and eliminating and selecting data we have gone through some basic analysis process whether the founded information was right or wrong.

3.4 Implementing new ideas and solutionsAfter analyzing these data we have implemented those data for our data finding and have given some new ideas and solutions.

3.5 Providing recommendationsWe have generated some new ideas and solutions and have also provided some recommendations from the view of our perspective.

In Addition, it is both a qualitative & quantitative research because; we have to use both numerical & alphabetic data to complete this research.

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CHAPTER 4

Data Findings & Analysis

Volkswagen was founded in 1937 to manufacture the car which would become known as the Beetle. The company's production grew rapidly in the 1950s and 1960s, and in 1965 it acquired Auto Union, which subsequently produced the first post-war Audi models. Volkswagen launched a new generation of front-wheel drive vehicles in the 1970s, including the Passat, Polo and Golf; the latter became its bestseller. Volkswagen acquired a controlling stake in SEAT in 1986, making it the first non-German marque of the company, and acquired control of Škoda in 1994, of Bentley, Lamborghini and Bugatti in 1998, Scania in 2008 and of Ducati, MAN and Porsche in 2012. The company's operations in China have grown rapidly in the past decade with the country becoming its largest market.

Volkswagen Aktiengesellschaft is a public company and has a primary listing on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange, where it is a constituent of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index, and secondary listings on the London Stock Exchange, Luxembourg Stock Exchange, New York Stock Exchange and SIX Swiss Exchange. The state of Lower Saxony holds 12.7% of the company's shares, granting it 20% of the voting rights. Volkswagen held a 19.9% non-controlling shareholding in Suzuki between 2009 and 2015. An international arbitration court ordered Volkswagen to sell the stake back to Suzuki. Suzuki paid $3.8 bn to complete the stock buy-back just hours prior to a major scandal about emissions violations engulfing Volkswagen.

Brief History

1937 - 1945Volkswagen was founded on 28 May 1937 in Berlin as the Gesellschaft zur Vorbereitung des Deutschen Volkswagens mbH ("Limited Liability Company for the preparation of the German People's Car", abbreviated to Gezuvor) by the National Socialist Deutsche Arbeitsfront (German Labor Front). The purpose of the company was to manufacture the Volkswagen car, originally referred to as the Porsche Type 60, then the Volkswagen Type 1, and commonly called the Volkswagen Beetle. This vehicle was designed by Ferdinand Porsche's consulting firm, and the company was backed by the support of Adolf Hitler. On 16 September 1938, Gezuvor was renamed Volkswagenwerk GmbH ("Volkswagen Factory limited liability company").Shortly after the factory near Fallersleben was completed, World War II started and the plant primarily manufactured the military Kübelwagen (Porsche Type 82) and the related amphibious Schwimmwagen (Type 166), both of which were derived from the Volkswagen. Only a small number of Type 60 Volkswagens were made during this time. The Fallersleben plant also manufactured the V-1 flying bomb, making the plant a major bombing target for the Allied forces.

1945 to 1970After the war in Europe, in June 1945, Major Ivan Hirst of the British Army Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (REME) took control of the bomb-shattered factory, and restarted production, pending the expected disposal of the plant as war reparations. However, no British

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car manufacturer was interested; "the vehicle does not meet the fundamental technical requirement of a motor-car ... it is quite unattractive to the average buyer ... To build the car commercially would be a completely uneconomic enterprise". In 1948, the Ford Motor Company of USA was offered Volkswagen, but Ernest Breech, a Ford executive vice president said he didn't think either the plant or the car was "worth a damn."Breech later said that he would have considered merging Ford of Germany and Volkswagen, but after the war, ownership of the company was in such dispute that nobody could possibly hope to be able to take it over. As part of the Industrial plans for Germany, large parts of German industry, including Volkswagen, were to be dismantled. Total German car production was set at a maximum of 10% of the 1936 car production numbers. The company survived by producing cars for the British Army, and in 1948 the British Government handed the company back over to the German state, and it was managed by former Opel chief Heinrich Nordhoff. Production of the Type 60 Volkswagen (re-designated Type 1) started slowly after the war due to the need to rebuild the plant and because of the lack of raw materials, but production grew rapidly in the 1950s and 1960s. The company began introducing new models based on the Type 1, all with the same basic air-cooled, rear-engine, rear-drive platform. These included the Volkswagen Type 2 in 1950, the Volkswagen Karmann Ghia in 1955, the Volkswagen Type 3 in 1961, the Volkswagen Type 4 in 1968, and the Volkswagen Type 181 in 1969.In 1960, upon the flotation of part of the German federal government's stake in the company on the German stock market, its name became Volkswagenwerk Aktiengesellschaft (usually abbreviated to Volkswagenwerk AG).On 1 January 1965, Volkswagenwerk acquired Auto Union GmbH from its parent company Daimler-Benz. The new subsidiary went on to produce the first post-war Audi models, the Audi F103 series, shortly afterwards. Another German manufacturer, NSU Motorenwerke AG, was merged into Auto Union on 26 August 1969, creating a new company, Audi NSU Auto Union AG (later renamed AUDI AG in 1985)

1970 to 2000A Volkswagen Golf Mk1; the Golf is the third best-selling car of all-time, selling over 26 million up to 2008.From the late 1970s to 1992, the acronym V.A.G was used by Volkswagen AG as a brand for group-wide activities, such as distribution and leasing. Contrary to popular belief, "V.A.G" had no official meaning, and was never the name of the Volkswagen Group. On 30 September 1982, Volkswagenwerk made its first step expanding outside Germany by signing a co-operation agreement with the Spanish car manufacturer SEAT, S.A. In order to reflect the company's increasing global diversification from its headquarters and main plant (the Volkswagenwerk in Wolfsburg), on 4 July 1985, the company name was changed again – to Volkswagen Aktiengesellschaft (Volkswagen AG).On 18 June 1986, Volkswagen AG acquired a 51% controlling stake in SEAT, making it the first non-German subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group. On 23 December the same year, it became the Spanish company's major shareholder by increasing its share up to 75%.In 1990 – after purchasing its entire equity – Volkswagen AG took over the full ownership of SEAT, making the company a wholly owned subsidiary, and on 28 March 1991 another step to the expansion of the group's activities was made through the signing of a joint venture partnership agreement with Škoda automobilová a.s. of Czechoslovakia, accompanied with the acquisition of a 30% stake in the Czech car manufacturer, raised later on 19 December 1994 to 60.3% and the year after, on 11 December 1995, to 70% of its shares. Three prestige automotive marques were added to the Volkswagen portfolio in 1998: Bentley, Lamborghini and Bugatti.

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2000 to present

On 30 May 2000, Volkswagen AG, after having gradually raised its equity share, turned Škoda Auto into a wholly owned subsidiary. From 2002 up to 2007, the Volkswagen Group's automotive division was restructured so that two major Brand Groups with differentiated profile would be formed, the Audi Brand Group focused on more sporty values – consisted of Audi, SEAT and Lamborghini – and the Volkswagen Brand Group on the field of classic values – consisted of Volkswagen, Skoda, Bentley and Bugatti – with each Brand Group's product vehicles and performance being respectively under the higher responsibility of Audi and Volkswagen brands. Volkswagen Group revealed on 24 October 2009 that it had made an offer to acquire long-time partner and German niche automotive manufacturer Wilhelm Karmann GmbH out of bankruptcy protection. In November 2009, the Supervisory Board of Volkswagen AG approved the acquisition of assets of Karmann, and planned to restart vehicle production at their Osnabrück plant in 2012.In December 2009, Volkswagen AG bought a 49.9% stake in Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG (more commonly known as Porsche AG) in a first step towards an 'integrated automotive group' with Porsche. The merger of Volkswagen AG and Porsche SE was scheduled to take place during the course of 2011. On 8 September 2011, it was announced that the planned merger "cannot be implemented within the time frame provided for in the Comprehensive Agreement." As reasons, unquantifiable legal risks, including a criminal probe into the holding's former management team were given. Both parties "remain committed to the goal of creating an integrated automotive group with Porsche and are convinced that this will take place. “On 4 July 2012 Volkswagen group announced they would wrap up the remaining half of Porsche shares for 4.46 billion euros ($5.58 billion) on 1 August 2012 to avoid taxes of as much as 1.5 billion euros, which would have to be paid if the wrap up happened after 31 July 2014. Volkswagen AG purchased the remaining stake in Porsche AG equaling 100% of the shares in Porsche Zwischenholding GmbH, effectively becoming its parent company as of 1 August 2012.Volkswagen AG completed the purchase of 19.9% of Suzuki Motor Corporation's issued shares on 15 January 2010. Suzuki invested part of the amount received from Volkswagen into 1.49% percent of Volkswagen. In 2011, Suzuki filed a lawsuit at an arbitration court in London requesting that Volkswagen return the 19.9% stake. On 25 May 2010, it was announced that Volkswagen Group, through it subsidiary Lamborghini Holding S.p.A., had acquired a 90.1% stake in the Italian automotive design house Italdesign Giugiaro. In only less than three months, the transaction had been completed making the Italian firm a member of the Volkswagen Group. In 2015 research showed a security flaw in the keyless ignition of Volkswagen and other carmakers' vehicles. Volkswagen spent two years trying to keep the research from the public domain.[undue weight? – discuss]On 3 August 2015, Nokia announced that it had reached a deal to sell its Here digital maps division to a consortium of three German automakers—BMW, Daimler AG, and Volkswagen Group, for €2.8 billion. This was seen as an indication that the automakers were interested in automated cars. On 17 September 2015, Suzuki

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paid $3.8bn to complete a stock buy-back just hours prior to news broke out regarding the Volkswagen common-rail TDI engine emissions scandal which engulfed Volkswagen.

Emissions scandal

On 18 September 2015, The US EPA announced that Volkswagen had installed a "defeat device" software code in the diesel models sold in the US from 2009-15. The code was intended to detect when an emissions test was being conducted, and altered emissions controls for better compliance. Off the test stand, the controls were relaxed, and emissions jumped 35 to 40 times regulatory levels according to investigators at West Virginia University and the California Air Resources Board. 482,000 vehicles are under the recall order, a potential $18 billion ($37,500 per violation) in fines are pending, and news accounts speculate a criminal indictment for the deception is certain. The VW Group CEO, Martin Winterkorn, said he was "deeply sorry" and ordered an external investigation. The software code was only revealed when the EPA refused to certify VW's 2016 models for sale in the US unless the corporation provided full disclosure. On Sunday, 20 September 2015, VW Group announced it was halting the sale of its four-cylinder diesel models in the US. The US EPA press release on its Notice of Violation, and the California Air Resources Board letter dated 18 September 2015 contain significant chronological detail of the agencies interaction with VW on the issue. On 22 September 2015, VW AG admitted that 11 million cars worldwide had been fitted with software intended to deceive emissions testing. The company issued a profit warning, saying it had set aside 7.27 billion dollars to fix the fraud. On 23 September 2015, Martin Winterkorn announced his resignation from the CEO position after a crisis meeting of the company board; On 25 September 2015 Matthias Müller was named CEO. Mr. Müller was the head of the Porsche marque within the VW corporate umbrella.

Electrification strategy 2025

In 2016, Volkswagen Group announced a corporate "Strategy 2025" that aims to offer 20 new electric cars or plug-in hybrid models by 2020 and 30 all-electric models by 2025. The electric cars will utilize the Volkswagen Group MEB platform chassis for all forms and types of cars and light utility vehicles across several VW Group marques due to its flexibility and floor-mounted battery.

Operations

Rooted in Europe, the Volkswagen Group operates in 153 countries. Volkswagen Passenger Cars is the Group's original marque, and the other major subsidiaries include passenger car marques such as Audi, Bentley, Bugatti, Lamborghini, Porsche, SEAT, and Škoda. Volkswagen AG also has operations in commercial vehicles, owning Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles, along with controlling stakes in truck, bus and diesel engine manufacturers Scania AB and MAN SE.

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Subsidiaries and marques

The Volkswagen Group comprises 12 principal vehicle manufacturers and their corresponding marques:

AUDI AG

AUDI AG, the Audi Group, and the Audi marque: ~99.55% ownership; formed through the acquisitions of Auto Union from Daimler-Benz on 30 December 1964, and NSU Motorenwerke on 9 March 1969 - Audi being the sole surviving marque from the Auto Union combine. Quattro GmbH is Audi's performance engineering and manufacturing subsidiary.

Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A.

Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A., and the Lamborghini marque: 100% ownership. AUDI AG acquired Lamborghini S.p.A. in September 1998.

Bentley Motors Ltd

Bentley Motors Ltd including the Bentley marque: 100% ownership by Volkswagen AG. Volkswagen purchased Rolls-Royce & Bentley from Vickers on 28 July 1998, however the purchase did not include the license to use the Rolls-Royce trademark on automobiles, which is controlled by Rolls-Royce Plc. BMW outmaneuvered Volkswagen, succeeding in obtaining the rights to use the Rolls-Royce trademark on automobiles. From July 1998 until December 2002, Volkswagen continued to supply engines for the Rolls-Royce Silver Seraph and the Bentley division sold cars under both the Bentley and Rolls-Royce marques, under an agreement with BMW.

Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S.

Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S., and the Bugatti marque: 100% ownership. Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. is a wholly owned subsidiary of Groupe VOLKSWAGEN France s.a. Volkswagen acquired Bugatti International S.A. Holding in July 1998.

Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG

Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG, and the Porsche marque: Volkswagen AG purchased 49.9% of the shares in Porsche Zwischenholding GmbH (the holding company of Porsche AG) in December 2009. Volkswagen AG purchased the remaining stake in Porsche AG equaling 100% of the shares in Porsche Zwischenholding GmbH, effectively becoming its parent company as of 1 August 2012.

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Ducati Motor Holding S.p.A.

Ducati Motor Holding S.p.A. 100% ownership by Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A.; company was bought on 19 July 2012.

MAN SE

MAN SE, and the MAN marque (controlling shareholder) Acquired a controlling stake in July 2011, making MAN the 10th marque of the Volkswagen Group. 75.03% ownership since as of 6 June 2012.

Scania AB

Scania AB and the Scania marque: Acquired controlling stake in July 2008, making Scania the 9th marque of the Volkswagen Group. 100% ownership since 15 January 2015.

SEAT, S.A.

SEAT, S.A. and the SEAT marque: 100% ownership; initially in 1982 a co-operation agreement with AUDI AG; 51% and 75% ownership in 1986, and full ownership in 1990. SEAT was the first non-German subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group.

Škoda auto

Škoda auto a.s., Škoda Auto, and the Škoda marque: 100% ownership. Initially in 1991 a co-operation agreement and 30% ownership; 60.3% and 70% ownership on 1994 and 1995 respectively, 100% ownership since 2000

IAV

50% ownership, IAV GmbH (German: Ingenieurgesellschaft Auto und Verkehr, literal Engineer Society Automobil and Traffic), abbreviated to IAV, is an engineering company in the automotive industry, designing products for powertrain, electronics and vehicle development. Founded in Berlin in 1983 by Prof. Dr. Hermann Appel as a university-affiliated research institute, the company employs over 5,000 members of staff, and supplies automobile manufacturers and component suppliers. In addition to development centers in Berlin, Chemnitz and Gifhorn, IAV operates at sites in France, United Kingdom, Italy, Russia, China, India, Japan, South Korea, Brazil, Mexico and the United States. Clients include the Volkswagen Group, BMW, PSA Peugeot Citroën, Fiat, Ford Motor Company, General Motors, Porsche and Toyota. Component manufacturer clients include Robert Bosch GmbH, Delphi, Continental AG and ZF Group.

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Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles (VWCV)

Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles (VWCV) or German: Volkswagen Nutzfahrzeuge (VWN): 100% ownership; started operations as an independent entity in 1995. VWCV/VWN is in charge of all commercial vehicle developments within the Group, and has control over Scania AB and MAN SE.Volkswagen Passenger Cars and the Volkswagen marque: the founding marque of the company, 100% ownership. The Group also owns five defunct marques which are managed through the companies Auto Union GmbH and NSU GmbH, both of which are 100% owned by AUDI AG: Auto Union (the Auto Union company, together with NSU Motorenwerke AG (NSU), were merged into "Audi NSU Auto-Union AG" in 1969. The name was shortened to "AUDI AG" in 1985, and the interlocked four-ring badge from Auto Union is still used by AUDI AG).

Dampf-Kraft-Wagen (DKW)

DKW (Dampf-Kraft-Wagen, English: steam-driven car) is a German car and motorcycle marque. The company and brand is one of the ancestor companies of the modern day Audi company as one of the four companies that formed Auto-Union. In 1916, Danish engineer Jørgen Skafte Rasmussen founded a factory in Zschopau, Saxony, Germany, to produce steam fittings. That year he attempted to produce a steam-driven car, called the DKW.[3] Although unsuccessful, he made a two-stroke toy engine in 1919, called Des Knaben Wunsch – "the boy's wish". He put a slightly modified version of this engine into a motorcycle and called it Das Kleine Wunder[3] – "the little wonder" the initials from this becoming the DKW brand: by the late 1920s, DKW was the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer.

Horch

Horch was a car brand manufactured in Germany by August Horch & Cie, at the beginning of the 20th century. It is the direct ancestor of the present day Audi Company, which in turn came out of Auto Union, formed in 1932 when Horch merged with DKW, Wanderer and the historic Audi enterprise which August Horch founded in 1910

NSU Motorenwerke AG (NSU) – bought in 1969 by Volkswagen AG, and merged into "Audi NSU Auto-Union AG"; the NSU brand has not been used since 1977, while the former NSU manufacturing plant at Neckarsulm is still used for Audi assembly. However, the current AUDI AG shares trade under the ticker symbol "NSU".

Wanderer

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Wanderer was a German manufacturer of bicycles, motorcycles, automobiles, vans and other machinery. Established as Winklhofer & Jaenicke in 1896 by Johann Baptist Winklhofer und Richard Adolf Jaenicke, the company used the Wanderer brand name from 1911, making civilian automobiles until 1941 and military vehicles until 1945.

Audi

The origins of the company are complex, going back to the early 20th century and the initial enterprises (Horch and the Audiwerke) founded by engineer August Horch; and two other manufacturers (DKW and Wanderer), leading to the foundation of Auto Union in 1932. The modern era of Audi essentially began in the 1960s when Auto Union was acquired by Volkswagen from Daimler-Benz. After re-launching the Audi brand with the 1965 introduction of the Audi F103 series, Volkswagen merged Auto Union with NSU Motorenwerke in 1969, thus creating the present day form of the company.

The company name is based on the Latin translation of the surname of the founder, August Horch. "Horch", meaning "listen" in German, becomes "Audi" in Latin. The four rings of the Audi logo each represent one of four car companies that banded together to create Audi's predecessor company, Auto Union. Audi's slogan is Vorsprung durch Technik, meaning "Advancement through Technology". However, since 2007 Audi USA has used the slogan "Truth in Engineering”. Audi is among the best-selling luxury automobiles in the world.

History

Birth of the company and its name

Originally in 1885, automobile company Wanderer was established, later becoming a branch of Audi AG. Another company, NSU, which also later merged into Audi, was founded during this time, and later supplied the chassis for Gottlieb Daimler's four-wheeler.On 14 November 1899, August Horch (1868–1951) established the company A. Horch & Cie. in the Ehrenfeld district of Cologne. Three years later in 1902 he moved with his company to Reichenbach im Vogtland. On May, 10th, 1904 he founded the August Horch & Cie. Motorwagenwerke AG, a joint-stock company in Zwickau (State of Saxony).After troubles with Horch chief financial officer, August Horch left Motorwagenwerke and founded in Zwickau on 16 July 1909, his second company, the August Horch Automobilwerke GmbH. His former partners sued him for trademark

Audi AG is a German automobile manufacturer that designs, engineers, produces, markets and distributes luxury vehicles. Audi oversees worldwide operations from its headquarters in Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany. Audi-branded vehicles are produced in nine production facilities worldwide.

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infringement. The German Reichsgericht (Supreme Court) in Leipzig eventually determined that the Horch brand belonged to his former company.

Since August Horch was banned from using "Horch" as a trade name in his new car business, he called a meeting with close business friends, Paul and Franz Fikentscher from Zwickau, Germany. At the apartment of Franz Fikentscher, they discussed how to come up with a new name for the company. During this meeting, Franz's son was quietly studying Latin in a corner of the room. Several times he looked like he was on the verge of saying something but would just swallow his words and continue working, until he finally blurted out, "Father – audiatur et altera pars... wouldn't it be a good idea to call it audi instead of horch?" "Horch!" in German means "Hark!" or "hear", which is "Audi" in the singular imperative form of "audire" – "to listen" – in Latin. The idea was enthusiastically accepted by everyone attending the meeting. On 25 April 1910 the Audi Automobilwerke GmbH Zwickau (from 1915 on Audiwerke AG Zwickau) was entered in the company's register of Zwickau registration court.The first Audi automobile, the Audi Type A 10/22 hp (16 kW) Sport-Phaeton, was produced in the same year, followed by the successor Type B 10/28PS in the same year.Audi started with a 2,612 cc inline-four engine model Type A, followed by a 3,564 cc model, as well as 4,680 cc and 5,720 cc models. These cars were successful even in sporting events. The first six-cylinder model Type M, 4,655 cc appeared in 1924.August Horch left the Audiwerke in 1920 for a high position at the ministry of transport, but he was still involved with Audi as a member of the board of trustees. In September 1921, Audi became the first German car manufacturer to present a production car, the Audi Type K, with left-handed drive. Left-hand drive spread and established dominance during the 1920s because it provided a better view of oncoming traffic, making overtaking safer.

The merger of the four companies under the logo of four rings

Main article: Auto Union

In August 1928, Jørgen Rasmussen, the owner of Dampf-Kraft-Wagen (DKW), acquired the majority of shares in Audiwerke AG. In the same year, Rasmussen bought the remains of the U.S. automobile manufacturer Rickenbacker, including the manufacturing equipment for eight-cylinder engines. These engines were used in Audi Zwickau and Audi Dresden models that were launched in 1929. At the same time, six-cylinder and four-cylinder (the "four" with a Peugeot engine) models were manufactured. Audi cars of that era were luxurious cars equipped with special bodywork.In 1932, Audi merged with Horch, DKW, and Wanderer, to form Auto Union AG, Chemnitz. It was during this period that the company offered the Audi Front that became the first European car to combine a six-cylinder engine with front-wheel drive. It used a powertrain shared with the Wanderer, but turned 180-degrees, so that the drive shaft faced the front.Before World War II, Auto Union used the four interlinked rings that make up the Audi badge today, representing these four brands. This badge was used, however, only on Auto Union racing cars in that period while the member companies used their own names and emblems. The technological development became more and more concentrated and some Audi models were

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propelled by Horch or Wanderer built engines.Reflecting the economic pressures of the time, Auto Union concentrated increasingly on smaller cars through the 1930s, so that by 1938 the company's DKW brand accounted for 17.9% of the German car market, while Audi held only 0.1%. After the final few Audis were delivered in 1939 the "Audi" name disappeared completely from the new car market for more than two decades.

Post-World War II

Like most German manufacturing, at the onset of World War II the Auto Union plants were retooled for military production, and were a target for allied bombing during the war which left them damaged.Overrun by the Soviet Army in 1945, on the orders of the Soviet Union military administration the factories were dismantled as part of war reparations. Following this, the company's entire assets were expropriated without compensation. On 17 August 1948, Auto Union AG of Chemnitz was deleted from the commercial register. These actions had the effect of liquidating Germany's Auto Union AG. The remains of the Audi plant of Zwickau became the VEB (for "People Owned Enterprise") Automobilwerk Zwickau or AWZ (in English: Automobile Works Zwickau).With no prospect of continuing production in Soviet controlled East Germany, Auto Union executives began the process of relocating what was left of the company to West Germany. A site was chosen in Ingolstadt, Bavaria to start a spare parts operation in late 1945, which would eventually serve as the headquarters of the reformed Auto Union in 1949.The former Audi factory in Zwickau restarted assembly of the pre-war-models in 1949. These DKW models were renamed to IFA F8 and IFA F9 and were similar to the West German versions. West and East German models were equipped with the traditional and renowned DKW two-stroke engines. The Zwickau plant manufactured the infamous Trabant until 1991, when it came under Volkswagen control—effectively bringing it under the same umbrella as Audi since 1945.

New Auto Union unit

A new West German headquartered Auto Union was launched in Ingolstadt, Bavaria with loans from the Bavarian state government and Marshall Plan aid. The reformed company was launched 3 September 1949 and continued DKW's tradition of producing front-wheel drive vehicles with two-stroke engines. This included production of a small but sturdy 125 cc motorcycle and a DKW delivery van, the DKW F89 L at Ingolstadt. The Ingolstadt site was large, consisting of an extensive complex of formerly military buildings which was suitable for administration as well as vehicle warehousing and distribution, but at this stage there was at Ingolstadt no dedicated plant suitable for mass production of automobiles: for manufacturing the company's first post-war mass-market passenger car plant capacity in Düsseldorf was rented from Rheinmetall-Borsig. It was only ten years later, after the company had attracted an investor that funds became available for construction of major car plant at the Ingolstadt head office site.In 1958, in response to pressure from Friedrich Flick, then their largest single shareholder, Daimler-Benz took an 87% holding in the Auto Union company, and this was increased to a 100% holding in

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1959. However, small two-stroke cars were not the focus of Daimler-Benz's interests, and while the early 1960s saw major investment in new Mercedes models and in a state of the art factory for Auto Union's, the company's aging model range at this time did not benefit from the economic boom of the early 1960s to the same extent as competitor manufacturers such as Volkswagen and Opel. The decision to dispose of the Auto Union business was based on its lack of profitability. Ironically, by the time they sold the business, it also included a large new factory and near production-ready modern four-stroke engine, which would enable the Auto Union business, under a new owner, to embark on a period of profitable growth, now producing not Auto Unions or DKWs, but using the "Audi" name, resurrected in 1965 after a 25-year gap.In 1964, Volkswagen acquired a 50% holding in the business, which included the new factory in Ingolstadt, the DKW and Audi brands along with the rights to the new engine design which had been funded by Daimler-Benz, who in return retained the dormant Horch trademark and the Düsseldorf factory which became a Mercedes-Benz van assembly plant. Eighteen months later, Volkswagen bought complete control of Ingolstadt, and by 1966 were using the spare capacity of the Ingolstadt plant to assemble an additional 60,000 Volkswagen Beetles per year. Two-stroke engines became less popular during the 1960s as customers were more attracted to the smoother four-stroke engines. In September 1965, the DKW F102 was fitted with a four-stroke engine and a facelift for the car's front and rear. Volkswagen dumped the DKW brand because of its associations with two-stroke technology, and having classified the model internally as the F103, sold it simply as the "Audi." Later developments of the model were named after their horsepower ratings and sold as the Audi 60, 75, 80, and Super 90, selling until 1972. Initially, Volkswagen was hostile to the idea of Auto Union as a standalone entity producing its own models having acquired the company merely to boost its own production capacity through the Ingolstadt assembly plant - to the point where Volkswagen executives ordered that the Auto Union name and flags bearing the four rings were removed from the factory buildings. Then VW chief Heinz Nordhoff explicitly forbade Auto Union from any further product development. Fearing that the Volkswagen had no long term ambition for the Audi brand, Auto Union engineers under the leadership of Ludwig Kraus developed the first Audi 100 in secret, without Nordhoff's knowledge. When presented with a finished prototype, Nordhoff was so impressed he authorised the car for production, which when launched in 1968, went on to be a huge success. With this, the resurrection of the Audi brand was now complete, this being followed by the first generation Audi 80 in 1972, which would in turn provide a template for VW's new front-wheel-drive water-cooled range which debuted from the mid-1970s onward. In 1969, Auto Union merged with NSU, based in Neckarsulm, near Stuttgart. In the 1950s, NSU had been the world's largest manufacturer of motorcycles, but had moved on to produce small cars like the NSU Prinz, the TT and TTS versions of which are still popular as vintage race cars. NSU then focused on new rotary engines based on the ideas of Felix Wankel. In 1967, the new NSU Ro 80 was a car well ahead of its time in technical details such as aerodynamics, light weight, and safety. However, teething problems with the rotary engines put an end to the independence of NSU. The Neckarsulm plant is now used to produce the larger Audi models A6 and A8. The Neckarsulm

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factory is also home of the quattro GmbH, a subsidiary responsible for development and production of Audi high-performance models: the R8 and the "RS" model range.

Modern era

The new merged company was incorporated on 1 January 1969 and was known as Audi NSU Auto Union AG, with its headquarters based at NSU's Neckarsulm plant, and saw the emergence of Audi as a separate brand for the first time since the pre-war era. Volkswagen introduced the Audi brand to the United States for the 1970 model year. That same year, the mid-sized car that NSU had been working on, the K70, originally intended to slot between the rear-engined Prinz models and the futuristic NSU Ro 80, was instead launched as a Volkswagen. After the launch of the Audi 100 of 1968, the Audi 80/Fox (which formed the basis for the 1973 Volkswagen Passat) followed in 1972 and the Audi 50 (later rebadged as the Volkswagen Polo) in 1974. The Audi 50 was a seminal design because it was the first incarnation of the Golf/Polo concept, one that led to a hugely successful world car. Ultimately, the Audi 80 and 100 (progenitors of the A4 and A6, respectively) became the company's biggest sellers, whilst little investment was made in the fading NSU range; the Prinz models were dropped in 1973 whilst the fatally flawed NSU Ro80 went out of production in 1977, spelling the effective end of the NSU brand. Production of the Audi 100 had been steadily moved from Ingolstadt to Neckarsulm as the 1970s had progressed, any by the appearance of the second generation C2 version in 1976, all production was now at the former NSU plant. Neckarsulm from that point onward would produce Audi's higher end models. The Audi image at this time was a conservative one, and so, a proposal from chassis engineer Jörg Bensinger was accepted to develop the four-wheel drive technology in Volkswagen's Iltis military vehicle for an Audi performance car and rally racing car. The performance car, introduced in 1980, was named the "Audi Quattro", a turbocharged coupé which was also the first German large-scale production vehicle to feature permanent all-wheel drive through a centre differential. Commonly referred to as the "Ur-Quattro" (the "Ur-" prefix is a German augmentative used, in this case, to mean "original" and is also applied to the first generation of Audi's S4 and S6 Sport Saloons, as in "UrS4" and "UrS6"), few of these vehicles were produced (all hand-built by a single team), but the model was a great success in rallying. Prominent wins proved the viability of all-wheel drive racecars, and the Audi name became associated with advances in automotive technology. In 1985, with the Auto Union and NSU brands effectively dead, the company's official name was now shortened to simply Audi AG. At the same time the company's headquarters moved back to Ingolstadt and two new wholly owned subsidiaries; Auto Union GmbH and NSU GmbH, were formed to own and manage the historical trademarks and intellectual property of the original constituent companies (the exception being

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Horch, which had been retained by Daimler-Benz after the VW takeover), and to operate Audi's heritage operations. In 1986, as the Passat-based Audi 80 was beginning to develop a kind of "grandfather's car" image, the type 89 was introduced. This completely new development sold extremely well. However, its modern and dynamic exterior belied the low performance of its base engine, and its base package was quite spartan (even the passenger-side mirror was an option.) In 1987, Audi put forward a new and very elegant Audi 90, which had a much superior set of standard features. In the early 1990s, sales began to slump for the Audi 80 series, and some basic construction problems started to surface. In the early part of the 21st century, Audi set forth on a German racetrack to claim and maintain several world records, such as top speed endurance. This effort was in-line with the company's heritage from the 1930s racing era Silver Arrows. Through the early 1990s, Audi began to shift its target market upscale to compete against German automakers Mercedes-Benz and BMW. This began with the release of the Audi V8 in 1990. It was essentially a new engine fitted to the Audi 100/200, but with noticeable bodywork differences. Most obvious was the new grille that was now incorporated in the bonnet. By 1991, Audi had the four-cylinder Audi 80, the 5-cylinder Audi 90 and Audi 100, the turbocharged Audi 200 and the Audi V8. There was also a coupe version of the 80/90 with both 4- and 5-cylinder engines. Although the five-cylinder engine was a successful and robust power plant, it was still a little too different for the target market. With the introduction of an all-new Audi 100 in 1992, Audi introduced a 2.8L V6 engine. This engine was also fitted to a face-lifted Audi 80 (all 80 and 90 models were now badged 80 except for the USA), giving this model a choice of four-, five-, and six-cylinder engines, in Saloon, Coupé and Cabriolet body styles. The five-cylinder was soon dropped as a major engine choice; however, a turbocharged 230 hp (170 kW) version remained. The engine, initially fitted to the 200 Quattro 20V of 1991, was a derivative of the engine fitted to the Sport Quattro. It was fitted to the Audi Coupé, and named the S2 and also to the Audi 100 body, and named the S4. These two models were the beginning of the mass-produced S series of performance cars.

Audi 5000 unintended acceleration allegations

Sales in the United States fell after a series of recalls from 1982 to 1987 of Audi 5000 models associated with reported incidents of sudden unintended acceleration linked to six deaths and 700 accidents. At the time, NHTSA was investigating 50 car models from 20 manufacturers for sudden surges of power. A 60 Minutes report aired 23 November 1986, featuring interviews with six people who had sued Audi after reporting unintended acceleration, showing an Audi 5000 ostensibly suffering a problem when the brake pedal was pushed. Subsequent investigation revealed that 60 Minutes had engineered the failure – fitting a canister of compressed air on the passenger-side floor, linked via a hose to a hole drilled into the transmission. Audi contended, prior to findings by outside investigators, which the problems were caused by driver error, specifically pedal misapplication. Subsequently, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) concluded that the majority of unintended acceleration cases, including all the ones that prompted the 60 Minutes report, were caused by driver error such as

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confusion of pedals. CBS did not acknowledge the test results of involved government agencies, but did acknowledge the similar results of another study. In a review study published in 2012, NHTSA summarized its past findings about the Audi unintended acceleration problems: "Once an unintended acceleration had begun, in the Audi 5000, due to a failure in the idle-stabilizer system (producing an initial acceleration of 0.3g), pedal misapplication resulting from panic, confusion, or unfamiliarity with the Audi 5000 contributed to the severity of the incident. “This summary is consistent with the conclusions of NHTSA's most technical analysis at the time: "Audi idle-stabilization systems were prone to defects which resulted in excessive idle speeds and brief unanticipated accelerations of up to 0.3g [which is similar in magnitude to an emergency stop in a subway car]. These accelerations could not be the sole cause of [(long-duration) sudden acceleration incidents (SAI)], but might have triggered some SAIs by startling the driver. The defective idle-stabilization system performed a type of electronic throttle control. Significantly: multiple "intermittent malfunctions of the electronic control unit were observed and recorded ... and [were also observed and] reported by Transport Canada.” With a series of recall campaigns, Audi made several modifications; the first adjusted the distance between the brake and accelerator pedal on automatic-transmission models. Later repairs, of 250,000 cars dating back to 1978, added a device requiring the driver to press the brake pedal before shifting out of park. A legacy of the Audi 5000 and other reported cases of sudden unintended acceleration are intricate gear stick patterns and brake interlock mechanisms to prevent inadvertent shifting into forward or reverse. It is unclear how the defects in the idle-stabilization system were addressed. Audi’s U.S. sales, which had reached 74,061 in 1985, dropped to 12,283 in 1991 and remained level for three years. – With resale values falling dramatically. Audi subsequently offered increased warranty protection and renamed the affected models – with the 5000 becoming the 100 and 200 in 1989 – and only reached the same sales levels again by model year 2000.A 2010 BusinessWeek article – outlining possible parallels between Audi's experience and 2009–2010 Toyota vehicle recalls – noted a class-action lawsuit filed in 1987 by about 7,500 Audi 5000-model owners remains unsettled and is currently being contested in county court in Chicago after appeals at the Illinois state and U.S. federal levels.

Model introductions

In the mid-to-late 1990s, Audi introduced new technologies including the use of aluminum construction. Produced from 1999 to 2005, the Audi A2 was a futuristic super mini, born from the Al2 concept, with many features that helped regain consumer confidence, like the aluminum space frame, which was a first in production car design. In the A2 Audi further expanded their TDI technology through the use of frugal three-cylinder engines. The A2 was extremely aerodynamic and was designed around a wind tunnel. The Audi A2 was criticized for its high price and was never really a sales success but it planted Audi as a cutting-edge manufacturer. The model, a Mercedes-Benz A-Class competitor, sold relatively well in Europe. However, the A2 was discontinued in 2005 and Audi decided not to develop an immediate replacement. The next major model change came in 1995 when the Audi A4 replaced the Audi 80. The new

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nomenclature scheme was applied to the Audi 100 to become the Audi A6 (with a minor facelift). This also meant the S4 became the S6 and a new S4 was introduced in the A4 body. The S2 was discontinued. The Audi Cabriolet continued on (based on the Audi 80 platform) until 1999, gaining the engine upgrades along the way. A new A3 hatchback model (sharing the Volkswagen Golf Mk4's platform) was introduced to the range in 1996, and the radical Audi TT coupé and roadster were debuted in 1998 based on the same underpinnings. The engines available throughout the range were now a 1.4 L, 1.6 L and 1.8 L four-cylinder, 1.8 L four-cylinder turbo, 2.6 L and 2.8 L V6, 2.2 L turbo-charged five-cylinder and the 4.2 L V8 engine. The V6s were replaced by new 2.4 L and 2.8 L 30V V6s in 1998, with marked improvement in power, torque and smoothness. Further engines were added along the way, including a 3.7 L V8 and 6.0 L W12 engine for the A8.

Audi AG today

Audi's sales grew strongly in the 2000s, with deliveries to customers increasing from 653,000 in 2000 to 1,003,000 in 2008. The largest sales increases came from Eastern Europe (+19.3%), Africa (+17.2%) and the Middle East (+58.5%). China in particular has become a key market, representing 108,000 out of 705,000 cars delivered in the first three quarters of 2009. One factor for its popularity in China is that Audis have become the car of choice for purchase by the Chinese government for officials, and purchases by the government are responsible for 20% of its sales in China. As of late 2009, Audi's operating profit of €1.17-billion ($1.85-billion) made it the biggest contributor to parent Volkswagen Group's nine-month operating profit of €1.5-billion, while the other marques in Group such as Bentley and SEAT had suffered considerable losses. May 2011 saw record sales for Audi of America with the new Audi A7 and Audi A3 TDI Clean Diesel. In May 2012, Audi reported a 10% increase in its sales—from 408 units to 480 in the last year alone. Audi manufactures vehicles in seven plants around the world, some of which are shared with other VW Group marques although many sub-assemblies such as engines and transmissions are manufactured within other Volkswagen Group plants.

Audi's two principal assembly plants are:

Ingolstadt, Opened by Auto Union in 1964, (A3, A4, A5, Q5)

Neckarsulm, Acquired from NSU in 1969 (A4, A6, A7, A8, R8 & all RS variants)

Outside of Germany, Audi produces vehicles at:

Aurangabad, India since 2006

Bratislava, Slovakia, shared with Volkswagen, SEAT, Škoda and Porsche (Q7)

Brussels, Belgium, acquired from Volkswagen in 2007 (A1)

Changchun, China since 1995

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Győr, Hungary, (TT and some A3 variants)

Jakarta, Indonesia since 2011

Martorell, Spain shared with SEAT and Volkswagen (Q3)

San José Chiapa, Mexico (Q5)

From 2002 up to 2003, Audi headed the Audi Brand Group, a subdivision of the Volkswagen Group's Automotive Division consisting of Audi, Lamborghini and SEAT, that was focused on sporty values, with the marques' product vehicles and performance being under the higher responsibility of the Audi brand. In 2014, most of the Audi dealers in UK falsely claimed that the Audi A7, A8, and R8 were Euro NCAP safety tested, all achieving five out of five stars. In fact none were tested.

Technology

Body shells

Audi produces 100% galvanized cars to prevent corrosion, and was the first mass-market vehicle to do so, following introduction of the process by Porsche, c. 1975. Along with other precautionary measures, the full-body zinc coating has proved to be very effective in preventing rust. The body's resulting durability even surpassed Audi's own expectations, causing the manufacturer to extend its original 10-year warranty against corrosion perforation to currently 12 years (except for aluminum bodies which do not rust).

Space frame

Audi introduced a new series of vehicles in the mid-1990s and continues to pursue new technology and high performance. An all-aluminum car was brought forward by Audi, and in 1994 the Audi A8 was launched, which introduced aluminum space frame technology (called Audi Space Frame or ASF) which saves weight and improves torsion rigidity compared to a conventional steel frame. Prior to that effort, Audi used examples of the Type 44 chassis fabricated out of aluminum as test-beds for the technique. The disadvantage of the aluminum frame is that it is very expensive to repair and requires a specialized aluminum body shop. The weight reduction is somewhat offset by the quattro four-wheel drive system which is standard in most markets. Nonetheless, the A8 is usually the lightest all-wheel drive car in the full-size luxury segment, also having best-in-class fuel economy. The Audi A2, Audi TT and Audi R8 also use Audi Space Frame designs.

Industry AutomotiveFounded in 25 April 1910

Headquarters Ingolstadt, GermanyNumber of locations 11 production facilities in 9 countries

Rupert Stadler,

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Key peopleChairman of the Board of Management

Marc Lichte,Head of Design

Ulrich Hackenberg,Head of Technical Development

Products Luxury Vehicles

Subsidiaries

Audi BrusselsAudi Hungaria Motor Kft.

DucatiItaldesign Giugiaro

Lamborghiniquattro GmbH

Bentley

Cricklewood

Before World War I, Walter Owen Bentley, and his brother, Horace Millner Bentley, sold French DFP cars in Cricklewood, North London, but W.O, as Walter was known, always wanted to design and build his own cars. At the DFP factory, in 1913, he noticed an aluminum paperweight and thought that aluminum might be a suitable replacement for cast iron to fabricate lighter pistons. The first Bentley aluminum pistons were fitted to Sop with Camel aero engines during World War I. In August 1919, W.O. registered Bentley Motors Ltd. and in October he exhibited a car chassis, with dummy engine, at the London Motor Show. Ex–Royal Flying Corps officer, Clive Gallop, designed an innovative 4 valves per cylinder engine for the chassis. By December the engine was built and running. Delivery of the first cars was scheduled for June 1920, but development took longer than estimated so the date was extended to September 1921. The durability of the first Bentley cars earned widespread acclaim and they competed in hill climbs and raced at Brook lands. Bentley's first major event was the 1922 Indianapolis 500, a race, dominated by specialized cars with Duisenberg racing chassis. They entered a modified road car driven by works driver, Douglas Hawkes, accompanied by riding mechanic, H. S. "Bertie" Browning. Hawkes completed the full 500 miles and finished 13th with an average speed of 74.95 mph after starting in 19th position. The team was then rushed back to England to compete in the 1922 RAC Tourist Trophy.

Bentley Motors Limited is a British company that designs, develops, and manufactures luxury motorcars which are largely hand-built. It is a subsidiary of Volkswagen AG. Now based in Crewe, England, Bentley Motors Limited was founded by W. O. Bentley on 18 January 1919 in Cricklewood, North London. Bentley cars are sold via franchised dealers worldwide, and as of November 2012, China was the largest market.

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Captain Woolf Barnato

In ironic reference to his heavyweight boxer's stature, Captain Woolf Barnato was nicknamed "Babe". In 1925, he acquired his first Bentley, a 3-litre. With this car he won numerous Brooklands races. Just a year later he acquired the Bentley business itself. The Bentley enterprise was always underfunded, but inspired by the 1924 Le Mans win by John Duff and Frank Clement, Barnato agreed to finance Bentley's business. Barnato had incorporated Baromans Ltd in 1922, which existed as his finance and investment vehicle. Via Baromans, Barnato initially invested in excess of £100,000, saving the business and its workforce. A financial reorganization of the original Bentley company was carried out and all existing creditors paid off for £75,000. Existing shares were devalued from £1 each to just 1 shilling, or 5% or their original value. Barnato held 149,500 of the new shares giving him control of the company and he became chairman. Barnato injected further cash into the business: £35,000 secured by debenture in July 1927; £40,000 in 1928; £25,000 in 1929. With renewed financial input, W. O. Bentley was able to design another generation of cars.

The Bentley Boys

Main articles: Bentley Boys and Blue Train Races

1929 Blower Bentley

The Bentley Boys were a group of British motoring enthusiasts that included Woolf Barnato, Sir Henry "Tim" Birkin, steeple chaser George Duller, aviator Glen Kidston, automotive journalist S.C.H. "Sammy" Davis, and Dr Dudley Benjafield. The Bentley Boys, favored Bentley cars. Many were independently wealthy and often had a military background. They kept the marque's reputation for high performance alive; Bentley was noted for its four consecutive victories at the 24 Hours of Le Mans from 1927 to 1930. In 1929, Tim Birkin developed the 4½ litre, lightweight Blower Bentley at Welwyn Garden City and produced five racing specials, starting with Bentley Blower No.1 which was optimised for the Brooklands racing circuit. Birkin overruled W.O. and put the model on the market before it was fully developed. As a result, it was unreliable. In March 1930, during the Blue Train Races, Woolf Barnato raised the stakes on Rover and its Rover Light Six, having raced and beaten Le Train Bleu for the first time, to better that record with his 6½-litre Bentley Speed Six on a bet of £100. He drove against the train from Cannes to Calais, then by ferry to Dover, and finally London, travelling on public highways, and won. Barnato drove his H.J. Mulliner–bodied formal saloon in the race against the Blue Train. Two months later, on 21 May 1930, he took delivery of a Speed Six with streamlined fastback "Sportsman Coupé" by Gurney Nutting. Both cars became known as the "Blue Train Bentleys"; the latter is regularly mistaken for, or erroneously referred to as being, the car that raced the Blue Train, while in fact Barnato named it in memory of his race. A painting by Terence Cuneo depicts the Gurney Nutting coupé racing along a road parallel to the Blue Train, which scenario never occurred as the road and railway did not follow the same route.

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Cricklewood Bentleys

Bentley 8 Litre 4-door sports saloon

1921–29 3-litres

1926–30 4½-litre & "Blower Bentley"

1926–30 6½-litres

1928–30 6½-litre Speed Six

1930–31 8-litres

1931 4-litre

The original model was the 3-litre, but as customers put heavier bodies on the chassis, a larger 4½-litre model followed. Perhaps the most iconic model of the period is the 4½-litre "Blower Bentley", with its distinctive supercharger projecting forward from the bottom of the grille. Uncharacteristically fragile for a Bentley it was not the racing workhorse the 6½-litre was, though in 1930 Birkin remarkably finished second in the French Grand Prix at Pau in a stripped-down racing version of the "Blower Bentley", behind Philippe Etancelin in a Bugatti Type 35. The 4½-litre model later became famous in popular media as the vehicle of choice of James Bond in the original novels, but this has been seen only briefly in the films. John Steed in the television series The Avengers also drove a Bentley. The new 8-litre was such a success that when Barnato's money seemed to run out in 1931 and Napier was planning to buy Bentley's business, Rolls-Royce purchased Bentley Motors to prevent it competing with their most expensive model, Phantom II.

Performance at Le Mans

24 hours of Le Mans Grand Prix endurance

1923 4th (private entry) (3-Litre)

1924 1st (3-Litre)

1925 did not finish

1926 did not finish

1927 1st 15th 17th (3-Litre)

1928 1st 5th (4½-litre)

1929 1st (Speed Six); 2nd 3rd 4th: (4½-litre)

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1930 1st 2nd (Speed Six) Bentley withdrew from motor racing just after winning at Le Mans in 1930, claiming that they had learned enough about speed and reliability.

Liquidation

The Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the resulting Great Depression throttled the demand for Bentley's expensive motor cars. In July 1931, two mortgage payments were due which neither the company nor Barnato, the guarantor, were able to meet. On 10 July 1931 a Receiver was appointed. Napier offered to buy Bentley with the purchase to be final in November 1931. Instead, British Central Equitable Trust made a winning sealed bid of £125,000. British Central Equitable Trust later proved to be a front for Rolls-Royce Limited. Not even Bentley himself knew the identity of the purchaser until the deal was completed. Barnato received £42,000 for his shares in Bentley Motors. By coincidence, he had bought a sizable stake in Rolls-Royce not long before Bentley Motors was liquidated. In 1934 he was appointed to the board of the new Bentley Motors (1931) Ltd. In the same year Bentley confirmed that it would continue racing. The attempted total obliteration of Bentley Motors and its founder was an outcome of a long-standing vendetta between Hives and Bentley. The two engineers had completely opposing natures. The conflict begun in 1914 when Bentley was made official liaison between Government and aero engine manufacturers. Bentley may have been the better engineer,[citation needed] but his weaknesses were poor personal relationships and his inability to curb spending on development. The 8-Litre was acknowledged to be the better if more expensive car. He became patron of the Bentley Drivers' Club when Woolf Barnato's term as its president ended. Rolls-Royce took over the assets of Bentley Motors (1919) Ltd and formed a subsidiary, Bentley Motors (1931) Ltd. Rolls-Royce had acquired the Bentley showrooms in Cork Street, the service station at Kingsbury, the complex at Cricklewood and the services of Bentley himself. This last was disputed by Napier in court without success. Bentley had neglected to register their trademark so Rolls-Royce immediately did so. They also sold the Cricklewood factory in 1932. Production stopped for two years, before resuming at the Rolls-Royce works in Derby. Unhappy with his role at Rolls-Royce, when his contract expired at the end of April 1935 W. O. Bentley left to join Lagonda. When the new Bentley 3½ litre appeared in 1933, it was a sporting variant of the Rolls-Royce 20/25, which disappointed some traditional customers yet was well received by many others. W. O. Bentley was reported as saying, "Taking all things into consideration, I would rather own this Bentley than any other car produced under that name". Rolls-Royce's advertisements for the  3 1⁄2 Liter called it "the silent sports car", a slogan Rolls-Royce continued to use for Bentley cars until the 1950s. All Bentleys produced from 1931 to 2004 used inherited or shared Rolls-Royce chassis, and adapted Rolls-Royce engines, and are described by critics as badge-engineered Rolls-Royces.

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Derby Bentleys

1933–37 3½-litre

1936–39 4¼-litre

1939–41 Mark V

1939 Mark V

Crewe and Rolls-Royce

In preparation for war, Rolls Royce and the British Government searched for a location for a shadow factory to ensure production of aero-engines. Crewe, with its excellent road and rail links, as well as being located in the northwest away from the aerial bombing starting in mainland Europe, was a logical choice. Crewe also had extensive open farming land. Construction of the factory started on a 60-acre area on the potato fields of Merrill's Farm in July 1938, with the first Rolls Royce Merlin aero-engine rolling off the production line five months later. 25,000 Merlin engines were produced and at its peak, in 1943 during World War II, the factory employed 10,000 people. With the war in Europe over and the general move towards the then new jet engines, Rolls Royce concentrated its aero engine operations at Derby and moved motor car operations to Crewe.

Standard Steel saloons

Bentley Mark VI standard steel saloon, the first Bentley supplied by Rolls-Royce with a standard all-steel body. Until sometime after World War II, most high-end motorcar manufacturers like Bentley and Rolls-Royce did not supply complete cars. They sold rolling chassis, near-complete from the instrument panel forward. Each chassis was delivered to the coach builder of the buyer's choice. The biggest specialist car dealerships had coachbuilders build standard designs for them which were held in stock awaiting potential buyers. To meet post-war demand, particularly UK Government pressure to export and earn overseas currency, Rolls-Royce developed an all steel body using pressings made by Pressed Steel to create a "standard" ready-to-drive complete saloon car. The first steel-bodied model produced was the Bentley Mark VI: these started to emerge from the newly reconfigured Crewe factory early in 1946. Some years later, initially only for export, the Rolls-Royce Silver Dawn was introduced, a standard steel Bentley but with a Rolls-Royce radiator grille for a small extra charge, and this convention continued. Chassis remained available to coachbuilders until the end of production of the Bentley S3, which was replaced for October 1965 by the chassis-less monocoque construction T series.

Bentley Continental

The Continental fastback coupé was aimed at the UK market, most cars, 164 plus a prototype, being right-hand drive. The chassis was produced at the Crewe factory and shared many

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components with the standard R type. Other than the R-Type standard steel saloon, R-Type Continentals were delivered as rolling chassis to the coachbuilder of choice. Coachwork for most of these cars was completed by H. J. Mulliner & Co. who mainly built them in fastback coupe form. Other coachwork came from Park Ward (London) who built six, later including a drophead coupe version. Franay (Paris) built five, Graber (Wichtrach, Switzerland) built three, one of them later altered by Köng (Basel, Switzerland), and Pininfarina made one. James Young (London) built in 1954 a Sports Saloon for the owner of James Young's, James Barclay. The early R Type Continental has essentially the same engine as the standard R Type, but with modified carburation, induction and exhaust manifolds along with higher gear ratios. After July 1954 the car was fitted with an engine, having now a larger bore of 94.62 mm (3.7 in) with a total displacement of 4,887 cc (4.9 L; 298.2 cu in). The compression ratio was raised to 7.25:1.

Crewe Rolls-Royce Bentleys

Bentley T-series Standard Saloon (l.w.b.)

Standard-steel saloon

1946–52 Mark VI

1952–55 R Type Continental

1952–55 R Type Continental

S-series

1955–59 S1 and Continental

1959–62 S2 and Continental

1962–65 S3 and Continental

T-series

1965–77 T1

1977–80 T2

1971–84 Corniche

1975–86 Camargue

Crewe and Vickers

The problems of Bentley's owner with Rolls-Royce aero engine development, the RB211, brought about the financial collapse of its business in 1970.The motorcar division was made a separate business, Rolls-Royce Motors Limited, which remained independent until bought by

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Vickers plc in August 1980. By the 1970s and early 1980s Bentley sales had fallen badly; at one point less than 5% of combined production carried the Bentley badge. Under Vickers, Bentley set about regaining its high-performance heritage, typified by the 1980 Mulsanne. Bentley's restored sporting image created a renewed interest in the name and Bentley sales as a proportion of output began to rise. By 1986 the Bentley: Rolls-Royce ratio had reached 40:60; by 1991 it achieved parity.

Crewe Vickers Bentleys

1984–95 Continental: convertible

1992–95 Continental Turbo

1980–92 Bentley Mulsanne

1984–88 Mulsanne L: limousine

1982–85 Mulsanne Turbo

1987–92 Mulsanne S

1984–92 Eight: basic model

1985–95 Turbo R: turbocharged performance version

1991–2002 Continental R: turbocharged 2-door model

1994–95 Continental S: intercooled

1996–2002 Continental T

1999–2003 Continental R Mulliner: performance model

1992–98 Brooklands: improved Eight

1996–98 Brooklands R: performance Brooklands

1994–95 Turbo S: limited-edition sports model

1994–95 Continental S: to order only version of Continental R with features of Turbo S incorporated

1995–97 New Turbo R: updated 96MY Turbo R with revised bumpers, single front door glazing, new door mirrors, spare in trunk, engine cover, new seat design, auto lights, auto wipers etc.

1995–2003 Azure: convertible Continental R

1996–2002 Continental T: short-wheelbase performance model

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1997–98 Turbo RL: "new" Turbo R LWB (Long Wheel Base)

1997–98 Bentley Turbo RT: replacement for the Turbo RL

1997–98 RT Mulliner: Ultra exclusive performance model

Volkswagen AG vs. BMW AG

In October 1997, Vickers announced that it had decided to sell Rolls-Royce Motors. BMW AG seemed to be a logical purchaser because BMW already supplied engines and other components for Bentley and Rolls-Royce branded cars and because of BMW and Vickers joint efforts in building aircraft engines. BMW made a final offer of £340m, but was outbid by Volkswagen AG, which offered £430m. Volkswagen AG acquired the vehicle designs, model nameplates, production and administrative facilities, the Spirit of Ecstasy and Rolls-Royce grille shape trademarks, but not the rights to the use of the Rolls-Royce name or logo, which are owned by Rolls-Royce Holdings plc. In 1998, BMW started supplying components for the new range of Rolls-Royce and Bentley cars—notably V8 engines for the Bentley Arnage and V12 engines for the Rolls-Royce Silver Seraph, however, the supply contract allowed BMW to terminate its supply deal with Rolls-Royce with 12 months' notice, which would not be enough time for Volkswagen to re-engineer the cars. BMW paid Rolls-Royce plc £40m to license the Rolls-Royce name and logo. After negotiations, BMW and Volkswagen AG agreed that, from 1998 to 2002, BMW would continue to supply engines and components and would allow Volkswagen temporary use of the Rolls-Royce name and logo. All BMW engine supply ended in 2003 with the end of Silver Seraph production. From 1 January 2003 forward, Volkswagen AG would be the sole provider of cars with the "Bentley" marque. BMW established a new legal entity, Rolls-Royce Motor Cars Limited, and built a new administrative headquarters and production facility for Rolls-Royce branded vehicles in Goodwood, West Sussex, England.

Car models, Crewe VW & BMW

1999–2002 Azure Mulliner—performance model

1999 Continental T Mulliner—firmer suspension

Modern Bentleys

After acquiring the business, Volkswagen spent GBP500 million (about US$845 million) to modernise the Crewe factory and increase production capacity. As of early 2010, there are about 3,500 working at Crewe, compared with about 1,500 in 1998 before being taken over by Volkswagen. It was reported that Volkswagen invested a total of nearly US$2 billion in Bentley and its revival. As a result of upgrading facilities at Crewe the bodywork now arrives fully painted at the Crewe facility for final assembly, with the parts coming from Germany—similarly

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Rolls-Royce body shells are painted and shipped to the UK for assembly only. In 2002, Bentley presented Queen Elizabeth II with an official State Limousine to celebrate her Golden Jubilee. In 2003, Bentley's two-door convertible, the Bentley Azure, ceased production, and Bentley introduced a second line, Bentley Continental GT, a large luxury coupé powered by a W12 engine built in Crewe.

Demand had been so great that the factory at Crewe was unable to meet orders despite an installed capacity of approximately 9,500 vehicles per year; there was a waiting list of over a year for new cars to be delivered. Consequently, part of the production of the new Flying Spur, a four-door version of the Continental GT, was assigned to the Transparent Factory (Germany), where the Volkswagen Phaeton luxury car is also assembled. This arrangement ceased at the end of 2006 after around 1,000 cars, with all car production reverting to the Crewe plant. In April 2005, Bentley confirmed plans to produce a four-seat convertible model—the Azure, derived from the Arnage Drophead Coupé prototype—at Crewe beginning in 2006. By the autumn of 2005, the convertible version of the successful Continental GT, the Continental GTC, was also presented. These two models were successfully launched in late 2006.

A limited run of a Zagato modified GT was also announced in March 2008, dubbed "GTZ". A new version of the Bentley Continental was introduced at the 2009 Geneva Auto Show: The Continental Supersports. This new Bentley is a supercar combining extreme power with environmentally friendly FlexFuel technology, capable of using petrol (gasoline) and biofuel (E85 ethanol).

Bentley sales continued to increase, and in 2005 8,627 were sold worldwide, 3,654 in the United States. In 2007, the 10,000 cars-per-year threshold was broken for the first time with sales of 10,014. For 2007, a record profit of €155 million was also announced. Bentley reported a sale of about 7,600 units in 2008. However, its global sales plunged 50 percent to 4,616 vehicles in 2009 (with the U.S. deliveries dropped 49% to 1,433 vehicles) and it suffered an operating loss of €194 million, compared with an operating profit of €10 million in 2008. As a result of the slump in sales, production at Crewe was shut down during March and April 2009. Though vehicle sales increased by 11% to 5,117 in 2010, operating loss grew by 26% to €245 million. In Autumn 2010, workers at Crewe staged a series of protests over proposal of compulsory work on Fridays and mandatory overtime during the week.

Vehicle sales in 2011 rose 37% to 7,003 vehicles, with the new Continental GT accounting for over one-third of total sales. The current workforce is about 4,000 people.

The business earned a profit in 2011 after two years of losses

Unsold cars. During the years 2011 and 2012 production exceeded deliveries by 1,187 cars which is estimated to have trebled inventory.

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Car models, Crewe Volkswagen

Car models in production

2005-present: Continental Flying Spur saloon

2006-present: Continental GT convertible

2007-present: Continental GT Speed coupé

2008-present: Bentley Continental Flying Spur (2005) Speed saloon

2009-present: Continental GTC Speed

2009-present: Continental Supersports

2009-present: Bentley Zagato GTZ

2010-present: Bentley Mulsanne

2011-present: 2nd Generation Continental GT

2013-present: Bentley Flying Spur

2016-present: Bentley Bentayga

Former car models in production

1992-2011: Bentley Brooklands coupé

1998-2003: Arnage saloon

1995-2009: Azure convertible

2003-2011: Continental GT coupé

Former special edition car models in production

1999: Hunaudieres Concept

2002: State Limousine

Motorsport

A Bentley Continental GT3 entered by the M-Sport factory team won the Silverstone round of the 2014 Blancpain Endurance Series. This was Bentley's first official entry in a British race since the 1930 RAC Tourist Trophy.

Industry Automotive

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Founded in 25 April 1910Headquarters Ingolstadt, Germany

Number of locations 11 production facilities in 9 countries

Key people

Rupert Stadler,Chairman of the Board of Management

Marc Lichte,Head of Design

Ulrich Hackenberg,Head of Technical Development

Products Luxury Vehicles

Subsidiaries

Audi BrusselsAudi Hungaria Motor Kft.

DucatiItaldesign Giugiaro

Lamborghiniquattro GmbH

Bugatti

Automobiles Ettore Bugatti was a French car manufacturer of high-performance automobiles, founded in 1909 in the then German city of Molsheim, Alsace by Italian-born Ettore Bugatti. Bugatti cars were known for their design beauty (Ettore Bugatti was from a family of artists and considered himself to be both an artist and constructor) and for their many race victories. Famous Bugattis include the Type 35 Grand Prix cars, the Type 41 "Royale", the Type 57 "Atlantic" and the Type 55 sports car. The death of Ettore Bugatti in 1947 proved to be the end for the marque, and the death of his son Jean Bugatti in 1939 ensured there was not a successor to lead the factory. No more than about 8,000 cars were made. The company struggled financially, and released one last model in the 1950s, before eventually being purchased for its airplane parts business in the 1960s. In the 1990s, an Italian entrepreneur revived it as a builder of limited production exclusive sports cars. Today, the name is owned by German automobile manufacturing group Volkswagen.

Under Ettore Bugatti

Founder Ettore Bugatti was born in Milan, Italy, and the automobile company that bears his name was founded in 1909 in Molsheim located in the Alsace region which was part of the German Empire from 1871 to 1919. The company was known both for the level of detail of its

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engineering in its automobiles, and for the artistic way in which the designs were executed, given the artistic nature of Ettore's family (his father, Carlo Bugatti (1856–1940), was an important Art Nouveau furniture and jewelry designer).

World War I and its aftermath

During the war Ettore Bugatti was sent away, initially to Milan and later to Paris, but as soon as hostilities had been concluded he returned to his factory at Molsheim. Less than four months after the Versailles Treaty formalised the transfer of Alsace from Germany to France, Bugatti was able to obtain, at the last minute, a stand at the 15th Paris motor show in October 1919. He exhibited three light cars, all of them closely based on their pre-war equivalents, and each fitted with the same overhead camshaft 4-cylinder 1,368cc engine with four valves per cylinder. Smallest of the three was a "Type 13" with a racing body (constructed by Bugatti themselves) and using a chassis with a 2,000 mm (78.7 in) wheelbase. The others were a "Type 22" and a "Type 23" with wheelbases of 2,250 and 2,400 mm (88.6 and 94.5 in) respectively.

Racing successes

The company also enjoyed great success in early Grand Prix motor racing: in 1929 a privately entered Bugatti won the first ever Monaco Grand Prix. Racing success culminated with driver Jean-Pierre Wimille winning the 24 hours of Le Mans twice (in 1937 with Robert Benoist and 1939 with Pierre Veyron).

Bugatti cars were extremely successful in racing. The little Bugatti Type 10 swept the top four positions at its first race. The 1924 Bugatti Type 35 is probably the most successful racing car of all time, with over 2,000 wins.[citation needed] The Type 35 was developed by Bugatti with master engineer and racing driver Jean Chassagne who also drove it in the car’s first ever Grand Prix in 1924 Lyon. Bugattis swept to victory in the Targa Florio for five years straight from 1925 through 1929. Louis Chiron held the most podiums in Bugatti cars, and the modern marque revival Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. named the 1999 Bugatti 18/3 Chiron concept car in his honour. But it was the final racing success at Le Mans that is most remembered—Jean-Pierre Wimille and Pierre Veyron won the 1939 race with just one car and meagre resources.

Aeroplane racing

In the 1930s, Ettore Bugatti got involved in the creation of a racer airplane, hoping to beat the Germans in the Deutsch de la Meurthe prize. This would be the Bugatti 100P, which never flew. It was designed by Belgian engineer Louis de Monge who had already applied Bugatti Brescia engines in his "Type 7.5" lifting body.

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Railcar

Ettore Bugatti also designed a successful motorised railcar, the Autorail (Autorail Bugatti).

Family tragedy

The death of Ettore Bugatti's son, Jean Bugatti, on 11 August 1939 marked a turning point in the company's fortunes. Jean died while testing a Type 57 tank-bodied race car near the Molsheim factory.

After World War II

World War II left the Molsheim factory in ruins and the company lost control of the property. During the war, Bugatti planned a new factory at Levallois, a northwestern suburb of Paris. After the war, Bugatti designed and planned to build a series of new cars, including the Type 73 road car and Type 73C single seat racing car, but in all Bugatti built only five Type 73 cars. Development of a 375 cc supercharged car was stopped when Ettore Bugatti died on 21 August 1947. Following Ettore Bugatti's death, the business declined further and made its last appearance as a business in its own right at a Paris Motor Show in October 1952.

After a long decline, the original incarnation of Bugatti ceased operations in 1952.

Design

Bugattis are noticeably focused on design. Engine blocks were hand scraped to ensure that the surfaces were so flat that gaskets were not required for sealing, many of the exposed surfaces of the engine compartment featured guilloché (engine turned) finishes on them, and safety wires had been threaded through almost every fastener in intricately laced patterns. Rather than bolt the springs to the axles as most manufacturers did, Bugatti's axles were forged such that the spring passed though a carefully sized opening in the axle, a much more elegant solution requiring fewer parts. He famously described his arch competitor Bentley's cars as "the world's fastest lorries" for focusing on durability. According to Bugatti, "weight was the enemy".

Important models built

1900–1901 Type 2

1903 Type 5

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1908 Type 10 "Petit Pur Sang"

1925 Type 36

1929–1930 Type 45/47

Type 56 (electric car)

1939 Type 64 (coupe)

1943/1947 Type 73C

1910–1914 Type 13/Type 15/17/22

1912 Type 16 "Bébé"

1922–1926 Type 29 "Cigare"

1923 Type 32 "Tank"

1924–1930 Type 35/35A/35B/35T/35C/37/39 "Grand Prix"

1927–1930 Type 52 (electric racer for children)

1936–1939 Type 57G "Tank"

1937–1939 Type 50B

1931–1936 Type 53

1931–1936 Type 51/51A/54GP/59

1955–1956 Type 251

1910 Type 13

1912–1914 Type 18

1913–1914 Type 23/Brescia Tourer (roadster)

1922–1934 Type 30/38/40/43/44/49 (touring car)

1927–1933 Type 41 "Royale"

1929–1939 Type 46/50/50T (touring car)

1932–1935 Type 55 (roadster)

1934–1940 Type 57/57S/Type 57SC (touring car)

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1951–1956 Type 101 (coupe)

1957–1962 Type 252 (2-seat sports convertible)

1933 Type 59 Grand Prix racer from the Ralph Lauren collection

Notable finds in the modern era

Relatives of Harold Carr found a rare 1937 Bugatti Type 57S Atalante when cataloguing the doctor's belongings after his death in 2009. Carr's Type 57S is notable because it was originally owned by British race car driver Earl Howe. Because much of the car's original equipment is intact, it can be restored without relying on replacement parts. On 10 July 2009, a 1925 Bugatti Brescia Type 22 which had lain at the bottom of Lake Maggiore on the border of Switzerland and Italy for 75 years was recovered from the lake. The Mullin Museum in Oxnard, California bought it at auction for $351,343 at Bonham's Rétromobile sale in Paris in 2010.

Attempts at revival

The company attempted a comeback under Roland Bugatti in the mid-1950s with the mid-engined Type 251 race car. Designed with help from Gioacchino Colombo, the car failed to perform to expectations and the company's attempts at automobile production were halted. In the 1960s, Virgil Exner designed a Bugatti as part of his "Revival Cars" project. A show version of this car was actually built by Ghia using the last Bugatti Type 101 chassis, and was shown at the 1965 Turin Motor Show. Finance was not forthcoming, and Exner then turned his attention to a revival of Stutz. Bugatti continued manufacturing airplane parts and was sold to Hispano-Suiza, also a former auto maker turned aircraft supplier, in 1963. Snecma took over Hispano-Suiza in 1968. After acquiring Messier, Snecma merged Messier and Bugatti into Messier-Bugatti in 1977.

Modern revivals

Italian entrepreneur Romano Artioli acquired the Bugatti brand in 1987, and established Bugatti Automobili S.p.A.. Artioli commissioned architect Giampaolo Benedini to design the factory which was built in Campogalliano, Modena, Italy. Construction of the plant began in 1988, alongside the development of the first model, and it was inaugurated two years later—in 1990.

By 1989 the plans for the new Bugatti revival were presented by Paolo Stanzani and Marcello Gandini, designers of the Lamborghini Miura and Lamborghini Countach. The first production vehicle was the Bugatti EB110 GT. It used a carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer chassis, a 3.5-litre,

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5-valve per cylinder, quad-turbocharged 60° V12 engine, a six-speed gearbox, and four-wheel drive.

Famed racing car designer Mauro Forghieri served as Bugatti's technical director from 1992 through 1994.

On 27 August 1993, through his holding company, ACBN Holdings S.A. of Luxembourg, Romano Artioli purchased Lotus Cars from General Motors. Plans were made to list Bugatti shares on international stock exchanges.

Bugatti presented a prototype large saloon called the EB112 in 1993.

Perhaps the most famous Bugatti EB110 owner was seven-time Formula One World Champion racing driver Michael Schumacher who purchased an EB110 in 1994. Schumacher sold his EB110, which had been repaired after a severe 1994 crash, to Modena Motorsport, a Ferrari service and race preparation garage in Germany.

By the time the EB110 came to market, the North American and European economies were in recession. Poor economic conditions forced the company to fail and operations ceased in September 1995. A model specific to the US market called the "Bugatti America" was in the preparatory stages when the company ceased operations.

Bugatti's liquidators sold Lotus Cars to Proton of Malaysia. German firm Dauer Racing purchased the EB110 licence and remaining parts stock in 1997 in order to produce five more EB110 SS vehicles. These five SS versions of the EB110 were greatly refined by Dauer. The Campogalliano factory was sold to a furniture-making company, which subsequently collapsed before moving in, leaving the building unoccupied. After Dauer stopped producing cars in 2011, Toscana-Motors GmbH of Germany purchased the remaining parts stock from Dauer.

Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. (1998–present)

Main article: Bugatti Automobiles

Pre-Veyron

Volkswagen AG acquired the Bugatti brand in 1998. Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. commissioned Giorgetto Giugiaro of ItalDesign to produce Bugatti Automobiles's first concept vehicle, the EB118, a coupé that debuted at the 1998 Paris Auto Show. The EB118 concept featured a 408-kilowatt (555 PS; 547 bhp), W-18 engine. After its Paris debut, the EB118 concept was shown again in 1999 at the Geneva Auto Show and the Tokyo Motor Show. Bugatti introduced its next concepts, the EB 218 at the 1999 Geneva Motor Show and the 18/3 Chiron at the 1999 Frankfurt Motor Show (IAA).

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Veyron era (2005-2015)

Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. began assembling its first regular-production vehicle, the Bugatti Veyron 16.4 (the 1001 BHP super car with an 8-litre W-16 engine with four turbochargers) in September 2005 at the Bugatti Molsheim, France assembly "studio". On 23 February 2015, Bugatti sold its last Veyron Grand Sport Vitesse, which was named La Finale.

Chiron era (2016-present)

Industry AutomotiveFounded in 1909

Headquarters Molsheim, Alsace, FranceFounder Ettore Bugatti

Key people Ettore BugattiJean Bugatt

Products & Service AutomobilesSubsidiaries -

Lamborghini

Ferruccio Lamborghini, an Italian manufacturing magnate, founded Automobili Ferruccio Lamborghini S.p.A. in 1963 to compete with established marques, including Ferrari. The company gained wide acclaim in 1966 for the Miura sports coupé, which established rear mid-engine, rear wheel drive as the standard layout for high-performance cars of the era. Lamborghini grew rapidly during its first decade, but sales plunged in the wake of the 1973 worldwide financial downturn and the oil crisis. The firm's ownership changed three times after 1973, including a bankruptcy in 1978. American Chrysler Corporation took control of Lamborghini in 1987 and sold it to Malaysian investment group Mycom Setdco and Indonesian group V'Power Corporation in 1994. In 1998, Mycom Setdco and V'Power sold Lamborghini to the Volkswagen Group where it was placed under the control of the group's Audi division. New products and model lines were introduced to the brand's portfolio and brought to the market and saw an increased productivity for the brand Lamborghini. In the late 2000s, during the worldwide financial crisis and the subsequent economic crisis, Lamborghini's sales saw a drop of nearly 50 percent. Lamborghini produces sports cars and V12 engines for offshore powerboat

Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A. (Italian: [lamborˈɡiːni] ( listen)) is an Italian brand and manufacturer of luxury sports cars and SUVs based in Sant'Agata Bolognese, Italy. The company is owned by the Volkswagen Group through its subsidiary Audi.

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racing. Lamborghini currently produces the V12-powered Aventador and the V10-powered Huracán.

History

Main article: History of Lamborghini

Manufacturing magnate Italian Ferruccio Lamborghini founded the company in 1963 with the objective of producing a refined grand touring car to compete with offerings from established marques such as Ferrari. The company's first models, such as the 350 GT, were released in the mid-1960s and were noted for their refinement, power and comfort. Lamborghini gained wide acclaim in 1966 for the Miura sports coupé, which established rear mid-engine, rear wheel drive as the standard layout for high-performance cars of the era. Lamborghini grew rapidly during its first ten years, but sales plunged in the wake of the 1973 worldwide financial downturn and the oil crisis. Ferruccio Lamborghini sold ownership of the company to Georges-Henri Rossetti and René Leimer and retired in 1974. The company went bankrupt in 1978, and was placed in the receivership of brothers Jean-Claude and Patrick Mimran in 1980. The Mimrans purchased the company out of receivership by 1984 and invested heavily in the company's expansion. Under the Mimrans' management, Lamborghini's model line was expanded from the Countach to include the Jalpa sports car and the LM002 high performance off-road vehicle. The Mimrans sold Lamborghini to the Chrysler Corporation in 1987. After replacing the Countach with the Diablo and discontinuing the Jalpa and the LM002, Chrysler sold Lamborghini to Malaysian investment group Mycom Setdco and Indonesian group V'Power Corporation in 1994. In 1998, Mycom Setdco and V'Power sold Lamborghini to the Volkswagen Group where it was placed under the control of the group's Audi division. New products and model lines were introduced to the brand's portfolio and brought to the market and saw an increased productivity for the brand Lamborghini. In the late 2000s, during the worldwide financial crisis and the subsequent economic crisis, Lamborghini's sales saw a drop of nearly 50 percent.

Products

Automobiles

Main article: List of Lamborghini automobiles

Huracán

As of the 2015 model year, Lamborghini's automobile product range consists of two model lines, both of which are mid-engine two-seat sports cars. The V12-powered Aventador line consists of the LP 700–4 coupé and roadster. The V10-powered Huracán line currently includes the all-wheel-drive LP 610-4 coupé and roadster, as well as the less powerful rear-wheel-drive LP 580-2

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coupé. Lamborghini intends to double its car production by producing as many SUVs by 2018 as sports cars.

Marine engines

L900 marine engine

Motori Marini Lamborghini produces a large V12 marine engine block for use in World Offshore Series Class 1 powerboats. A Lamborghini branded marine engine displaces approximately 8,171 cc (499 cu in) and outputs approximately 940 hp (700 kW).

Lamborghini motorcycle

In the mid-1980s, Lamborghini produced a limited-production run of a 1,000 cc sports motorcycle. UK weekly newspaper Motor Cycle News reported in 1994 – when featuring an example available through an Essex motorcycle retailer - that 24 examples were produced with a Lamborghini alloy frame having adjustable steering head angle, Kawasaki GPz1000RX engine/transmission unit, Ceriani front forks and Marvic wheels. The bodywork was plastic and fully integrated with front fairing merged into fuel tank and seat cover ending in a rear tail-fairing. The motorcycles were designed by Lamborghini stylists and produced by French business Boxer Bikes.

Branded merchandise

Lamborghini licenses its brand to manufacturers that produce a variety of Lamborghini-branded consumer goods including scale models, clothing, accessories, bags, electronics and laptop computers.

Motorsport

The Miura began as a clandestine prototype, a car that had racing pedigree in a company that was entirely against motorsport. In contrast to his rival Enzo Ferrari, Ferruccio Lamborghini had decided early on that there would be no factory-supported racing of Lamborghinis, viewing motorsport as too expensive and too draining on company resources. This was unusual for the time, as many sports car manufacturers sought to demonstrate the speed, reliability, and technical superiority through motorsport participation. Enzo Ferrari in particular was known for considering his road car business mostly a source of funding for his participation in motor racing. Ferruccio's policy led to tensions between him and his engineers, many of whom were racing enthusiasts; some had previously worked at Ferrari. When Dallara, Stanzani, and Wallace began dedicating their spare time to the development of the P400 prototype, they designed it to be a road car with racing potential, one that could win on the track and also be driven on the road by enthusiasts. When Ferruccio discovered the project, he allowed them to go ahead, seeing it as a

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potential marketing device for the company, while insisting that it would not be raced. The P400 went on to become the Miura. The closest the company came to building a true race car under Lamborghini's supervision were a few highly modified prototypes, including those built by factory test driver Bob Wallace, such as the Miura SV-based "Jota" and the Jarama S-based "Bob Wallace Special". In the mid-1970s, while Lamborghini was under the management of Georges-Henri Rossetti, Lamborghini entered into an agreement with BMW to develop, then manufacture 400 cars for BMW in order to meet Group 4 homologation requirements. BMW lacked experience developing a mid-engined vehicle and believed that Lamborghini's experience in that area would make Lamborghini an ideal choice of partner. Due to Lamborghini's shaky finances, Lamborghini fell behind schedule developing the car's structure and running gear. When Lamborghini failed to deliver working prototypes on time, BMW took the program in house, finishing development without Lamborghini. BMW contracted with Baur to produce the car, which BMW named the M1, delivering the first vehicle in October 1978.

The 1990 Lotus 102 featured a Lamborghini V12.

In 1985, Lamborghini's British importer developed the Countach QVX, in conjunction with Spice Engineering, for the 1986 Group C championship season. One car was built, but lack of sponsorship caused it to miss the season. The QVX competed in only one race, the non-championship 1986 Southern Suns 500 km race at Kyalami in South Africa, driven by Tiff Needell. Despite the car finishing better than it started, sponsorship could once again not be found and the programme was cancelled.

Lamborghini was an engine supplier in Formula One between the 1989 and 1993 Formula One seasons. It supplied engines to Larrousse (1989–1990, 1992–1993), Lotus (1990), Ligier (1991), Minardi (1992), and to the Modena team in 1991. While the latter is commonly referred to as a factory team, the company saw themselves as a supplier, not a backer. The 1992 Larrousse–Lamborghini was largely uncompetitive but noteworthy in its tendency to spew oil from its exhaust system. Cars following closely behind the Larrousse were commonly coloured yellowish-brown by the end of the race. Lamborghini's best result was achieved with Larrousse at the 1990 Japanese Grand Prix, when Aguri Suzuki finished third on home soil.

In late 1991, a Lamborghini Formula One motor was used in the Konrad KM-011 Group C sports car, but the car only lasted a few races before the project was canceled. The same engine, re-badged a Chrysler, Lamborghini's then-parent company, was tested by McLaren towards the end of the 1993 season, with the intent of using it during the 1994 season. Although driver Ayrton Senna was reportedly impressed with the engine's performance, McLaren pulled out of negotiations, choosing a Peugeot engine instead, and Chrysler ended the project.

Two racing versions of the Diablo were built for the Diablo Supertrophy, a single-model racing series held annually from 1996 to 1999. In the first year, the model used in the series was the Diablo SVR, while the Diablo 6.0 GTR was used for the remaining three years. Lamborghini

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developed the Murciélago R-GT as a production racing car to compete in the FIA GT Championship, the Super GT Championship and the American Le Mans Series in 2004. The car's highest placing in any race that year was the opening round of the FIA GT Championship at Valencia, where the car entered by Reiter Engineering finished third from a fifth-place start. In 2006, during the opening round of the Super GT championship at Suzuka, a car run by the Japan Lamborghini Owners Club garnered the first victory (in class) by an R-GT. A GT3 version of the Gallardo has been developed by Reiter Engineering. A Murciélago R-GT entered by All-Inkl.com racing, driven by Christophe Bouchut and Stefan Mücke, won the opening round of the FIA GT Championship held at Zhuhai International Circuit, achieving the first major international race victory for Lamborghini.

Marketing

Brand identity

The Lamborghini wordmark, as displayed on the back of its cars.

The world of bullfighting is a key part of Lamborghini's identity. In 1962, Ferruccio Lamborghini visited the Seville ranch of Don Eduardo Miura, a renowned breeder of Spanish fighting bulls. Lamborghini, a Taurus himself, was so impressed by the majestic Miura animals that he decided to adopt a raging bull as the emblem for the automaker he would open shortly.

Vehicle nomenclature

After producing two cars with alphanumeric designations, Lamborghini once again turned to the bull breeder for inspiration. Don Eduardo was filled with pride when he learned that Ferruccio had named a car for his family and their line of bulls; the fourth Miura to be produced was unveiled to him at his ranch in Seville. The automaker would continue to draw upon the bullfighting connection in future years. The Islero was named for the Miura bull that killed the famed bullfighter Manolete in 1947. Espada is the Spanish word for sword, sometimes used to refer to the bullfighter himself. The Jarama's name carried a special double meaning; though it was intended to refer only to the historic bullfighting region in Spain, Ferruccio was concerned about confusion with the also historic Jarama motor racing track. The Diablo (background) was named for a legendary bull, while the Countach (foreground) broke from the bullfighting tradition. After christening the Urraco after a bull breed, in 1974, Lamborghini broke from tradition, naming the Countach not for a bull, but for contacc (pronounced [kunˈtɑtʃ] ( listen)),a Piedmontese expletive.Legend has it that stylist Nuccio Bertone uttered the word in surprise when he first laid eyes on the Countach prototype, "Project 112". The LM002 (LM for Lamborghini Militaire) sport utility vehicle and the Silhouette (named after the popular racing category of the time) were other exceptions to the tradition.

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The Jalpa of 1982 was named for a bull breed; Diablo, for the Duke of Veragua's ferocious bull famous for fighting an epic battle against "El Chicorro" in Madrid in 1869; Murciélago, the legendary bull whose life was spared by "El Lagartijo" for his performance in 1879; Gallardo, named for one of the five ancestral castes of the Spanish fighting bull breed; and Reventón, the bull that defeated young Mexican torero Félix Guzmán in 1943. The Estoque concept of 2008 was named for the estoc, the sword traditionally used by matadors during bullfights.

Concept vehicles

The Concept S, a Gallardo derivative.

Throughout its history, Lamborghini has envisioned and presented a variety of concept cars, beginning in 1963 with the very first Lamborghini prototype, the 350GTV. Other famous models include Bertone's 1967 Marzal, 1974 Bravo, and 1980 Athon, Chrysler's 1987 Portofino, the Italdesign-styled Cala from 1995, the Zagato-built Raptor from 1996. A retro-styled Lamborghini Miura concept car, the first creation of chief designer Walter de'Silva, was presented in 2006. President and CEO Stephan Winkelmann denied that the concept would be put into production, saying that the Miura concept was "a celebration of our history, but Lamborghini is about the future. Retro design is not what we are here for. So we won’t do the Miura.”At the 2008 Paris Motor Show, Lamborghini revealed the Estoque, a four-door sedan concept. Although there had been much speculation regarding the Estoque's eventual production, Lamborghini management has not made a decision regarding production of what might be the first four-door car to roll out of the Sant'Agata factory.

The Estoque, a 2008 sedan concept.

At the 2010 Paris Motor Show, Lamborghini unveiled the Sesto Elemento. The concept car is made almost entirely of carbon fibre making it extremely light, weighing only 999 kg. The Sesto Elemento shares the same V10 engine found in the Lamborghini Gallardo. Lamborghini hopes to signal a shift in the company's direction from making super cars focused on top speed to producing more agile, track focused cars with the Sesto Elemento. The concept car can reach 0–62 in 2.5 seconds and can reach a top speed of over 180 mph.

At the 2012 Geneva Motor Show, Lamborghini unveiled the Aventador J – a roofless, windowless version of the Lamborghini Aventador. The Aventador J uses the same 700 hp engine and seven-speed transmission as the standard Aventador.

At the 2012 Beijing Motor Show, Lamborghini unveiled the Urus SUV. This is the first SUV By Lamborghini since the LM002.

As part of the celebration of 50 years of Lamborghini, the company unveiled the Egoista. Egoista is for one person's driving and only one of Egoista is to be made.

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At the 2014 Paris Motor Show, Lamborghini unveiled the Asterion LPI910-4 hybrid concept car. Named after the actual half-man, half-bull hybrid (Minotaur) of Greek legend, it is the first hybrid Lamborghini in the history of the company ("Asterion" was the traditional proper name of another hybrid – namely, . Utilizing the Huracán's 5.2 litre V10 producing 607 horsepower, along with one electric motor mounted on the transaxle and an additional two on the front axle, developing an additional 300 horsepower. This puts the power at a combined figure of 907 horsepower. 0–100 km/h is claimed to be "just above 3 seconds," with a claimed top speed of 185 mph.

Corporate affairs

Structure

As of 2011, Lamborghini is structured as a wholly owned subsidiary of AUDI AG named Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A.

Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A. controls five principal subsidiaries: Ducati Motor Holding S.p.A., a manufacturer of motorcycles; Italdesign Giugiaro S.p.A., a 90.1%-owned design and prototyping firm that provides services to the entire Volkswagen Group; MML S.p.A. (Motori Marini Lamborghini), a manufacturer of marine engine blocks; and VOLKSWAGEN GROUP ITALIA S.p.A. (formerly AUTOGERMA S.p.A.), which sells Audi and other Volkswagen Group vehicles in Italy.

Sales results

By sales, the most important markets in 2004 for Lamborghini's sports cars are the U.S. (41%), Germany (13%), Great Britain (9%) and Japan (8%). Prior to the launch of the Gallardo in 2003, Lamborghini produced approximately 400 vehicles per year; in 2011 Lamborghini produced 1,711 vehicles.

Licensing

Automóviles Lamborghini Latinoamérica

Automóviles Lamborghini Latinoamérica S.A. de C.V. (Lamborghini Automobiles of Latin America Public Limited Company) is an authorized distributor and manufacturer of Lamborghini-branded vehicles and merchandise in Latin America and South America.

In 1995, Indonesian corporation MegaTech, Lamborghini's owner at the time, entered into distribution and license agreements with Mexican businessman Jorge Antonio Fernandez Garcia. The agreements give Automóviles Lamborghini Latinoamérica S.A. de C.V. the exclusive distributorship of Lamborghini vehicles and branded merchandise in Latin America and South America. Under the agreements, Automóviles Lamborghini is also allowed to manufacture Lamborghini vehicles and market them worldwide under the Lamborghini brand.

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Automóviles Lamborghini has produced two rebodied versions of the Diablo called the Eros and the Coatl. In 2015, Automóviles Lamborghini transferred the IP-rights to the Coatl foundation (chamber of commerce no. 63393700) in The Netherlands in order to secure these rights and to make them more marketable. The company has announced the production of a speedboat called the Lamborghini Glamour.

Museo Lamborghini

Main article: Museo Lamborghini

This two story museum is attached to the headquarters, and covers the history of Lamborghini cars and sport utility vehicles, showcasing a variety of modern and vintage models. The museum uses displays of cars, engines and photos to provide a history and review important milestones of Lamborghini.

Industry AutomotiveFounded in 1963

Headquarters Sant'Agata Bolognese, ItalyFounder Ferruccio Lamborghini

Key people Stefano Domenicali, CEOProducts & Service Automotive

Subsidiaries -

Porsche

History

Origin

Ferdinand Porsche founded the company called "Dr. Ing. h. c. F. Porsche GmbH" in 1931, with main offices at Kronenstraße 24 in the centre of Stuttgart. Initially, the company offered motor vehicle development work and consulting, but did not build any cars under its own name. One of

Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG, usually shortened to Porsche AG (German pronunciation: [ˈpɔʁʃə] ( listen)), is a German automobile manufacturer specializing in high-performance sports cars, SUVs and sedans. Porsche AG is headquartered in Stuttgart, and is owned by Volkswagen AG, which is itself majority-owned by Porsche Automobil Holding SE. Porsche's current lineup includes the 718 Boxster/Cayman, 911, Panamera, Macan and Cayenne.

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the first assignments the new company received was from the German government to design a car for the people, that is a "Volkswagen".This resulted in the Volkswagen Beetle, one of the most successful car designs of all time. The Porsche 64 was developed in 1939 using many components from the Beetle.

Panzerjäger Elefant, after the loss of the contract to the Tiger I Porsche recycled his design into a tank destroyer.

During World War II, Volkswagen production turned to the military version of the Volkswagen Beetle, the Kübelwagen, 52,000 produced, and Schwimmwagen, 15,584 produced. Porsche produced several designs for heavy tanks during the war, losing out to Henschel & Son in both contracts that ultimately led to the Tiger I and the Tiger II. However, not all this work was wasted, as the chassis Porsche designed for the Tiger I was used as the base for the Elefant tank destroyer. Porsche also developed the Maus super-heavy tank in the closing stages of the war, producing two prototypes.

At the end of World War II in 1945, the Volkswagen factory at KdF-Stadt fell to the British. Ferdinand lost his position as Chairman of the Board of Management of Volkswagen, and Ivan Hirst, a British Army Major, was put in charge of the factory. (In Wolfsburg, the Volkswagen company magazine dubbed him "The British Major who saved Volkswagen".) On 15 December of that year, Ferdinand was arrested for war crimes, but not tried. During his 20-month imprisonment, Ferdinand Porsche's son, Ferry Porsche, decided to build his own car, because he could not find an existing one that he wanted to buy. He also had to steer the company through some of its most difficult days until his father's release in August 1947. The first models of what was to become the 356 were built in a small sawmill in Gmünd, Austria. The prototype car was shown to German auto dealers, and when pre-orders reached a set threshold, production (with aluminium body) was begun by Porsche Konstruktionen GesmbH founded by Ferry and Louise. Many regard the 356 as the first Porsche simply because it was the first model sold by the fledgling company. After the production of 356 was taken over by the father's Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche GmbH in Stuttgart in 1950, Porsche commissioned a Zuffenhausen-based company, Reutter Karosserie, which had previously collaborated with the firm on Volkswagen Beetle prototypes, to produce the 356's steel body. In 1952, Porsche constructed an assembly plant (Werk 2) across the street from Reutter Karosserie; the main road in front of Werk 1, the oldest Porsche building, is now known as Porschestrasse. The 356 was road certified in 1948.

Coat of arms of Stuttgart

Porsche's company logo was based on the coat of arms of the Free People's State of Württemberg of former Weimar Germany, which had Stuttgart as its capital. The arms of Stuttgart was placed in the middle as an inescutcheon, since the cars were made in Stuttgart. The heraldic symbols were combined with the texts "Porsche" and "Stuttgart", which shows that it is not a coat of arms

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since heraldic achievements never spell out the name of the armiger nor the armigers home town in the shield.

Württemberg-Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern became part of the present land of Baden-Württemberg in 1952 after the political consolidation of West Germany in 1949, and the old design of the arms of Württemberg now only lives on in the Porsche logo. On 30 January 1951, not long before the creation of Baden-Württemberg, Ferdinand Porsche died from complications following a stroke.

Developments

1952 Porsche 356 K/9-1 Prototype

In post-war Germany, parts were generally in short supply, so the 356 automobile used components from the Volkswagen Beetle, including the engine case from its internal combustion engine, transmission, and several parts used in the suspension. The 356, however, had several evolutionary stages, A, B, and C, while in production, and most Volkswagen-sourced parts were replaced by Porsche-made parts. Beginning in 1954 the 356s engines started utilizing engine cases designed specifically for the 356. The sleek bodywork was designed by Erwin Komenda, who also had designed the body of the Beetle. Porsche's signature designs have, from the beginning, featured air-cooled rear-engine configurations (like the Beetle), rare for other car manufacturers, but producing automobiles that are very well balanced.

In 1964, after a fair amount of success in motor-racing with various models including the 550 Spyder, and with the 356 needing a major re-design, the company launched the Porsche 911: another air-cooled, rear-engined sports car, this time with a six-cylinder "boxer" engine. The team to lay out the body shell design was led by Ferry Porsche's eldest son, Ferdinand Alexander Porsche (F. A.). The design phase for the 911 caused internal problems with Erwin Komenda, who led the body design department until then. F. A. Porsche complained Komenda made unauthorized changes to the design. Company leader Ferry Porsche took his son's drawings to neighbouring chassis manufacturer Reuter. Reuter's workshop was later acquired by Porsche (so-called Werk 2). Afterward Reuter became a seat manufacturer, today known as Keiper-Recaro.

The Porsche 912, from the 1960s

The design office gave sequential numbers to every project (See Porsche type numbers), but the designated 901 nomenclature contravened Peugeot's trademarks on all 'x0x' names, so it was adjusted to 911. Racing models adhered to the "correct" numbering sequence: 904, 906, 908. The 911 has become Porsche's most well-known and iconic model – successful on the race-track, in rallies, and in terms of road car sales. Far more than any other model, the Porsche brand is defined by the 911. It remains in production; however, after several generations of revision, current-model 911s share only the basic mechanical configuration of a rear-engined, six-cylinder

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coupé, and basic styling cues with the original car. A cost-reduced model with the same body, but with 356-derived four-cylinder engine, was sold as the 912.

In 1972, the company's legal form was changed from Kommanditgesellschaft (KG), or limited partnership, to Aktiengesellschaft (AG), or public limited company, because Ferry Porsche came to believe the scale of the company outgrew a "family operation", after learning about Soichiro Honda's "no family members in the company" policy at Honda. This led to the establishment of an Executive Board with members from outside the Porsche family, and a Supervisory Board consisting largely of family members. With this change, most family members in the operation of the company, including F. A. Porsche and Ferdinand Piëch, departed from the company.

F. A. Porsche founded his own design company, Porsche Design, which is renowned for exclusive sunglasses, watches, furniture, and many other luxury articles. Louise's son and Ferry's nephew Ferdinand Piëch, who was responsible for mechanical development of Porsche's production and racing cars (including the very successful 911, 908 and 917 models), formed his own engineering bureau, and developed a five-cylinder-inline diesel engine for Mercedes-Benz. A short time later he moved to Audi (used to be a division, then a subsidiary, of Volkswagen), and pursued his career through the entire company, ultimately becoming the Chairman of Volkswagen Group.

The first Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of Porsche AG was Dr. Ernst Fuhrmann, who had been working in the company's engine development division. Fuhrmann was responsible for the so-called Fuhrmann-engine, used in the 356 Carrera models as well as the 550 Spyder, having four overhead camshafts instead of a central camshaft with pushrods, as in the Volkswagen-derived serial engines. He planned to cease the 911 during the 1970s and replace it with the V8-front engined grand sportswagon 928. As we know today, the 911 outlived the 928 by far. Fuhrmann was replaced in the early 1980s by Peter W. Schutz, an American manager and self-proclaimed 911 aficionados. He was then replaced in 1988 by the former manager of German computer company Nixdorf Computer AG, Arno Bohn, who made some costly miscalculations that led to his dismissal soon after, along with that of the development director, Dr. Ulrich Bez, who was formerly responsible for BMW's Z1 model, and is today the CEO of Aston Martin.

Porsche 911 (964), introduced in 1989, was the first to be offered with Porsche's Tiptronic transmission and four-wheel drive.

In 1990, Porsche drew up a memorandum of understanding with Toyota to learn and benefit from Japanese lean manufacturing methods. In 2004 it was reported that Toyota was assisting Porsche with hybrid technology.

Following the dismissal of Bohn, Heinz Branitzki, a longtime Porsche employee, was appointed as interim CEO. Branitzki served in that position until Wendelin Wiedeking became CEO in 1993. Wiedeking took over the chairmanship of the board at a time when Porsche appeared

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vulnerable to a takeover by a larger company. During his long tenure, Wiedeking transformed Porsche into a very efficient and profitable company.

Ferdinand Porsche's nephew, Ferdinand Piëch, was chairman and CEO of the Volkswagen Group from 1993 to 2002, and is chairman of the Volkswagen AG Supervisory Board since. With 12.8 percent of the Porsche SE voting shares, he also remains the second largest individual shareholder of Porsche SE after his cousin, F. A. Porsche, (13.6 percent).

Porsche's 2002 introduction of the Cayenne also marked the unveiling of a new production facility in Leipzig, Saxony, which once accounted for nearly half of Porsche's annual output. In 2004, production of the 456 kilowatts (620 PS; 612 bhp) Carrera GT commenced in Leipzig, and at EUR 450,000 ($440,000 in the United States) it was the most expensive production model Porsche ever built.

Porsche 911 (991)

In mid-2006, after years of the Boxster (and later the Cayenne) as the best selling Porsche in North America, the 911 regained its position as Porsche's best-seller in the region. The Cayenne and 911 have cycled as the top-selling model since. In Germany, the 911 outsells the Boxster/Cayman and Cayenne.

In May 2011, Porsche Cars North America announced plans to spend $80–$100 million, but will receive about $15 million in economic incentives to move their North American headquarters from Sandy Springs, a suburb of Atlanta, to Aerotropolis, Atlanta, a new mixed-use development on the site of the old Ford Hapeville plant adjacent to Atlanta's airport. Designed by architectural firm HOK, the headquarters will include a new office building and test track. The facility will be known by its new address, One Porsche Drive.

Relationship with Volkswagen

The company has always had a close relationship with, initially, the Volkswagen (VW) marque, and later, the Volkswagen Group (which also owns Audi AG), because the first Volkswagen Beetle was designed by Ferdinand Porsche.

The two companies collaborated in 1969 to make the VW-Porsche 914 and 914-6, whereby the 914-6 had a Porsche engine, and the 914 had a Volkswagen engine. Further collaboration in 1976 resulted in the Porsche 912E (USA only) and the Porsche 924, which used many Audi components, and was built at Audi's Neckarsulm factory. Porsche 944s were also built there, although they used far fewer Volkswagen components. The Cayenne, introduced in 2002, shares its chassis with the Volkswagen Touareg and the Audi Q7, which is built at the Volkswagen Group factory in Bratislava, Slovakia.

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Corporate restructuring

A 911 (991) in front of the factory in which it was assembled, Porschewerk Stuttgart (right), and the manufacturer's central dealership, Porsche Zentrum Stuttgart (left).

Porsche SE was created in June 2007 by renaming the old Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG, and became a holding company for the families' stake in Porsche Zwischenholding GmbH (50.1%) (which in turn held 100% of the old Porsche AG) and Volkswagen AG (50.7%). At the same time, the new Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG (Porsche AG) was created for the car manufacturing business.

In August 2009, Porsche SE and Volkswagen AG reached an agreement that the car manufacturing operations of the two companies would merge in 2011, to form an "Integrated Automotive Group". The management of Volkswagen AG agreed to 50.76% of Volkswagen AG being owned by Porsche SE in return for Volkswagen AG management taking Porsche SE management positions (in order for Volkswagen management to remain in control), and for Volkswagen AG acquiring ownership of Porsche AG.

As of the end of 2015, the 52.2% control interest in VW AG is the predominant investment by Porsche SE, and Volkswagen AG in turn controls brands and companies such as Volkswagen, Audi, SEAT, Škoda, Bentley, Bugatti, Lamborghini, Porsche AG, Ducati, VW Commercial Vehicles, Scania, MAN, as well as Volkswagen Financial Services.

Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG (which stands for Doktor Ingenieur honoris causa Ferdinand Porsche Aktiengesellschaft), as a 100% subsidiary of VW AG, is responsible for the actual production and manufacture of the Porsche automobile line. The company currently produces Porsche 911, Boxster and Cayman sports cars, the Cayenne and Macan sport utility vehicles and the four-door Panamera.

Subsidiaries

Porsche AG has a 29% share in German engineering and design consultancy Bertrandt AG and 81.8% of Mieschke Hofmann und Partner.

Wholly owned subsidiaries of Porsche AG include Porsche Consulting GmbH.

Production and sales

The headquarters and main factory are located in Zuffenhausen, a district in Stuttgart, but the Cayenne and Panamera models are manufactured in Leipzig, Germany, and parts for the SUV are also assembled in the Volkswagen Touareg factory in Bratislava, Slovakia. Boxster and Cayman production was outsourced to Valmet Automotive in Finland from 1997 to 2011, and in 2012 production moved to Germany.

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In 2015, Porsche reported selling a total of 218,983 cars, 28,953 (13.22%) as domestic German sales, and 190,030 (86.78%) internationally.

The company has been highly successful in recent times, and indeed claims to have the highest profit per unit sold of any car company in the world. Table of profits (in millions of euros) and number of cars produced.

Production composition

Of the 234,497 cars produced in the 2015 financial year, 31,373 (13.4%) were 911 models, 21,978 (9.4%) were Boxster and Cayman cars, 79,700 (34%) were Cayennes, 15,055 (6.4%) were Panameras and 86,016 (36,7%) were Macans. There were 375 918 Spyder models also reported.

Models

The current Porsche model range includes sports cars from the Boxster roadster to their most famous product, the 911. The Cayman is a coupé otherwise similar to the Boxster. The Cayenne is Porsche's mid-size luxury sport utility vehicle (SUV). A high performance luxury saloon/sedan, the Panamera, was launched in 2009.

Consumer models

Porsche Cayman

Porsche Boxster

Porsche Panamera

Porsche Cayenne

2014 Porsche Macan

2013 Porsche 991

356

911 4-seat coupe, targa and cabriolet

911 GT1 Straßenversion

912

914

918 Spyder

55

924

928 4-seat grand tourer

930

944

959

968

964

993

996

997

991

Boxster (986,987,981) 2-seat roadster (Base, S, GTS, Spyder)

Carrera GT

Cayman (987,981) 2-seat coupe (Base, S, R, GTS, GT4)

Cayenne SUV

Macan SUV Crossover

Panamera 4-seat sports sedan

Racing models

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360 Cisitalia

550 Spyder

718

787

804

904

56

906

907

908

909 Bergspyder

910

917

918 RSR

919 hybrid

934

935

936

956

961

962

Porsche-March 89P

WSC-95 / LMP1-98

LMP2000 (never raced)

RS Spyder (9R6)

Prototypes and concept cars

Porsche Boxster concept

Porsche 114

Porsche 356/1

Porsche 695 (911 prototype)

Porsche 901 (911 prototype)

Porsche 916 (flat-6 914)

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Porsche 942

Porsche 959 Prototype

Porsche 969

Porsche 989

Porsche Boxster concept

Porsche C88

Porsche Panamericana

Porsche Mission E, all-electric 4-door

Tractors

Porsche Diesel Super

Porsche Type 110

Porsche AP Series

Porsche Junior (14 hp)

Porsche Standard (25 hp)

Porsche Super (38 hp)

Porsche Master (50 hp)

Porsche 312

Porsche 108F

Porsche R22

Hybrid and electric vehicles

In 2010 Porsche launched the Cayenne S Hybrid and announced the Panamera S Hybrid, and launched the Porsche 918 hypercar in 2014, which also features a hybrid system. Also a plug-in hybrid model called the Panamera S E-Hybrid was released in October 2013 in the United States and during the fourth quarter of 2013 in several European countries.

Porsche developed a prototype electric Porsche Boxster called the Boxster E in 2011 and a hybrid version of the 911 called the GT3 R Hybrid, developed with Williams Grand Prix Engineering in 2010.

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In July 2014 Porsche announced the launch by the end of 2014 of the Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid a plug-in hybrid, which will displace the Cayenne S Hybrid from the line up. The S E-Hybrid will be the first plug-in hybrid in the premium SUV segment and will allow Porsche to become the first automaker with three production plug-in hybrid models.

Aircraft engines

Porsche PFM 3200.

Motorsport

Main article: Porsche in motorsport

The Martini Racing blue and green "psychedelic" livery on a 1970 917K. This car raced at Watkins Glen in 1970. Porsche is the most successful brand in motorsport, scoring a total of more than 28,000 victories, including a record 16 outright wins at the 24 Hours of Le Mans. Porsche is currently the world's largest race car manufacturer. In 2006, Porsche built 195 race cars for various international motor sports events. In 2007, Porsche is expected to construct no fewer than 275 dedicated race cars (7 RS Spyder LMP2 prototypes, 37 GT2 spec 911 GT3-RSRs, and 231 911 GT3 Cup vehicles).

Pronunciation of "Porsche"

In keeping with the family name of founder Ferdinand Porsche, the company's name is pronounced [ˈpɔʁʃə] in German, which corresponds to /ˈpɔːrʃə/ porsh-ə in English, homophonous with the feminine name Portia. However, in English it is often erroneously pronounced as a single syllable /ˈpɔːrʃ/ porsh—without a final /ə/. In German orthography, word-final ⟨e⟩ is not silent but is instead an unstressed schwa.

Reputation

In a survey conducted by the Luxury Institute in New York, Porsche was awarded the title of "the most prestigious automobile brand". Five hundred households with a gross annual income of at least $200,000 and a net worth of at least $720,000 participated.

Porsche won the J.D. Power and Associates Initial Quality Study (IQS) in 2006, 2009, 2010, and 2014.

Reliability

A Canadian study in 2011 revealed that 97.4 percent of Porsches from the last 25 years are still on the road.

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In 2014, the Cayman and Boxster made the Consumer Reports list for most reliable vehicles on the road.

Porsche's 911 has been officially named by the Technischer Überwachungsverein (Technical Inspection Association) as Germany's most reliable car.

SUV reception

According to CNBC, even an at-the-time questionable foray into the SUV market with the Cayenne in 2003 could not damage Porsche credibility. In 2009, The Times journalist Andrew Frankel says on one level, it is the world's best 4x4; on another, it is the cynical exploitation of a glorious brand that risks long-term damage to that brand's very identity in the pursuit of easy money with his verdict being "Great car, if only it wasn't a Porsche".

In 2015, US News ranked the Macan as the best luxury compact SUV in its class.

Industry AutomotiveFounded in Stuttgart, Germany

(1931; 85 years ago)Headquarters Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg, Germany

Founder Ferdinand PorscheKey people Wolfgang Porsche, Chairman

Oliver Blume, CEO)Products & Service Automotive financial services, engineering

services, investment managementSubsidiaries Mieschke Hofmann und Partner

(81.8%)Porsche Consulting group

SEAT

Facilities

SEAT, S.A. (Spanish: [ˈse.at], Sociedad Española de Automóviles de Turismo) is a Spanish automobile manufacturer with its head office in Martorell, Spain. It was founded on May 9, 1950, by the Instituto Nacional de Industria (INI), a state-owned industrial holding company.

It is currently a wholly owned subsidiary of the German Volkswagen Group.

The headquarters of SEAT, S.A. are located at SEAT's industrial complex in Martorell near Barcelona, Spain.

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SEAT today is the only major Spanish car manufacturer with the ability and the infrastructure to develop its own cars in-house.

Its headquarters and main manufacturing facilities are located in Martorell, an industrial town located some 30 kilometres northwest of Barcelona, with a production capacity of around 500,000 units per annum. The plant was opened by King Juan Carlos of Spain on February 22, 1993, and replaced SEAT's former assembly plant by the coast in Barcelona's freeport zone (Zona Franca). A rail connection between SEAT's Martorell and Zona Franca complexes facilitates vehicle and parts transportation between the two sites.

The industrial complex in Martorell also hosts the facilities of SEAT Sport, SEAT's Technical Center, Research and Development Center (R&D), Design Center, Prototypes Centre of Development, SEAT Service Center (also incorporating the After-Sales Service division, the Customer Services division and the Catalunya Motor dealership), as well as the Genuine Parts Centre for SEAT, Volkswagen, Audi and Škoda brands.

The development and assembly facilities are some of the newest and most modern and efficient within the Volkswagen Group, giving the SEAT Martorell site the ability to produce high-quality cars not only for its own brand but also for other Volkswagen Group brands, such as Volkswagen and Audi. For example, the development and design of several Audi models (e.g. the Audi A1, the Audi A3 Sportback, the Audi Q5 etc.) and also several Audi development projects took place there, and from 2011 onwards the Martorell plant manufactures the Audi Q3 small SUV.

The Barcelona Zona Franca site includes the SEAT Training Centre, the Zona Franca Press Shop factory, producing stamped body parts, and the Barcelona Gearbox del Prat plant, producing gearboxes not only for SEAT but also for other Volkswagen Group marques (VW, Audi and Škoda); the latter plant was awarded the Volkswagen Excellence Award in 2009 by the Volkswagen Group for high-quality production process and product.

Another plant owned directly by SEAT from 1975 was the Landaben plant in Pamplona, but in December 1993 its ownership was transferred to the Volkswagen Group subsidiary "Volkswagen-Audi-Espana, S.A.", and the site today is producing Volkswagen cars in Spain. However, SEAT's Martorell site still provides support to Volkswagen's operations in the Pamplona plant when necessary, as it did after a serious fire in the paint shop in the Landaben VW plant in April 2007.

SEAT's Pavilion at Autostadt, Wolfsburg.

Factories of the Volkswagen Group currently producing SEAT models also include the Bratislava site in Slovakia and the Palmela AutoEuropa factory in Portugal, while in the past other plants were involved too in producing SEAT models, such as the factories in Germany (Wolfsburg) and Belgium. Future plans include a new Research and development (R&D) centre

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in the city of Barcelona in the field of environmental and energy efficiency for the entire Volkswagen Group and also the launch of a project on the city's urban mobility, as well as a SEAT museum in the Zona Franca's 'Nave A122' site hosting all production and prototype models ever presented by SEAT together with some special or limited edition vehicles with historical value for the brand and the automotive history of Spain.

Among SEAT's subsidiaries, the SEAT Deutschland GmbH subsidiary company is based in Mörfelden-Walldorf, Germany, and apart from its commercial activities has the further responsibility of operating SEAT's electronic platform, the SEAT IT Services Network. In Wolfsburg, Germany, in the middle of a lake inside the Autostadt, the Volkswagen Group's corporate theme park, is SEAT's thematic pavilion, one of the largest pavilions in the park.

Presence in different markets

SEAT 600, the first model exported by SEAT in 1965 to Colombia, became the best-selling car in Finland from 1970 to 1973.

In its 60 years, there was only a short period from 1953 to 1965 when the firm produced its cars exclusively for the domestic Spanish market. In 1965 and in a rather symbolic move, the company exported some 150 units of its SEAT 600 model destined for Colombia by air freight for the first time, until two years later in 1967 SEAT reached a deal over the renegotiation of its licence contract with Fiat which allowed the Spanish firm to form an international distribution network for its cars and thereafter start its export operations massively to more than twelve different countries, entering the export market in 1969. Until the early 1980s, however, most SEAT exports were sold with Fiat badging. As a response to SEAT's bid for independence, Fiat committed them to selling 200,000 SEAT-built cars a year from 1981, compared to 120,000 the year before. At the end of 1983, just after SEAT had won its legal battle with Fiat, a quarter of the production went to Egypt and Latin America. In Europe, they were represented in West Germany, Belgium, France, Italy, Austria, and Greece. The UK, Ireland, and various Scandinavian markets were planned to be added in 1984. This was in spite of the company only being able to export the Ronda, with the Fura to follow.

To date, the company has launched its own models in more than 70 countries worldwide in accordance with the development policies of the Volkswagen Group, with almost three-quarters of its annual production representing exports for the markets out of Spain. Its core market remains Europe, while the most successful market outside of Europe in terms of sales for SEAT is currently Mexico, where the company has dealer presence in 27 Mexican states.

In Europe the brand has been launched in almost 40 countries across Northern, Western, Southern, Eastern Europe and Russia. SEAT today also sells its cars in 11 countries in Asia, mostly in the Middle East and the Arabian peninsula, in 16 countries in Americas including

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North America, the Caribbean Sea, Central America and South America, and finally Africa, mainly in North Africa. Some of its cars have been sold outside Europe, branded as Volkswagens, such as the SEAT Ibiza hatchback, known in South Africa as the Volkswagen Polo Playa, the SEAT Inca panel van as the Volkswagen Caddy, or the SEAT Córdoba, also known as the Volkswagen Polo Classic.

In the years to come SEAT plans expanding in even more markets, the most crucial of them all being China. While in the past SEAT held talks with the Chinese car maker FAW in order to form an alliance for the local production of SEAT models in China-located plants, the present project to enter the Chinese market comprises in 2012 first to start selling its range with cars produced in SEAT's Spain-located Martorell plant, followed later in a second phase by the local assembly of SEAT models in China.

SEAT's further expansion plans in more markets outside of Europe have yet to be realised. In the past the company was considering a possible launch in the United States although this move has never been carried out.Rumours also of a SEAT model being sold as a Volkswagen in Canada and the United States to supplement the Volkswagen's brand lineup there have occasionally circulated, but have always been unsubstantiated, and ultimately proven to be false.

In the past other market areas where the brand was also present for a short time were Australia and New Zealand (from 1995 to 1999) as well as South Africa (from June 2006 to the end of 2008), however the brand was withdrawn from those markets due to Volkswagen's decision citing that current and expected circumstances made the ongoing importation of a niche brand non-viable. SEAT has been present in the Russian Federation since 2007.

History

Establishment of SEAT

Spain is the world's eighth largest producer of automobiles and its car market stands among the largest in Europe. However, this has not always been the case; in the first half of the 20th century, Spain's economy was relatively underdeveloped compared to other western European countries and had a limited automobile market. In this period there was only limited car production and only a few low volume local manufacturers catering mainly to the luxury end of the market, of which Hispano-Suiza was the most successful. Spain's limited market for mass-produced vehicles was taken over by foreign companies operating through subsidiaries that either imported cars or assembled cars from imported parts, depriving the country of the technological know-how and large investments needed for mass production. The situation greatly deteriorated with the Spanish Civil War of 1936 to 1939. Car demand collapsed, not only due to the greatly reduced purchasing power of Spaniards caused by war devastation but also because

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the multinational subsidiaries either ceased operations or were severely stricken by the war and its aftermath.

The lack of interest shown by the foreign firms in the weakened post civil war Spanish market opened an opportunity for local interests.[47] SEAT dates its origins back to June 22, 1940 when the Spanish bank 'Banco Urquijo', with the support of a group of industrial companies, (Hispano-Suiza, Basconia, Duro-Felguera, S.E. de Construcción Naval, Euskalduna, S.E. de Construcciones Metálicas, Fundiciones Bolueta, Echevarría etc.) founded the 'Sociedad Ibérica de Automóviles de Turismo' (S.I.A.T.) with the goal of establishing Spain's own mass production car maker. The initial Banco Urquijo's project aimed at running the S.I.A.T. motor company as a fully private enterprise but soon after 1941 the interventionist state holding company Instituto Nacional de Industria (INI) following a decision taken by the Franco government on January 3, 1942. The goal for the new national car brand was not to be only another licensee car maker assembling foreign designs and parts in Spain, but of developing the whole manufacturing process from design to assembly within Spain. Because of the country's lack of expertise in automotive mass-production development, it was decided to find a foreign partner who would contribute technically and with its own models in the early years in exchange for cash, shares, bonds and royalties. With the rest of Europe having entered the World War II, and Spain itself in ruins from its civil war, the project was delayed but not abandoned due to its strategic importance.

José Ortiz-Echagüe Puertas, SEAT's first ever president, was in 1976 made honorary president for life.

SEAT under its current name was founded on May 9, 1950 under the denomination 'Sociedad Española de Automóviles de Turismo, S.A.' (S.E.A.T.) by the Instituto Nacional de Industria (INI) with a starting capital of 600 million pesetas — equivalent today of almost 3.6 million Euros — in the form of 600 thousand shares of one thousand Pesetas each, and in a time when the country was in need of remodelling the fundamental structures in its national economy, just after the end of the World War II. The birth of SEAT came almost a year and a half after the Spanish government and six Spanish banks ('Banco Urquijo', 'Banco Español de Crédito (Banesto)', 'Banco de Bilbao', 'Banco de Vizcaya', 'Banco Hispano-Americano' and 'Banco Central') had signed on October 26, 1948 an alliance contract with the Italian car manufacturer Fiat so as to form a partnership with a foreign ally in order to bring to life Spain's major car manufacturer. The favoured bidders were Germany's Volkswagen and Italy's Fiat. Fiat's bid won for several reasons including Fiat's prominence in Spain and the fact that the company established the short-lived 'Fiat Hispania' plant in Guadalajara, which was destroyed in the Spanish Civil War. Fiat's collaboration with the French company Simca proved Fiat's ability to manage complex international projects. Fiat's experience in the semi-protected car market in Italy was seen as the most easily transferable to the one in Spain, both of which had, at the time, customers of low incomes and limited markets for cars, as well as similar road conditions. In Italy, Fiat dominated the market for vehicles under 12 horsepower, which would initially be the

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main market segment in Spain. The relative economic isolation of World War II damaged Italy and made Fiat interested in opportunities outside Italy, meaning that the negotiations with the Italian manufacturer could prosper more easily in favour of Spanish interests than with those from other countries. In 1947, the Banco Urquijo group had revived the S.I.A.T. project and in the next year the talks ended successfully with the signing of a three-part contract, with the understanding that the INI would hold a 51% controlling interest as well as a ruling act in the new company preserving a focused approach of the enterprise in the 'national interest'. The Banco Urquijo group, although a minority share holder, looked forward to assuming a leading role in the future as soon as the company was privatesed. Partner car maker Fiat was offered a 7% share in exchange of its technical assistance. This way SEAT not only would be able to reinitiate the country's economic recovery and as the largest employer in the 1960s and 1970s but would also contribute to the industrialisation of what was still a largely rural eoconomy.

Even though there were initial thoughts of locating in less developed inland cities like Valladolid and Burgos, it was decided that the company's plant would be constructed in the duty-free zone area of the Port of Barcelona (Barcelona Zona Franca), which would offer better access to the Mediterranean shipping and the rest of Europe through rail and road connections across the nearby French border. Barcelona was after all a city with an industrial history that had built up expertise in complex industrial enterprises since the latter part of the 19th century; it was also the host location of many early historical Spanish car makers, like Hispano-Suiza and Elizalde, and subsidiaries of foreign car makers, like 'Ford Motor Ibérica' and 'General Motors Peninsular'. Being an enterprise of vital interest for the national economy as well as an investment opportunity for Fiat's expansion plans through the Iberian peninsula, SEAT benefitted from state tariff and tax exemptions and technical assistance from its foreign partner Fiat. The company’s first President was the industrial and aeronautical engineer, pilot and photographer José Ortiz-Echagüe Puertas, who came from the Spanish aircraft manufacturer Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA where he had held the position of CEO, and who in 1976 was meant to be named the Honorary lifetime president of SEAT.

Partnership with Fiat

The construction works for SEAT's Zona Franca plant began on 1950 and the opening day came three years later on June 5, 1953, while in the meantime since 1951 the Spanish marque was starting preparations for setting up almost from scratch an entire supplier industry background. The first car in the marque's history to be produced was a SEAT 1400 model that came off the production line on November 13, 1953 with licence plate 'B-87.223'. In the following few months the plant's production output and workforce would significally increase together with the implementation of locally made components in the production process, in order to limit imports from one part and from another part to push to the development of the almost non-existent Spanish supplier industry and meet SEAT's assigned key role as the national car maker in

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restoring the Spanish economy of the post World War II Spain. By 1954 the use of Spanish-made parts had risen to 93% of the total and next year on May 5, 1955 the factory was officially opened. Nevertheless, the impact to the Spanish society could not be seen clear immediately, since the first model launched by SEAT was considered a luxury car therefore it was highly priced and still not affordable to the average Spanish consumer. Consequently, SEAT needed a second more economical model to compete against simpler inexpensive designs that appeared in the local market, like the Biscúter, which seemed to suit better to the unwealthy customers looking for a personal mean of transport in a suffering economic environment.

Until the time SEAT had the technical maturity and expertise to present its first self-developed model the SEAT 1200 Sport in 1975, in its beginnings the company had to manufacture either rebadged or restyled models borrowed from the range of its Italian partner Fiat Automobiles, or even redeveloped them according to the needs of its own range. However the first example of a SEAT exclusive derivative would arrive already on September 1963 with the launch of the SEAT 800, a car which was developed in-house by SEAT with no equivalent model in Fiat's range on the basis of the SEAT 600 as a stretched version with 4-doors.

In 1957 SEAT founded the SEAT Training Centre in the greater Zona Franca plant area, an institution covering the training of qualified personnel and serving the needs of the automobile industry in specialized technical human resources. In that same year was launched the historical SEAT 600, which proved to be the crucial car that literally motorized Spain, being the first car for many Spanish families and becoming a symbol of the Spanish Miracle.

As the growth of the annual production was hitting one record after another due to the heavy demand, the economies of scale achieved would permit cutting costs and prices, subsequently renew demand and boost sales together with profits for SEAT. On June 29, 1964, the brand opened its new headquarters in Madrid, which hosted the firm's sole — up to 1972 — general administration offices. In Barcelona was found only SEAT's plant manager until 1973, a year when SEAT settled in Catalonia another general direction.

In 1967, fourteen years after producing cars for the domestic market, SEAT's success was signaled by its dominant position in Spain, ahead of its major competitors, i.e. 'FASA-Renault', 'Citroën-Hispania', Authi and Barreiros, making SEAT the Spain's largest auto-maker in sales numbers and a wholly localized production. In that year an agreement between Fiat and the Spanish Ministry of Industry was reached so as to put an end in the restrictions over exporting SEAT cars out of Spain, a term of the original licensee contract agreed with Fiat in 1948. In exchange for that, Fiat would increase its holding in the company from 7% to 36%, and at the same time the share held by the government holding agency would be reduced from a controlling 51% to 32%. The remaining 32% was taken by the six major Spanish banks, decreased from their previous 42% share split equally in 7% parts owned by every single one of them. Although not a majority owner, Fiat now was seen to control the business: the deal also included various undertakings by Fiat to help in the growth of SEAT, and with the development of a new model

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(possibly the SEAT 133). On December 6, 1967, SEAT also founded its own customer financing company 'Financiera SEAT, S.A.' (Fiseat).

To be able to produce independently its own research projects, SEAT on November 16, 1970 came in accordance with Fiat so as to start building separate infrastructures aiming at developing new technologies. As the brand arranged in 1972 some provisional facilities in the site of the future Technical Center in Martorell and in 1973 began construction works, this goal would only take five years till 1975 to be reached with the completion of the first phase in the construction of SEAT's Technical Center, a facility designed by the Catalan architect Josep Antoni Coderch.

During the same period, the manufacturer continued to dominate the Spanish auto market, producing 282,698 cars — more than 58% of the Spanish production total — in 1971 despite disruption that year caused by strikes and a serious flood at the coastally sited Barcelona plant. However, with just 81 cars per thousand people, Spanish car sales were seen as ripe for further growth, and SEAT faced the prospect of increased competition with other major manufacturers contemplating establishment or expansion of 'local' production facilities in the still heavily protected Spanish car market.

In 1973, SEAT and 'Citroën-Hispania' jointly contributed equal shares in founding the Vigo-located factory of 'Industrias Mecánicas de Galicia, SA' (Indugasa) producing constant-velocity joints, essential components used in front-wheel drive cars i.e. in a transmission layout the use of which was becoming more and more common at the time. This plant — which in the next years would supply parts not only to SEAT and 'Citroën-Hispania' but also to 'Ford España' — was meant to be transferred later in 1986 to the multinational company GKN.

On May 1975, after a request from the Spanish state authorities to ensure the rescue of the jobs for the workers in the Authi owned factories, SEAT moved on talks with the parent company British Leyland Motor Corporation (BLMC) of the bankrupt Authi in order to take over the brand's operations in Spain leaving aside GM's interest in it, something which would otherwise open the path for the American automaker to enter the Spanish market thus jeopardizing the relationship with Fiat. The talks ended soon on July 1975, when an agreement was announced between the two parts under which SEAT would acquire from BLMC the Authi brand along with its assets for 1,250 million pesetas. The imposed acquisition of the Landaben plant would also result in giving up SEAT's plans to build a new facility in Saragossa. Although the Authi supplier factory in Manresa was transferred to a company called Cometsa for 150 million pesetas, the Landaben plant in Pamplona remained under SEAT's ownership to continue production on February 1976 only of SEAT cars this time.

The 1970s were a decade of rising prosperity in Spain, which is reflected in the announcement in August 1976 that SEAT would commence local production of the Lancia Beta. Three years later Beta production by SEAT indeed commenced at the company's recently acquired Pamplona plant, though only the Coupe and HPE lift-back versions were included. The Spanish cars were

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fitted with a simplified suspension system and smaller engines than their Italian counterparts in order to qualify for a lower car tax rate.In 1977 SEAT's leasing company Liseat was founded and in 1979 the Gearbox del Prat facility was set up as a specialised plant in the production of gearboxes, gear mechanisms and differentials in El Prat del Llobregat near Barcelona.

Dispute with Fiat

In the early 1980s, extensive discussions concerning funding and control took place between SEAT's major shareholder, the Spanish government, and Fiat Automobiles; SEAT needed major capital investment, which Fiat was not prepared to contribute, partially due to the oil crisis of the 1970s and in also due to the uncertainty for Fiat's interests following the end of a protectionist policy against GM in Spain. The outcome, in 1982, was an end to the relationship with Fiat after nearly 30 years, a rather surprising decision in spite of the favourable perspectives for the Spanish economy with Spain being in the anteroom of the European Economic Community since 1977.

SEAT Ronda

The end of the co-operation with the Italian firm was marked by a change in SEAT's logo in 1982, and the first car under the new SEAT logo without Fiat involvement appeared in the same year, the SEAT Ronda, styled by Rayton Fissore in collaboration with the Technical Centre in Martorell. The launch of this model though sparked a lawsuit from Fiat against SEAT, as the former claimed the car was too similar to a car in Fiat's range, the Ritmo. In defence of SEAT, the then president of SEAT, Juan Miguel Antoñanzas, showed a Ronda to the press with all the parts different from the Fiat Ritmo painted in bright yellow, to highlight the differences. The case was eventually taken to the Arbitration Chamber of Paris which in 1983 declared that differences between both cars were important enough so as not to consider the Ronda as a rebadged Ritmo, ending the dispute in favour of SEAT. Rumour at the time had it that Fiat was angry because the Ronda restyling was in fact too close to their own planned restyling for the Fiat Ritmo, which they had to scrap.

Volkswagen Group subsidiary

It was the first model developed by SEAT as an independent company, together with Porsche and Karmann.

In 1982, Dr. Carl Horst Hahn — who had just assumed responsibility as the chairman of the Volkswagenwerk AG (Volkswagen Group) — examined the opportunity of approaching SEAT after Fiat's withdrawal, in his plan to expand the Volkswagen Group's operations out of Germany and turning the German group into a global force. It would also follow the precedent set by other global manufacturers (such as Ford in Valencia and General Motors in Zaragoza) in setting up manufacturing operations in Spain. However, the Spanish authorities had already started talks

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with other foreign firms such as Toyota, Nissan and Mitsubishi in order to choose a strong partner for SEAT. But it was Hahn's interest that would soon result in an industrial and commercial cooperation as well as a license agreement with SEAT on September 30, 1982 for the production in Spain of the Volkswagen Passat-Santana and Polo-Derby models in SEAT's Zona Franca and Landaben factories respectively — having thus as an effect on April 29, 1983 the ending of the SEAT Panda's production at the Landaben assembly lines due to need of adapting this plant to the production of the VW Polo — and eventually a partnership agreement was signed on June 16, 1983 between the two parts being represented by the president of SEAT Juan Miguel Antoñanzas and Carl Hahn on behalf of the Volkswagenwerk AG. SEAT also gained the rights to distribute Volkswagens in Spain.

SEAT launched its new Ibiza, a Giugiaro styled hatchback which made use of System Porsche engines and also featured underpinnings from the Fiat Ritmo/Strada, in 1984. It also formed the basis of the Malaga, a four-door family saloon. SEAT then began to expand into markets beyond Spain's borders, including the United Kingdom, where it began selling cars in the autumn of 1985. On June 18, 1986, after a purchase of the 51% majority stake of SEAT followed by the increase of its share up to 75% on December 23, the Volkswagen Group became the major shareholder of SEAT. On December 18, 1990 the Volkswagen Group acquired 99.99% ownership of the company, thus making SEAT the first non-German wholly owned subsidiary of the Group. Fulfilling Hahn's expectations, SEAT not only made a profit two years after Volkswagen bought a majority of its stock, but also provided a low-cost manufacturing outlet for other VW group models, contributing up to 15.2% of the VW group's total output in 1989 — as well as an opportunity to enter the relatively unexploited (at that time) Spanish market under the SEAT, VW and Audi names.

The gathering of the brand's main infrastructures in the greater Martorell plant area has taken place in a long process beginning back in 1975 with the opening of the SEAT Technical centre but it was only in 1989 when a decision was taken to start building a new main assembly facility next to the Technical Centre in Martorell replacing the old one in Zona Franca. In that same year began the translocation of SEAT's Madrid administration offices to Barcelona with the sale of two of the brand's assets in La Castellana to be completed in 1991 with the definitive installation of SEAT's headquarters in the Catalonia region.

The centralisation of the management, design, research and production facilities localized around the plant site was meant to serve the aim of optimising the development in the process of making new models. On February 22, 1993 King Juan Carlos of Spain and the newly elected since January 1, 1993 Chairman of the Volkswagen Group Dr. Ferdinand Piëch inaugurated the Martorell plant, one of the most modern and efficient car plants in Europe using the 'Just in time' process with its suppliers’ site located only 2.5 km away. The first cars that rolled out of the Martorell plant production lines were the SEAT Ibiza Mk2 and its saloon version, the SEAT

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Córdoba Mk1. The new Ibiza was a huge success for SEAT, greatly expanding its market share particularly on export markets.

The original planning in October 1993 to close the emblematic Zona Franca assembly plant as soon as the production of vehicles would be transferred to the more efficient Martorell plant was overturned after an arrangement between the Spanish authorities and the Volkswagen Group, according to which the Zona Franca site would continue its operations but would be gradually turned into a site with an auxiliary role in the production process (foundry, press-shop etc.). Meanwhile, on December 23, 1993, the 'Fábrica Navarra de Automóviles, S.A.' was founded as a new company to hold the management of the Landaben factory separating any ties to SEAT in production matters, with its shares being transferred to Volkswagen on June 1994 over which however SEAT would regain ownership four years later in 1998.

In 1994 the Design Center in Sitges — the Spanish coastal town south of Barcelona — and the suppliers' park in Zona Franca were also inaugurated, and in winter of the same year SEAT's financing and leasing companies — Fiseat and Liseat — were sold to 'Volkswagen Financial Services AG'. During 1994, SEAT in collaboration with Suzuki manufactured a 5-door prototype model of a city car, internally named as Rosé, aiming to replace with it the Marbella in its range, nevertheless this model never made it through to production.

The first time a SEAT model was manufactured out of Spain was in 1996, with the production of the SEAT Alhambra Mk1 in the Palmela AutoEuropa plant in Portugal. Also on January 1997 it was the first time when a non-Spanish descendant, the Belgian Pierre-Alain de Smedt, was ever appointed SEAT's chairman. The SEAT Arosa, a three-door city hatchback, was launched in 1997, effectively replacing the Marbella, SEAT's version of the Fiat Panda which had been in production since the early 1980s.

On April 7, 1998 the Zona Franca plant marked the end in the production life cycle of the Marbella model, signalising an historical moment for SEAT with the end of vehicle production in SEAT's oldest factory opened in 1953; ever since the Zona Franca plant produces components and parts to be assembled in other locations. It also signaled the demise of SEAT's last Fiat-based model.

In March 1999 at the Geneva Motor Show, SEAT presented a modern stylised logo, more rounded compared to the last one and with the use of the silver colour on a red background — instead of the previous blue — symbolising respectively the rational and the emotional. This came shortly after the launch of the second generation Toledo, and shortly before the launch of the Toledo-based Leon hatchback.

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The 'auto emoción' slogan was presented next year in September 2000 reflecting the brand's new youthful and sporty corporate identity, while SEAT Sport apart from its motorsport activities would undertake the responsibility of developing SEAT's high-performance vehicles.

Next year on July 1, 2000 Dr. Bernd Peter Pischetsrieder, the former Chief Executive Officer of BMW, was appointed to head SEAT. In the spring of 2002 as Pischetsrieder was commissioned to chair the entire Volkswagen Group, he gave way to his German compatriot Andreas Schleef on March 7, 2002.

SEAT León Mk1 Cupra R

From 2002 up to 2007 SEAT formed part of the Audi Brand Group, the Volkswagen Group's automotive sub-division, consisted of Audi, SEAT and Lamborghini, that was focused on more sporty values, with the marque's product vehicles and performance being under the higher responsibility of the Audi brand.

In 2006 the new SEAT corporate head office was opened in Martorell and the Martorell SEAT Design Centre superseded the Volkswagen Group Design Centre Europe at Sitges — which previously hosted the design facility jointly owned by SEAT, Volkswagen and Audi — as on February 23 of the same year an agreement over the transfer of the installations of the latter to the City of Sitges was closed, with the Martorell's Design Centre official opening on the other hand eventually taking place on December 30, 2007.

On January 12, 2007, there was the inauguration of the building of the SEAT Service Centre next to the southern entrance of the Martorell factory, the department focusing on technical support, after-sales and marketing purposes and also covering the feedback and the relationship of the brand with the customers and its worldwide network. On January 2007 began also operation the SEAT Prototypes Centre of Development located in the heart of the Martorell industrial complex, a facility inaugurated on July 16 of the same year, bringing together activities related to the virtual and physical preproduction process of new models (like prototyping, modeling, pilot product development and series analysis) thus shortening development times for prototypes and pre-production vehicles as well as saving costs with the use of modern technologies like virtual simulation.

Motorsport

Main article: SEAT Sport

SEAT's involvement in motorsport begins back in the 1970s with the brand's contribution to the national formula races in Spain and by the end of the same decade the start of its implication to rallies. In 1971, the 'Special Vehicles department' was formed with the mission to enforce the brand's participation in rally championships, followed by 11 titles between 1979 and 1983. The

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year 1985 was the moment when SEAT Sport was founded as a separate motorsport division and especially since the Volkswagen Group takeover in 1986, SEAT has been increasing even more its presence in the motorsport world, mainly down to VW's plan on focusing the SEAT brand as 'sporty' in order to appeal particularly to the younger generation of drivers. The result of this effort has been rewarded through SEAT's most prestigious titles in FIA championships, three conquests with the SEAT Ibiza Kit-Car in the FIA 2L World Rally Championship (WRC) (1996, 1997, 1998) and two times with the SEAT León in the FIA World Touring Car Championship (WTCC) (2008, 2009).

Rallying

SEAT's first serious attempt at a World Rally Championship (WRC) was back in the 1977 season when SEAT took part with its 'SEAT 1430/124D Especial 1800' race car, and already in its debut rallying event at the Montecarlo Rally the SEAT team finished in the third and fourth place with the official 1430-1800 cars being driven by Antonio Zanini and Salvador Cañellas. In the recent years the consignment was burdened on the small SEAT Ibiza, a 1.6L normally aspirated front-wheel drive car with its roots in the Volkswagen Polo. The Ibiza allowed the company to further evolve its rallying experience, and was officially engaged in some European national championships. The years went by until a 2L version of the Ibiza was homologated as a kit-car, and extra wide tracks, larger wheels, brakes, etc., were fitted to it as the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) kit-car regulations allow. With these attributes, the car succeeded three times the 2L World Champion ('96, '97, '98), proving its maker had accumulated enough experience, and budgets, to take a chance at the reign category, the World Rally Car class of rallying cars.

Daniel Solà with the SEAT Córdoba WRC at the Rallye de tierra de Cangas del Narcea.

SEATs three conquests of the FIA 2L WRC title, and the sport's popularity in Spain, probably convinced Volkswagen Group management to go further and allow the SEAT Sport department a chance to reach its goal in the top class WRC category. This situation came to an end in September 2000, when the company's German upper management revoked its decision forcing SEAT Sport to retire from the World Rally Championship.

SEATs project to build a WRC-spec car was officially announced during the 1997 San Remo rally. It was in 1998 that the first evolution of the 'SEAT Córdoba WRC' car was presented at the Porto Motor Show and then first enrolled by the company to compete at the highest level of WRC racing. The Córdoba was based on the family saloon of the same name but was, naturally, a WRC class car equipped with an inline-four turbocharged petrol engine, permanent four-wheel drive, and active differentials involved in its transmission. The 'Córdoba WRC' made its debut at the 1998 Rally of Finland, while a further development on the race car was incarnated on the 'SEAT Córdoba WRC E2' car which was presented at the Barcelona Motor Show in 1999. However, the short wheelbase and high-mounted engine (compared to its rivals) worked against

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the Córdoba, and results weren't top competing. Despite hiring ex-WRC champion Didier Auriol, and a new evolution of the car i.e. the 'SEAT Córdoba WRC E3', SEAT pulled out of international rallying at the end of 2000.

Touring cars

In 2002, SEAT announced a one-make championship for the new SEAT León Cupra R, the SEAT León Supercopa. In 2004, SEAT with Ray Mallock Ltd. (RML) entered the British Touring Car Championship, running two SEAT Toledo Cupra for former-BTCC Champion Jason Plato, and 2003 León UK Champion, Rob Huff. In 2005, Huff left to join Chevrolet (run by RML in the World Touring Car Championship (WTCC)), and he was replaced by 2004 Leon Champion James Pickford, and Luke Hines as SEAT expanded to three cars, now run by Northern South. 2006 saw the Toledo replaced by the new León, and Darren Turner joined the team with James Thompson when his WTCC commitments allowed. 2007 was SEAT's best year in BTCC, as Plato was locked in a season-long battle with Fabrizio Giovanardi, which came down to the final race of the season, but just missed out on the title.

Since 2005, SEAT has also competed in the World Touring Car Championship, with its first best season being 2007, where a failed water pump robbed Yvan Muller of certain victory at the final meeting in Macau. SEAT became the first team to run a TDI in the WTCC and this gave them a dominant 2008 World Touring Car Championship season, with Yvan Muller winning the drivers championship. French racing team Oreca cooperates with the WTCC team. SEAT's UK team followed suit in the 2008 BTCC. The BTCC team was sponsored by Holiday Inn.

In 2007, SEAT – with the León Mk2 TDI at the Motorsport Arena Oschersleben in Germany – became the first manufacturer to win a round of the World Touring Car Championship (WTCC) series in a diesel car, only a month after announcing it will enter the FIA World Touring Car Championship with the León TDI. SEAT's success with the León TDI was continued, and resulted in winning consecutively 2008 World Touring Car Championship and 2009 World Touring Car Championship both titles (for drivers' as well as for manufacturers').

In September 2008, SEAT UK announced that it was to withdraw from all motor sport activity in the UK at the end of the season. The SEAT Cupra Championship and the SEAT BTCC campaign are to end at Brands Hatch on 21 September. BTCC drivers Jason Plato and Darren Turner have been left without drives for 2009. But Plato will drive for Silverline Chevrolet.

At the opening of the 2009 WTCC, SEAT placed 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th in both races in Brazil. At the second meeting of the WTCC (in Mexico), the SEAT team placed 1st, 4th, 6th, 7th and 11th in the first race. The second race they placed 1st, 3rd, 7th, and 8th. While SEAT may have withdrawn from the BTCC, they are showing impressive results in the WTCC.

The SEAT Cupra GT in the Spanish GT championship for the SunRED racing team.

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Grand tourer cars

In 2003 the SEAT Sport division presented at the Barcelona Motor Show first as a concept car and later the final version of the SEAT Cupra GT race car, which was produced in limited series on customer demand addressed to expertised individuals and racing teams willing to take part in race events.The Cupra GT was chosen as a GT race car from racing teams, like the Sunred Engineering (SunRED) team, making its debut in 2004 in the Spanish GT Championship,and took part in several Grand tourer circuits not only in Spain but also run in tracks abroad like those of Monza and Magny-Cours.

Formula

In 1970 SEAT set up the 'Fórmula Nacional' series in Spain, a year later to be known as Formula 1430. The single seater formula cars, which took part driven by young Spanish drivers, were equipped under support from SEAT with engines of the 1430 model and 6700 gearboxes. The first race of the 'Fórmula Nacional' series took place at the Jarama circuit in Madrid.

Current model range

Mii Ibiza Toledo León Ateca Alhambra

City car Supermini Small family car Small family car SUV Large MPV

3DR (Hatchback)

5DR (Hatchback)

SC (Sports Coupé) (Hatchback)

5DR (Hatchback)

ST (Sports Tourer) (Estate/Wagon)

5DR (Liftback)

SC (Sports Coupé) (Hatchback)

5DR (Hatchback)

ST (Sports Tourer) (Estate/Wagon)

SUV

MPV

Seat Mii 1.0 Style – Frontansicht, 23. September 2012, Düsseldorf.

Seat Ibiza SC Style (6J, Facelift) – Frontansicht, 31. März 2012, Düsseldorf.

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Seat Toledo IV (front quarter).

Leon1.

2016-03-01 Geneva Motor Show G052.

Seat Alhambra (22)

FR models

Ibiza FR León FR

Supermini Small family car

SC (Sports Coupé) (Hatchback)

5DR (Hatchback)

SC (Sports Coupé) (Hatchback)

5DR (Hatchback)

ST (Sports Tourer) (Estate/Wagon)

SEAT IBIZA, 2012, IFEVI

Seat Leon III (front quarter).

Cupra models

Ibiza Cupra León Cupra

Supermini Small family car

SC (Sports Coupé) (Hatchback)

SC (Sports Coupé) (Hatchback)

5DR (Hatchback)

ST (Sports Tourer) (Estate/Wagon)

Seat Ibiza 6J Cupra.

Seat Leon Cupra R AME

Nomenclature

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SEAT's corporate tradition, as a Volkswagen Group subsidiary, has it that the nomenclature for a great number of models in its range gets inspired from the Spanish culture. For this purpose, a large number of SEAT's production models have been named after places in Spain (e.g. Arosa, Ibiza, Córdoba, León, Toledo, Altea, Alhambra, Málaga, Marbella, Ronda etc.). However, there have been several cases where the denomination for a specific model did not derive directly from the Spanish heritage of the marque. As an example given making this exception, the name for the SEAT Exeo — added to the brand's range in 2008 — was influenced from the Latin word ‘exire’ which means 'to go beyond'.

Following the marque's trend in production models, in many cases of concept cars too the names adopted were those either of Hispanic dances (e.g. Tango, Bolero, Salsa) or abbreviations still related to production models (e.g. IBZ for Ibiza, IBE for 'Ibiza Eléctrico', TL for Toledo etc.) or even names reminiscent of SEAT's sporting roots in the past (e.g. Fórmula, Cupra GT).

Moreover, in the recent years, there have been special versions in the production models' specific ranges carrying attachments such as SC (standing for SportCoupé) or ST (for SportTourer) discriminating relatively the 3-door and the estate versions from the standard 4/5-door ones, while the terms Cupra (for Cup Racing) and FR (for Fórmula Racing) have been used for the top-engine hardcore cars in the range, signalising SEAT's positioning as a sporty brand involved in the racetracks.

As a reminder from the past also comes the iconic 'Bocanegra' name, meaning 'black mouth' in Spanish, which accompanies the Ibiza model and has its origins in the SEAT 1200 Sport, the original 'SEAT Bocanegra' due to its black painted fascia in the front.

Sub-ranges

'Ecomotive' range

Almost every model in SEAT's range has an 'Ecomotive' derivative version, which in comparison to the standard version has a more eco-friendly tuning. Reduction of weight, low-resistance tyres, new aerodynamics, tweaks in the suspension, as well as changes made to the engine's electronic management software with an additional implementation of a maintenance-free Diesel Particle Filter (DPF) for the diesel engines, also updates in the gearbox and the gear ratios with a gearshift indicator in the dash panel reminding when it is the proper time to change gears, combined with an engine 'Start/Stop system' and an 'Energy Recuperation system' are some of the modifications adopted in the Ecomotive range in order to cut down both fuel consumption and emissions. The result is a range with some of the cleanest models featuring an improvement not only in gas and particles emissions but also in fuel economy, without big

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compromise in the vehicle's dynamic performance or practicality; for example the SEAT Ibiza Ecomotive 1.4 TDI has CO2 emissions coming up at 98 g/km and still it comes even faster from 0 to 100 km/h than the standard version featuring a 5-door body and air-conditioning, while the SEAT León Ecomotive's CO2 emissions are among the lowest in its segment too and raise up to 99 g/km. Up to the present, the Ecomotive range has been renowned in many occasions. In 2008, the Ibiza Ecomotive has been declared on top of the Verkehrs-Club Deutschland’s 2008/2009 list in the “environmentally beneficial vehicle” category and in the 10th Eco Tour not only it has won in the small diesel class but also proved to be the overall winner of all categories. In that specific year the SEAT Ibiza Ecomotive was also awarded with the 'Ecobest 2008' award by the Autobest organisation and the German newspaper Bild am Sonntag named it the 'most economic car of its class in the world'. The year 2009 has been the one when once more the Ibiza Ecomotive was nominated for the 'Green Steering wheel' award in Switzerland, and has set two consecutive times a new world record on fuel saving with a single tank, certified by the IPMC (International Police Motor Corporation) : the first when the Austrian Gerhard Plattner drove from Martorell (Spain) to Göttingen (Germany) with an average fuel consumption of 2.9 l/100 km and the second time in his route from Cieszyn (Poland) to Frankfurt (Germany) having achieved the world record in fuel consumption of 2.34 l/100 km (or 100 mpg U.S.) covering a distance of 1,910 km on a single tank.

'MultiFuel' range

The MultiFuel range consists in the introduction of the flexible-fuel vehicle bio-ethanol technology in selected SEAT models — i.e., the SEAT León MultiFuel, the SEAT Altea MultiFuel and the SEAT Altea XL MultiFuel — with the implementation of the 1.6 MPI MultiFuel E85 motor, capable of producing exactly the same horsepower (102 bhp) just like the relevant pure petrol version of the engine.

Sales and production figures

Since its beginnings in 1953, more than 16 million SEAT cars have been produced with the most successful product in the range being the SEAT Ibiza, a model which has sold over 4 million units in its four generations up to the present.

In the year 2009, the total annual retail sales number of SEAT cars was 336,683 vehicles, while the annual production of vehicles under the SEAT brand came up to 307,502 units (301,287 made in SEAT's Martorell plant and 6,215 in other Volkswagen group's factories).

The total production per year of SEAT cars, manufactured in SEAT and other Volkswagen group's plants, is shown in the following table (not comprising cars of other Volkswagen group's brands, produced in SEAT-owned facilities) :

Rebadges

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Under Volkswagen Group's ownership, numerous SEAT models have been rebadged under other brands, either inside the Volkswagen Group's portfolio or out of it.

In particular some examples, concerning the rebadges deriving from SEAT models and being carried out under other Volkswagen Group's brands, are the SEAT Ibiza Mk2 which has been rebadged under the VW brand as the VW Polo Playa, the SEAT Córdoba Mk1 rebadged as the VW Polo Classic — FAW-VW City-Golf — VW Derby, the SEAT Arosa as the VW Lupo, and the SEAT Inca as the VW Caddy.

Further rebadges have come under non Volkswagen Group brand ranges and some notable examples are the SEAT Ibiza Mk1 which has been rebadged as the Nanjing Yuejin Eagle

NJ6400-Unique NJ6400-Soyat NJ7150-Soyat Unique NJ1020, and the SEAT Toledo Mk1 as the Chery A11-Fulwin-Fengyun-Windcloud — Chery A15-A168-Amulet-Cowin-Qiyun-Flagcloud

— Vortex Corda .

On the other hand, several SEAT models have derived as rebadges coming from other Volkswagen Group's brands such as the SEAT Alhambra Mk1 and Mk2 respectively from the VW Sharan Mk1 and Mk2 (the first generation resulting after a joint venture of the Volkswagen Group together with Ford) and the SEAT Exeo from the Audi A4 B7.

Tuning companies

Several tuning companies have produced modified or high-performance versions of various SEAT models, some significant examples among those being Abt Sportsline, Je Design, MTM (Motoren Technik Mayer), Abarth, Emelba, Annibal etc.

Earlier and current models

SEAT 1200 Sport, 'Bocanegra',

the first car to be wholly developed in SEAT's Martorell Technical centre.

SEAT 850 Spyder,

a cabriolet in SEAT's range.

SEAT 132, the last SEAT rear wheel drive mid-size car, powered with Fiat and Mercedes Benz diesel engines.

1400 A / 1400 B / 1400 C (1953–1963)

600 N / 600 D / 600 E / 600 L (1957–1973)

1500 / 1500 Familiar (1963–1972)

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800 (1963–1968)

850 (2/4-doors) (1966–1974)

850 Coupé (1967–1972)

850 Spyder (1970–1972)

850 Sport Coupé (1967)

124 / 124 Familiar (1968–1980)

1430 (1969–1975)

124 Sport (1970–1975)

127 (1972–1982)

132 (1973–1982)

133 (1974–1981)

131 / 131 Familiar (1975–1983)

1200 Sport (1975–1981)

128 (1976–1980)

Ritmo (1979–1983)

Panda (1980–1986)

Ronda (1982–1986)

Trans (1982–1986)

Fura (3/5-doors) (1982–1986)

Ibiza Mk1 (3/5-doors) (1984–1993)

Málaga (1985–1992)

Terra / Terra box (1987–1996)

Marbella / Marbella box (1986–1998)

Toledo Mk1 (1991–1998)

Ibiza Mk2 (3/5-doors) (1993–2002)

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Córdoba / Córdoba SX / Córdoba Vario Mk1 (1993–2002)

Inca Kombi / Inca Van (1995–2003)

Alhambra Mk1 (1996–2010)

Arosa (1997–2004)

Toledo Mk2 (1998–2004)

León Mk1 (1999–2005)

Ibiza Mk3 (3/5-doors) (2002–2008)

Córdoba Mk2 (2002–2009)

Toledo Mk3 (2004–2009)

Altea (2004–present)

León Mk2 (2005–2012)

Ibiza Mk4 (SC/5-doors/ST) (2008–present)

Exeo (2008–2013)

Alhambra Mk3 (2010–present)

Mii (2011–present)

Toledo Mk4 (2012–present)

León Mk3 (2013–present)

Concept models

SEAT Tribu,

SEAT's crossover SUV concept car.

SEAT IBE concept,

SEAT's first all-electric concept car.

SEAT Tango,

SEAT's roadster concept car.

SEAT IBL at the 2011 Frankfurt International Motor Show

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1400 A Descapotable

600 prototype (Geneva, 1955)

750 Sport (Barcelona, 1957)

600 Multiple (Barcelona, 1959)

Ibiza Mk1 cabrio

Proto TLD (Turin, 1988)

Proto T (Frankfurt, 1989)

Proto C (Paris, 1990)

Proto TL (Geneva, 1990)

Marbella Playa (Frankfurt, 1991)

Toledo Mk1 exclusive (Geneva,1992)

Toledo Mk1 electric (1992)

Concepto T Coupé (Paris, 1992)

Concepto T Cabrio (Barcelona, 1993)

Ibiza Mk2 electric (1993)

Córdoba Mk2 cabrio

Rosé (1994)

Inca electric (Hanover, 1995)

Alhambra prototype (Geneva, 1995)

Bolero (Geneva, 1998)

Toledo Cupra concept (1999)

Fórmula (Geneva, 1999)

Salsa (Geneva, 2000)

Salsa Emoción (Paris, 2000)

León Cupra R concept (Barcelona, 2001)

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Tango roadster/Tango spyder/Tango coupé/Tango Racer (Frankfurt, 2001)

Arosa City cruiser (Frankfurt, 2001)

Arosa Racer (Frankfurt, 2001)

Altea Prototipo (Frankfurt, 2003)

Cupra GT (Barcelona, 2003)

Toledo Prototipo (Madrid, 2004)

León Prototipo (Geneva, 2005)

Altea FR Prototipo (Frankfurt, 2005)

Altea 2 litre 170 hp TDI prototype (2005)

Ibiza Vaillante concept (Geneva, 2006)

León Pies Descalzos (Berlin, 2007)

Altea Freetrack Prototipo (Geneva, 2007)

Tribu concept (Frankfurt, 2007)

Bocanegra (Geneva, 2008)

León Ecomotive concept (Geneva, 2009)

León Twin drive (Martorell, 2009)

IBZ concept (Frankfurt, 2009)

IBE concept I (Geneva, 2010)

IBE concept II (Paris, 2010)

IBX concept (Geneva, 2011)

IBL concept (Frankfurt, 2011)

Altea Electric XL Ecomotive (2011)

Toledo concept (Geneva, 2012)

SEAT Mii FR Line (Wörthersee, 2012) and (París, 2012)

SEAT Ibiza FR Dashboard (Wörthersee, 2012)

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SEAT e-Mii (Barcelona, 2013)

SEAT León verde plug-in (Martorell, 2013)

SEAT Ibiza Cupster (Wörthersee, 2014)

SEAT 20v20 concept (Geneva, 2015)

Future models

According to the president of SEAT, James Muir, in an interview with the Spanish daily newspaper El Mundo in October 2010,

SEAT scheduling comprises the following future models in the near future:

SEAT León Mk3 (3-door/5-door/estate), in Q4 2012

SEAT Exeo Mk2 or its replacement based on IBL could be named BoLero

There is still thinking of a compact MPV car successor to the Altea, and a SUV model on the basis of the SEAT IBX concept car.

Company profile

Leadership

Today as a Volkswagen group's subsidiary, SEAT's leading people are appointed after approval from the group's supervisory board.

SEAT, S.A. leaders

From To Person(s)

1950 May 1967 José Ortiz-Echagüe Puertas

May 1967 February 1977 Juan Sánchez Cortés

February 1977 December 1983 Juan Miguel Antoñanzas Pérez-Egea

January 1984 September 1993 Juan Antonio Díaz Álvarez

October 1993 October 1993 Peter Walzer

November 1993 December 1996 Juan Llorens Carrió

January 1997 June 1999 Pierre-Alain de Smedt

June 18, 1999 June 30, 2000 Bruno Adelt

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July 1, 2000 March 6, 2002 Bernd Pischetsrieder

March 7, 2002 September 30, 2006 Andreas Schleef

October 1, 2006 31 August 2009 Erich Schmitt

1 September 2009 1 May 2013 James Muir

1 May 2013 29 September 2015 Juergen Stackmann

Economic figures

SEAT, S.A. financial results

Year After-tax result

(in millions of euros)

1996 +32.088

1997 +66.418

1998 +147.020

1999 +85.403

2000 +87.348

2001 +233.121

2002 +202.965

2003 +134.494

2004 +144.957

2005 -62.513

2006 -49.088

2007 +169.703

2008 +44.400

2009 -186.500

2010 -103.900

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2011 -61.000

Environmental policy

Electric and hybrid technology development

Since the early 1990s, SEAT has developed and presented several prototypes with either full electric or hybrid powertrain, including the SEAT Toledo Mk1 electric model (1992), the SEAT Ibiza Mk2 electric car (1993), the SEAT Inca electric van (1995), the SEAT León Mk2 Twin drive (2009), the SEAT IBE concept (2010) and the SEAT IBX concept SUV (2011) hybrid cars.

‘SEAT al Sol’ project

The ‘SEAT al Sol’ project consists in the integration of use of solar power through a system of photovoltaic panels generating electricity in SEAT's factory in Martorell. The project is going to be carried through in collaboration with GA-Solar from the beginnings of 2010, covering a factory area of 320,000 m2 with a system of more than 10 MW of photovoltaic panels. This installation is expected to produce more than 13 million kwh of electricity annually, aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions by over 6,200 tonnes of CO2 per year.

‘Cenit verde’ project

The Cenit VERDE initiative is a research project backed by the CENIT (the National Strategic Consortia for Technical Research) programme and supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, in which SEAT plays a key role. Aiming at developing technologies, components and infrastructure for hybrid and electrically powered cars in Spain, this programme brings together 16 technology companies (including Siemens, Endesa, Iberdrola, REE, Cegasa, Ficosa, Circuitor, Cobra or Lear) and 16 universities and research establishments under the CTM coordination (Centre Tecnològic in Manresa) and the support of the CDTI (Centre for Industrial Technological Development, an organization pertaining to the Ministry of Science and Innovation). In January 2010, the Cenit Verde association made its opening meeting at SEAT's Technical Centre in Martorell.

As part of its contribution SEAT comes in with its own 'Verde' pre-project, including the technology implemented in the plug-in hybrid SEAT León Twin drive as well as in the SEAT IBE concept zero emissions electric vehicle presented in the 2010 Geneva motor show.

‘SEAT Autometro’ project

The ‘SEAT Autometro’ project comprises the construction and management of a rail link service between SEAT's Martorell complex and the Port of Barcelona, in the aim of transport of vehicles and components. Autometro is the joint-venture company which operates the rail, having Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat de Catalunya (FGC) local rail company, COMSA Rail Transport and Pecovasa as its shareholders. The company was founded in November 2005 almost five

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months after an initial agreement was signed between the Catalan government (Generalitat), the Barcelona Port Authority and SEAT. Due to this project, a branch connecting the Martorell plant with the FGC 'Llobregat-Anoia' main rail line had to be constructed, as well as further adaptations to the transport network and the host infrastructures in the Port of Barcelona had to be made. The budget for the project comes up to 6.8 million euro, while SEAT on its part also assumes the operational transport costs.

The use of this rail link since January 18, 2008, instead of road transport, has helped not only in terms of cost effectiveness and road safety but also in the reduction of both road congestion and greenhouse gas emissions.

Over the whole 'Autometro' project awards have been given for the best logistics idea at the 2007 International Logistics Fair (SIL) and specifically to SEAT as the 2008 Distinguished loader by the Loaders’ Association of the Port of Barcelona.

Sponsorship

SEAT has been a sponsor in major sports events, such as

UEFA Europa League

Red Bull Air Race World Championship

Davis Cup World Group Final

Barcelona 1992 Olympic Games

Eintracht Braunschweig

The company was one of the prime sponsors of Tunisia's national basketball team at the 2015 FIBA Africa Championship where the company's logo was regularly displayed (e.g. on the team's shorts).

Further, SEAT is a strong supporter of artists, like Shakira, Armin van Buuren, David Guetta etc.

Awards

Over the years the SEAT marque has been honoured with several awards, such as

The Landaben plant, 100% owned by SEAT, S.A. by that time, received in 1986 the World quality award (Q-86).The Martorell plant, 100% owned by SEAT, S.A., received in 1998 the Best factory of the VW Group in the first quarter award.The Barcelona 'Gearbox del Prat' plant, 100% owned by SEAT, S.A., received in 2009 the Volkswagen Excellence award for its high-quality manufacturing process and product.The SEAT brand itself in 2009 has been named 'Most Improved Used Car Brand of the decade' in the CAP Used Car of the Decade Awards.

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'AvD Innovationspreis 2006' award for technological innovations developed at the SEAT Technical Centre in Martorell, from the German automobile club 'Automobilclub von Deutschland' (AvD)

In the 2007 Barcelona International motor show SEAT received two awards for the best technological innovations in the automotive sector, for the LED modules implementation in headlights and the project of virtual fabrication and applied ergonomics.

'Best project in the use of an electronic signature in the private sector in 2008' for SEAT’s electronic invoicing system, by the Catalan Certification Agency (CATCert)

'Best logistics initiative 2007' award for the SEAT-Autometro project, by the International Logistics Salon

'Port of Barcelona’s Distinguished Loader prize in 2008’, by the Port of Barcelona’s Loaders’ Association

Industry AutomotiveFounded in May 9, 1950

Headquarters Martorell, SpainFounder Instituto Nacional de Industria

Key people Francisco Javier García Sanz (Chairman, Board of directors),

Luca de Meo (Chairman, Executive committee),

Alejandro Mesonero-Romanos (Design Director)

Products Automobiles, Automotive partsSubsidiaries -

Škoda Auto

Škoda Auto (Czech pronunciation: [ˈʃkoda] ( listen)), more commonly known as Škoda, is a Czech automobile manufacturer founded in 1895 as Laurin & Klement. It is headquartered in Mladá Boleslav, Czech Republic. In 1925 Laurin & Klement was acquired by Škoda Works which itself became state owned during the communist regime. After 1991 it was gradually privatized and in 2000 Škoda became a wholly owned subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group. Initially, the company was meant to serve the role of the VW Group’s entry brand.

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History

The Škoda Works were established as an arms manufacturing plant in 1859. Škoda Auto (and its predecessors) is one of the five oldest companies producing cars and has an unbroken history alongside Daimler, Opel, Peugeot and Tatra.

The origins of what became Škoda Auto go back to the early 1890s when, like many long-established car manufacturers, a company started manufacturing bicycles. Škoda (then Laurin & Klement) factories were founded in 1896 as a velocipede manufacturer.

In 1894, 26-year-old Václav Klement, who was a bookseller in Mladá Boleslav, Kingdom of Bohemia (today's Czech Republic, then part of Austria-Hungary), was unable to obtain spare parts to repair his German bicycle. Klement returned his bicycle to the manufacturers, Seidel and Naumann, with a letter, in Czech, asking them to carry out repairs, only to receive a reply, in German, stating: "If you would like an answer to your inquiry, you should try writing in a language we can understand". Not satisfied with the reply and realising the business potential, Klement, despite having no technical experience, decided to start a bicycle repair shop, which he and Václav Laurin opened in 1896 in Mladá Boleslav. Before going into partnership with Klement, Laurin was an established bicycle manufacturer in the nearby town of Turnov.

In 1898, after moving to their newly built factory, the pair bought a Werner "Motocyclette". Laurin & Klement's first motorcyclette, powered by an engine mounted on the handlebars driving the front wheels, proved dangerous and unreliable—an early accident on it cost Laurin a front tooth. To design a safer machine with its structure around the engine, the pair wrote to German ignition specialist Robert Bosch for advice on a different electromagnetic system.

Their new Slavia motorcycle made its debut in 1899 and the company became the first motorcycle factory in the Central Europe. In 1900, with a company workforce of 32, Slavia exports began and 150 machines were shipped to London for the Hewtson firm. Shortly afterwards, the press credited them as makers of the first motorcycle.

By 1905 the firm was manufacturing automobiles, making it the second-oldest car manufacturer in the Czech lands after Tatra. The company, with an area of 7800 m2, had a workforce of 320 and used 170 special machine-tools, power-driven by 100 hp of steam power. The first model, Voiturette A, was a success and the company was established both within Austria-Hungary and internationally.

Škoda 422 (1929)

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After World War I the Laurin & Klement Company began producing trucks, but in 1924, after running into problems and being affected by a fire on their premises, the company sought a new partner.

Meanwhile, "Akciová společnost, dříve Škodovy závody" (Limited Company, formerly the Škoda Works), an arms manufacturer and multi-sector concern which had become one of the largest industrial enterprises in Europe and the largest in Czechoslovakia, sought to enlarge its non-arms manufacturing base and acquired Laurin & Klement in 1925. It also started manufacturing cars in cooperation with Hispano-Suiza. Most of the later production took place under Škoda's name.

An assembly line was used for production from 1930 onwards. In the same year a formal spin-off of the car manufacture into a new company, Akciová společnost pro automobilový průmysl or abbreviated ASAP, took place. ASAP remained a wholly owned subsidiary of the Škoda Works and continued to sell cars under the Škoda marque. Apart from the factory in Mladá Boleslav it included also the firm's representation, sales offices and services, as well as a central workshop in Prague. At the time, the car factory in Mladá Boleslav covered an area of 215,000 m2 and employed 3,750 blue-collar and 500 white-collar workers.

After a decline caused by the economic depression, Škoda introduced a new line of cars in the 1930s which significantly differed from its previous products. A new design of chassis with backbone tube and all-around independent suspension was developed under the leadership of chief engineer Vladimír Matouš and modelled on the one first introduced by Hans Ledwinka in Tatra. First used on model Škoda 420 Standard in 1933, it aimed at solving insufficient torsional stiffness of the ladder frame.

The new design of chassis became the basis for models Popular (845-1,089 cc), Rapid (1165–1766 cc), Favorit (1802–2091 cc) and the Superb (2.5–4 l). While in 1933 Škoda had a 14% share of the Czechoslovak car market and occupied third place behind Praga and Tatra, the new line made it a market leader by 1936, with a 39% share in 1938.

World War II

During the occupation of Czechoslovakia in World War II the Škoda Works were turned into part of the Reichswerke Hermann Göring serving the German war effort by producing components for military terrain vehicles, military planes, other weapon components and cartridge cases. Vehicle output decreased from 7,052 in 1939 to 683 in 1944, of which only 35 were passenger cars. A total of 316 trucks were produced between January and May 1945. The UK and US air forces bombed the Škoda works repeatedly between 1940 and 1945. The final massive air raid took place on 25 April 1945 and resulted in almost the complete destruction of the Škoda armament works and approximately 1,000 dead and injured.

Post World War II

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When, by July 1945, the Mladá Boleslav factory had been reconstructed, production of Škoda's first post-World War II car, the 1101 series began. It was essentially an updated version of the pre-World War II Škoda Popular. In the autumn of 1948, Škoda (along with all other large manufacturers) became part of the communist planned economy, which meant it was separated from the parent company, Škoda Works. In spite of unfavourable political conditions and losing contact with technical development in non-communist countries, Škoda retained a good reputation until the 1960s, producing models such as the Škoda 440 Spartak, 445 Octavia, Felicia and Škoda 1000 MB.

In late 1959, the Škoda Felicia, a compact four-cylinder convertible coupe, was imported into the United States for model year 1960. Its retail price was around US$2,700, for which one could purchase a nicely-equipped V8 domestic car that was larger, more comfortable, and had more luxury and convenience features (gasoline retailed for less than 30 cents per gallon, so fuel economy was not of primary importance in America at that time). Those Felicias that made it to American ownership soon experienced a number of reliability problems, further damaging the car's reputation. The Felicia was therefore a poor seller in the States and leftover cars ended up being hied off at a fraction of the original retail list. Since that time, Škoda automobiles have not been imported into the U.S. for retail sale.

In the late 1980s, Škoda (then named Automobilové závody, národní podnik or abbreviated AZNP) was still manufacturing cars that conceptually dated back to the 1960s. Rear-engined models such as the Škoda 105/120, Estelle and Rapid sold steadily and performed well against more modern makes in races such as the RAC Rally in the 1970s and 1980s. They won their class in the RAC rally for 17 years running. They were powered by a 130 brake horsepower (97 kW), 1,289 cubic centimetres (78.7 cu in) engine. In spite of its dated image and becoming the subject of negative jokes, Škodas remained a common sight on the roads of UK and Western Europe throughout the 1970s and 1980s.

Sport versions of the Estelle and earlier models were produced, using the name "Rapid". Soft-top versions were also available. The Rapid was once described as the "poor man's Porsche", and had significant sales success in the UK during the 1980s.

"Of course, that the Škoda became such a figure of fun was in part due to its ubiquity on Britain's roads. The company must have been doing something right." (from a BBC report on Škoda sales in 1980s)

In 1987 the Favorit was introduced, and was one of a triumvirate of compact Western-influenced front-wheel drive hatchbacks from the three main Eastern Bloc manufacturers around that time, the others being VAZ's Lada Samara and Zastava's Yugo Sana. The Favorit's appearance was the work of the Italian design company Bertone. With some motor technology licensed from western Europe, but still using the Škoda-designed 1289 cc engine, Škoda engineers designed a car comparable to western production. The technological gap was still there, but began closing

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rapidly. The Favorit was very popular in Czechoslovakia and other Eastern Bloc countries. It also sold well in Western Europe, especially in the UK and Denmark due to its low price and was regarded as solid and reliable. However, it was perceived as having poor value compared with contemporary Western European designs. The Favorit's trim levels were improved and it continued to be sold until the introduction of the Felicia in 1994.

Volkswagen Group subsidiary

Škoda Auto is one of the largest car manufacturers in Central Europe. In 2014, 1.037.200 cars were sold worldwide, a record for the company

The fall of communism with the Velvet Revolution brought great changes to Czechoslovakia and most industries were subject to privatization. In the case of Škoda Automobile, the state authorities brought in a strong foreign partner. Volkswagen was chosen by the Czech government on 9 December 1990, and, as a result, on 28 March 1991 a joint-venture partnership agreement with Volkswagen took place, marked by the transfer of a 30% share to the Volkswagen Group on 16 April 1991. By this stage, Škoda was still making its outdated range of rear engine saloons, although it had started production of the Favorit front-wheel drive hatchback in 1988 as an eventual replacement.

In the following years, Škoda became the fourth brand of the German group, as the Volkswagen Group raised its equity share first on 19 December 1994, to 60.3%, followed on 11 December 1995, to 70%.

In the competition for Škoda, Volkswagen was pitted against French car-maker Renault, which lost out because its strategic plan did not include producing high-value models in the Czech factories; Renault proposed to manufacture the Renault Twingo city car in the Škoda factories.

At the time the decision was made, privatization to a major German company was somewhat controversial, since there was still anti-German sentiment lingering in the Czech Republic from WW2 and its aftermath. However, it could be argued that the subsequent fortunes of other Eastern-Bloc automobile manufacturers such as Lada, AutoVAZ, and of Škoda Works itself – once Škoda Auto's parent company – suggested that Volkswagen's involvement was not necessarily a result of poor judgement.

Backed by Volkswagen Group expertise and investments, the design — both style and engineering — has improved greatly. The 1994 model Felicia was effectively a reskin of the Favorit, but quality and equipment improvements helped, and in the Czech Republic the car was perceived as good value for money and became popular. Sales improved across Europe, including the United Kingdom, where the Felicia was one of the best-ranking cars in customer satisfaction surveys.

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Volkswagen AG chairman Ferdinand Piëch personally chose Dirk van Braeckel as head of design, and the subsequent Octavia and Fabia models made their way to the demanding European Union markets. They are built on common Volkswagen Group floorpans. The Fabia, launched at the end of 1999, formed the basis for later versions of the Volkswagen Polo and SEAT Ibiza, while the Octavia, launched in 1996, has shared its floorpan with a host of cars, the most popular of which is the Volkswagen Golf.

The perception of Škoda in Western Europe has completely changed since the takeover by VW, in stark comparison with the reputation of the cars throughout the 1980s—often described as "the laughing stock" of the automotive world. As technical development progressed and attractive new models were marketed, Škoda's image was initially slow to improve. In the UK, a major turnabout was achieved with the ironic "It is a Škoda, honest" campaign, which began in 2000 when the Fabia launched. In a 2003 advertisement on British television, a new employee on the production line is fitting Škoda badges on the car bonnets. When some attractive looking cars come along he stands back, not fitting the badge, since they look so good they cannot be Škodas. This market campaign worked by confronting Škoda's image problem head-on — a tactic which marketing professionals regarded as high risk. By 2005 Škoda was selling over 30,000 cars a year in the UK, a market share of over 1%. For the first time in its UK history, a waiting list developed for deliveries from Škoda. UK owners have consistently ranked the brand at or near the top of customer satisfaction surveys since the late 1990s.

Growth strategy

2010 was a year of important changes for Škoda Auto, in terms of both products and management. On 1 September 2010, Prof. Dr. h.c. Winfried Vahland assumed responsibility for the management of the company, becoming the CEO of Škoda Auto. Under Vahland's leadership, Škoda set forth plans to double the company's annual sales to at least 1.5 million by 2018 (later known as the 'Growth Strategy', Czech: 'Růstová strategie').

At the 2010 Paris Motor Show in September 2010, the company unveiled the Octavia Green E Line. This e-car concept was the forerunner to the e-car test fleet that Škoda released in 2012. The final 1st-generation Octavia (Tour) was produced at the Mladá Boleslav plant in November 2010. The worldwide production of this model exceeded 1.4 million units since its release in 1996. In 2010 for the first time in history, China overtook German sales to become Škoda's largest individual market.

In 2011, Škoda Auto celebrated its 20-year partnership with the Volkswagen Group. More than 75,000 visitors attended an open-house event held in Mladá Boleslav in the April. Earlier that year, the company provided details on its 2018 Growth Strategy: for at least one new or completely revised model to be released every six months. With this in mind, the company redesigned its logo and CI, which was presented at the 2011 Geneva Motor Show. Škoda's main attraction at the event was the VisionD design concept; a forerunner to the future 3rd generation

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Octavia. Škoda presented the MissionL design study at the IAA in Frankfurt am Main in September, which was to become the basis of the company's forthcoming compact model the European Rapid.

In the same year, the company started production of the new Rapid model in Pune, India (October 2011), and launched the Citigo at Volkswagen's Bratislava plant (November 2011).

In 2012 Škoda introduced two new mass production models. The European version of the Rapid premiered at the Paris Motor Show. This car was a successor to the 1st-generation Octavia in terms of its price bracket. The second model was the 3rd-generation Octavia, which premiered In December 2012. In the same month, local production of the Yeti was launched at the Nizhny Novgorod GAZ factory.

In 2012 Škoda introduced an emission-free fleet of Octavia Green E Line e-cars on Czech roads to be used by external partners. Since internal tests on the fleet in late 2011, the e-fleet had driven more than 250,000 km. During the same year, Škoda celebrated several milestones, including fourteen million Škoda cars being produced since 1905 (January), three million Fabias (May), 500,000 Superbs at the Kvasiny plant (June) and 5 years of Škoda operations in China.

Massive rejuvenation of the model range was a major tune for 2013 at Škoda: The Czech car maker launched the third-generation Octavia Combi and Octavia RS (both liftback and estate) as well as facelifted Superb and Superb Combi. They were accompanied by brand new members of the Rapid family as the Rapid Spaceback, the first Škoda hatchback car in the compact segment, and the Chinese version of the Rapid. The Yeti also faced significant changes. With the facelift, two design variants of Škoda's compact SUV are now available: city-like Yeti and rugged Yeti Outdoor. Chinese customers were also given a Yeti with an extended wheelbase.

In 2015, Volkswagen admitted that it had installed pollution-cheating software in many of its cars to fool regulators that its cars met emissions standards when in fact they polluted at much higher-levels than government standards. 1.2 million Skoda cars worldwide were fitted with this emissions-cheating device. Skoda stated that Volkswagen would recall and cover refitting costs for all of the cars affected by the Volkswagen emissions testing scandal.

In 2015 Škoda was voted the most dependable car brand in the UK. Škoda Auto is planning to manufacture a large, seven-seat SUV Škoda Kodiaq, which should be a true off-roader and will be introduced at the Paris Motor Show in October 2016.

As of August 2016, Skoda was being sold in 102 countries with planned expansions to South Korea, Singapore and Iran within a year. The decision whether to expand into the North American market is planned to be made in 2017.

Electrification strategy

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In 2015, new Škoda chairman Bernhard Maier stated that the Volkswagen Group "is working on a modular, new electric platform and we are in the team", and that "there is no alternative to electrification." The target of Škoda is to produce an electric car with a range of over 500 kilometres (310 mi), 15-minute charging time and a cost below a comparative combustion-engine vehicle. New Škoda corporate "Strategy 2025", which replaces the previous "Strategy 2018", aims to start production of a fully electric vehicle in 2020 or 2021, after a plug-in hybrid Superb in 2019.

Financial results

ŠKODA has maintained sound financial stability over recent years. In 2013 the brand achieved sales revenues totalling €10.3 billion (2012: €10.4 billion). Due to the weak economic situation in many European countries and the expansion of the ŠKODA model range, operating profit reached a modest 522 million euros (2012: €712 million). ŠKODA achieved a successful start to 2014: As well as recording the highest number of deliveries to customers in a first quarter ever (247,200; up 12.1%), ŠKODA recorded a significant increase in sales revenue (23.7%) to almost 3 billion euros. Operating profit increased 65.2% to 185 million Euros over the previous year.

Production

Škoda cars are now produced in production facilities in the Czech Republic, China, Russia, India and Slovakia. A smaller number of Škoda models are additionally manufactured in Öskemen, Kazakhstan and Solomonovo, Ukraine through local partners.

Motorsport

With Škoda Fabia R5, Škoda Motorsport team won the 2015 World Rally Championship-2, which focuses on production-based cars.

Main article: Škoda Motorsport

World Rally Championship

Main article: World Rally Championship

Following a long history of class victories in lower levels of motorsport, Škoda became a participant in the FIA World Rally Championship in the 1999 season, with World Rally Car models of the Škoda Octavia. Škoda's best result with the Octavia WRC was Armin Schwarz's third place at the 2001 Safari Rally. From mid 2003, the Octavia was replaced by the smaller Škoda Fabia. Škoda used the 2004 season to develop the car further, but did not achieve much success the following season. However, at the season-ending Rally Australia, 1995 world champion Colin McRae was running second before retiring. Škoda then withdrew from the series, and the 2006 season saw Škoda represented by the semi-privateer Red Bull Škoda Team. Jan Kopecký drove the Fabia WRC to fifth place at the Rally Catalunya, and as late as the 2007

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Rallye Deutschland the Fabia still achieved a fifth-place result, again in the hands of Kopecký. Former works Ford and Citroen driver François Duval also drove a Fabia WRC in 2006 for the privateer First Motorsport team, achieving a sixth-place finish in Catalunya.

World Rally Championship-2

Main article: World Rally Championship-2

In 2009, Škoda entered the Intercontinental Rally Challenge (IRC) for the first time, using the Fabia S2000, winning three rallies and finishing second in both the drivers and manufacturers championship. In 2010, Škoda won a total of seven IRC events winning both the manufacturers and driver championship for Juho Hänninen. These achievements were repeated in the following two seasons, with Andreas Mikkelsen as the drivers' champion. In 2013, the Intercontinental Rally Challenge was merged with the European Rally Championship (ERC) and the team gained the drivers' championship title once again for Jan Kopecký. The car was also raced by privateers in several championships, including Red Bull, Barwa, Rene Georges and Rufa in the 2010 Super 2000 World Rally Championship.

Bonneville Speedway

In August 2011, a special Škoda Octavia vRS set the world record at the Bonneville Speedway and became the fastest car in the world with an engine up to two litres, when it hit 227 mph (365 km/h). The current fastest production Škoda car is the Škoda Superb III, with a top speed of 250 km/h (160 mph) and an acceleration from 0 to 100 km/h (0 to 62 mph) in 5.8 seconds.

Models

Current models[edit]

Škoda Yeti - Mini SUV (2009–present)

Škoda Superb III - Executive car (2015–present)

Škoda Octavia III - Large family car (2013–present)

Škoda Rapid - Small family car (2012–present)

Škoda Fabia III - Supermini (2014–present)

Škoda Citigo - City car (2011–present)

Škoda Yeti (2009–present)

Škoda Superb III (2015–present)

Škoda Octavia III (2013–present)

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Škoda Rapid (2012–present; International)

Škoda Rapid (2011–present; India)

Škoda Fabia III (2014–present)

Škoda Citigo (2011–present)

Historic models[edit]

1900s

Laurin & Klement G

Laurin & Klement A (1905–1907)

Laurin & Klement B (1906–1908)

Laurin & Klement C (1906–1908)

Laurin & Klement D (1906–1907)

Laurin & Klement E (1906–1909)

Laurin & Klement B2 (1907–1908)

Laurin & Klement C2 (1907–1908)

Laurin & Klement F (1907–1909)

Laurin & Klement FF (1907)

Laurin & Klement FC (1907–1909)

Laurin & Klement HO/ HL/HLb (1907–1913)

Laurin & Klement BS (1908–1909)

Laurin & Klement FCS (1908–1909)

Laurin & Klement G (1908–1911)

Laurin & Klement DO/DL (1909–1912)

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Laurin & Klement FDO/FDL (1909–1915)

Laurin & Klement EN (1909–1910)

Laurin & Klement FN/GDV/RC (1909–1913)

Laurin & Klement FCR (1909)

Laurin & Klement L/LO (1909–1911)

1910s

Laurin & Klement 300

Laurin & Klement S

Laurin & Klement ENS (1910–1911)

Laurin & Klement K/Kb/LOKb (1911–1915)

Laurin & Klement LK (1911–1912)

Laurin & Klement S/Sa (1911–1916)

Laurin & Klement DN (1912–1915)

Laurin & Klement RK (1912–1916)

Laurin & Klement Sb/Sc (1912–1915)

Laurin & Klement M/Mb/MO (1913–1915)

Laurin & Klement MK/400 (1913–1924)

Laurin & Klement O/OK (1913–1916)

Laurin & Klement Sd/Se/Sg/Sk (1913–1917)

Laurin & Klement Ms (1914–1920)

Laurin & Klement Sh/Sk (1914–1917)

Laurin & Klement T/Ta (1914–1921)

Laurin & Klement Si/Sl/Sm/So/200/205 (1916–1924)

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Laurin & Klement Md/Me/Mf/Mg/Mh/Mi/Ml/300/305 (1917–1923)

1920s

Laurin & Klement - Škoda 110 (1925)

Laurin & Klement MS/540/545 (1920–1923)

Laurin & Klement Škoda 545 (1924–1927)

Škoda 422 (1929–1932)

Škoda 430 (1929–1936)

1930s

Skoda 633 (1933)

Škoda Popular (1934–1944)

Škoda 633 (1931–1934)

Škoda 637 (1932–1935)

Škoda 420 Standard/Rapid/Popular (1933–1938)

Škoda Rapid (1935–1947)

Škoda Favorit (1936–1941)

Škoda Superb (1934–1943)

1940s

Škoda Superb (1940)

Škoda Rapid (1940)

Škoda Superb OHV (1946–1949)

Škoda 1101 Tudor (1946–1949)

Škoda 1102 (1948–1952)

Škoda VOS (1949–1952)

1950s

Škoda 1201 Sedan (1957)

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Škoda 450 (1957)

Škoda 1200 (1952–1955)

Škoda 440/445/450 (1955–1959)

Škoda 1201 (1955–1962)

Škoda Felicia (1959–1964)

Škoda Octavia (1959–1964)

1960s

Škoda 1202 (1961–1973)

Škoda Octavia Combi (1964–1971)

Škoda 1000 MB (1964–1969)

Škoda 1203 (1968–1999)

Škoda 100/110 (1969–1977)

1970s

Škoda 110 R (1970–1980)

Škoda 105/120/125 (1976–1990)

1980s

Škoda Garde (1981–1984)

Škoda 130/135/136 (1984–1990)

Škoda Rapid (1984) (1984–1990)

Škoda Favorit/Forman/Pick-up (1987–1995)

1990s

Škoda Felicia (1994–2001)

Škoda Octavia first generation (1996–2004, Tour 2004–2010)

Škoda Fabia first generation (1999–2007)

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2000s

Škoda Superb first generation (2001–2008)

Škoda Octavia second generation {2004-2013}

Škoda Roomster/Praktik - LAV (2006–2015)

Škoda Superb second generation (2008–2015)

Concept cars

Škoda SUV model (2016)

Vision C (2013)

MissionL (2011)

Vision D (2011)

Fabia Super (2007)

Joyster (2006)

Yeti II (2006)

Roomster (2003)

Tudor (2002)

Fabia Paris Edition (2002)

Ahoj (2002)

Felicia Golden Prague (1998)

783 Favorit Coupé (1987)

Škoda 110 Super Sport Ferat (1971)

Škoda 1100 GT (1968)

Škoda 720 (1967–1972)

Škoda F3 (1964)

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Škoda 1100 Type 968 (1958)

Škoda 973 Babeta (1949)

Škoda 110 Super Sport (Ferat)

ŠKODA Joyster

In 1923, two different trademarks were registered at the Office for Innovation and Model Registration in Plzeň. The first depicted a winged arrow pointing to the right with five feathers in a circle and the second was a winged arrow with three feathers. The famous winged arrow with three feathers still forms the Škoda logo today. The ŠKODA text was added to the logo in 1936. The arrow represents speed, the wings progress and freedom, the eye precision and the circle unity, completeness, world and harmony.

Industry AutomotiveFounded in 18 December 1895; 120 years ago (as Laurin &

Klement)Headquarters Mladá Boleslav, Czech Republic

Founder Václav Laurin and Václav KlementKey people Bernhard Maier (Chairman of the

Board of Directors)Christian Klingler (Chairman of the

Supervisory Board)Products Automobiles

Subsidiaries Škoda Auto Deutschland GmbHSkoda Auto India Private Ltd.Škoda Auto Slovensko s.r.o.

Ducati

Ducati Motor Holding S.p.A. is an Italian company that designs and manufactures motorcycles. Headquartered in Bologna, Italy, Ducati is owned by German automotive manufacturer Audi through its Italian subsidiary Lamborghini, which is all owned by the Volkswagen Group.

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History

In 1926 Antonio Cavalieri Ducati and his three sons, Adriano, Marcello, and Bruno Cavalieri Ducati; founded Società Scientifica Radio Brevetti Ducati in Bologna to produce vacuum tubes, condensers and other radio components. In 1935 they had become successful enough to enable construction of a new factory in the Borgo Panigale area of the city. Production was maintained during World War II, despite the Ducati factory being a repeated target of Allied bombing.

Meanwhile, at the small Turinese firm SIATA (Societa Italiana per Applicazioni Tecniche Auto-Aviatorie), Aldo Farinelli began developing a small pushrod engine for mounting on bicycles. Barely a month after the official liberation of Italy in 1944, SIATA announced its intention to sell this engine, called the "Cucciolo" (Italian for "puppy," in reference to the distinctive exhaust sound) to the public. The first Cucciolos were available alone, to be mounted on standard bicycles, by the buyer; however, businessmen soon bought the little engines in quantity, and offered complete motorized-bicycle units for sale.

In 1950, after more than 200,000 Cucciolos had been sold, in collaboration with SIATA, the Ducati firm finally offered its own Cucciolo-based motorcycle. This first Ducati motorcycle was a 48 cc bike weighing 98 pounds (44 kg), with a top speed of 40 mph (64 km/h), and had a 15 mm carburetor (0.59-inch) giving just under 200 mpg-US (1.2 L/100 km; 240 mpg-imp). Ducati soon dropped the Cucciolo name in favor of "55M" and "65TL".

When the market moved toward larger motorcycles, Ducati management decided to respond, making an impression at an early-1952 Milan show, introducing their 65TS cycle and Cruiser (a four-stroke motor scooter). Despite being described as the most interesting new machine at the 1952 show, the Cruiser was not a great success, and only a few thousand were made over a two-year period before the model ceased production.

In 1953, management split the company into two separate entities, Ducati Meccanica SpA and Ducati Elettronica, in acknowledgment of its diverging motorcycle and electronics product lines. Ducati Elettronica became Ducati Energia SpA in the eighties. Dr. Giuseppe Montano took over as head of Ducati Meccanica SpA and the Borgo Panigale factory was modernized with government assistance. By 1954, Ducati Meccanica SpA had increased production to 120 bikes a day.

In the 1960s, Ducati earned its place in motorcycling history by producing the fastest 250 cc road bike then available, the Mach 1. In the 1970s Ducati began producing large-displacement V-twin motorcycles and in 1973, released a V-twin with the trademarked desmodromic valve design. In 1985, Cagiva bought Ducati and planned to rebadge Ducati motorcycles with the "Cagiva" name. By the time the purchase was completed, Cagiva kept the "Ducati" name on its motorcycles. Eleven years later, in 1996, Cagiva accepted the offer from Texas Pacific Group and sold a 51% stake in the company for US$325 million; then, in 1998, Texas Pacific Group bought most of the remaining 49% to become the sole owner of Ducati. In 1999, TPG issued an initial public

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offering of Ducati stock and renamed the company "Ducati Motor Holding SpA". TPG sold over 65% of its shares in Ducati, leaving TPG the majority shareholder. In December 2005, Ducati returned to Italian ownership with the sale of Texas Pacific's stake (minus one share) to Investindustrial Holdings, the investment fund of Carlo and Andrea Bonomi.

In April 2012, Volkswagen Group's Audi subsidiary announced its intention to buy Ducati for €860 million (US$1.2 billion). Volkswagen chairman Ferdinand Piëch, a motorcycle enthusiast, had long coveted Ducati, and had regretted that he passed up an opportunity to buy the company from the Italian government in 1984. Analysts doubted a tiny motorcycle maker would have a meaningful effect on a company the size of Volkswagen, commenting that the acquisition has "a trophy feel to it," and, "is driven by VW's passion for nameplates rather than industrial or financial logic". Italian luxury car brand Lamborghini was strengthened under VW ownership. AUDI AG's Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A. subsidiary acquired 100 percent of the shares of Ducati Motor Holding S.p.A. on 19 July 2012 for €747 million (US$909 million).

Ownership

Since 1926, Ducati has been owned by a number of groups and companies.

1926–1950 – Ducati family

1950–1967 – Government Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale (IRI) management

1953 – Split into Ducati Meccanica (now called Ducati Motor) and Ducati Elettronica (now called Ducati Energia)

1967–1978 – Government EFIM management (control over day-to-day factory operations)

1967–1973 – Headed By Giuseppe Montano

1973–1978 – Headed by Cristiano de Eccher

1978–1985 – VM Group

1985–1996 – Cagiva Group ownership

1996–2005 – Texas-Pacific Group (US-based) ownership and going public

Headed by CEO Federico Minoli, 1996–2001; returning for 2003–2007

2005–2008 – Investindustrial Holdings SpA

2008–2012 – Performance Motorcycles SpA

An investment vehicle formed by Investindustrial Holdings, BS Investimenti and Hospitals of Ontario Pension Plan

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19 July 2012 – present – Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A.

AUDI AG acquired 100% of the voting rights of Ducati Motor Holding S.p.A. via Audi's Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A. subsidiary

From the 1960s to the 1990s, the Spanish company MotoTrans licensed Ducati engines and produced motorcycles that, although they incorporated subtle differences, were clearly Ducati-derived. MotoTrans's most notable machine was the 250 cc 24 Horas (Spanish for "24 hours").

Motorcycle designs

Ducati is best known for high-performance motorcycles characterized by large-capacity four-stroke, 90° V-twin engines, with a desmodromic valve design. Ducati refers to this configuration as L-twin because one cylinder is vertical while the other is horizontal, making it look like a letter "L". Modern Ducatis remain among the dominant performance motorcycles available today partly because of the desmodromic valve design, which is nearing its 50th year of use. Desmodromic valves are closed with a separate, dedicated cam lobe and lifter instead of the conventional valve springs used in most internal combustion engines in consumer vehicles. This allows the cams to have a more radical profile, thus opening and closing the valves more quickly without the risk of valve-float, which causes a loss of power that is likely when using a "passive" closing mechanism under the same conditions.

While most other manufacturers use wet clutches (with the spinning parts bathed in oil) Ducati previously used multiplate dry clutches in many of their motorcycles. The dry clutch eliminates the power loss from oil viscosity drag on the engine, even though the engagement may not be as smooth as the oil-bath versions, but the clutch plates can wear more rapidly. Ducati has converted to wet clutches across their current product lines.

Ducati also extensively uses a trellis frame, although Ducati's MotoGP project broke with this tradition by introducing a revolutionary carbon fibre frame for the Ducati Desmosedici GP9.

Product history

The chief designer of most Ducati motorcycles in the 1950s was Fabio Taglioni (1920–2001). His designs ranged from the small single-cylinder machines that were successful in the Italian 'street races' to the large-capacity twins of the 1980s. Ducati introduced the Pantah in 1979; its engine was updated in the 1990s in the Ducati SuperSport (SS) series. All modern Ducati engines are derivatives of the Pantah, which uses a toothed belt to actuate the engine's valves. Taglioni used the Cavallino Rampante (identified with the Ferrari brand) on his Ducati motorbikes, Taglioni chose this emblem of courage and daring as a sign of respect and admiration for Francesco Baracca, a heroic World War I fighter pilot who died during an air raid in 1918.

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1950s

Main article: Ducati singles

1960s

Main article: Ducati singles

1970s

Main article: Ducati V-twin engine

In 1973, Ducati commemorated its 1972 win at the Imola 200 with the production model green frame Ducati 750 SuperSport.

Ducati also targeted the offroad market with the two-stroke Regolarità 125, building 3,486 models from 1975 to 1979, but the bike was not successful.

In 1975, the company introduced the 860 GT, designed by noted car stylist Giorgetto Giugiaro. Its angular lines were unique, but raised handlebars made for an uncomfortable seating position at high speeds and also caused steering issues.

1980s

Main article: Ducati Desmoquattro engine

Ducati's liquid-cooled, multi-valve V-twins, made from 1985 on, are known as Desmoquattro ("desmodromic valve four"). These include the 851, 916 and 996, 999 and a few predecessors and derivatives.

Main article: Ducati Paso

The Ducati Paso was introduced in 1986 with the Paso 750, followed in 1989 with the Paso 906. The final version came in 1991 with the 907IE (Iniezione Elettronica), now without the name "Paso". The design was from the hand of Massimo Tamburini, who also designed the Ducati 916 and MV Agusta F4. The Paso was a typical "you love it, you hate it" bike. However, at that time it looked like that all-enclosed bodywork would be the future for all motorcycles. The Paso design was copied for the Moto Morini Dart 400 and Cagiva Freccia 125. Together with Tamburini's Bimota DB1, they were enormously influential in terms of styling.

1990s

In 1993, Miguel Angel Galluzzi introduced the Ducati Monster, a naked bike with exposed trellis and engine. Today the Monster accounts for almost half of the company's worldwide sales. The Monster has undergone the most changes of any motorcycle that Ducati has ever produced.

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In 1993, Pierre Terblanche, Massimo Bordi and Claudio Domenicali designed the Ducati Supermono. A 550 cc single-cylinder lightweight "Catalog Racer". Only 67 were built between 1993 and 1997.

In 1994, the company introduced the Ducati 916 model designed by Massimo Tamburini, a water-cooled version that allowed for higher output levels and a striking new bodywork that had aggressive lines, an underseat exhaust, and a single-sided swingarm. Ducati has since ceased production of the 916, supplanting it (and its progeny, the 748, 996 and 998) with the 749 and 999.

2000s

In 2006, the retro-styled Ducati PaulSmart 1000 LE was released, which shared styling cues with the 1973 750 SuperSport (itself a production replica of Paul Smart's 1972 race winning 750 Imola Desmo), as one of a SportClassic series representing the 750 GT, 750 Sport, and 750 SuperSport Ducati motorcycles.

Monster: 620, 695, 696, 750, 796, 900, S2R, S4R

ST2, ST3, ST4

Paul Smart 1000LE and SportClassic variants

SuperSport 750, 900, 1000

748, 749, 848

996, 998, 999, 1098, 1098S, 1098R,

Desmosedici RR

Current lineup

Ducati Hypermotard

Ducati Desmosedici RR

Ducati 1098 S Tricolore

Monster

821

821 Dark

821 Stripe

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1200

1200 S

1200 R

Multistrada

1200

1200 S

1200 S Pikes Peak

1200 Enduro

Diavel

Diavel

Diavel Carbon

XDiavel

XDiavel S

Superbike

959 Panigale

1299 Panigale

1299 Panigale S

Panigale R

Hypermotard

Hypermotard 939

Hypermotard 939 SP

Hyperstrada 939

Scrambler

Classic

Urban Enduro

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Icon

Full Throttle

Sixty2

Flat Track Pro

Current engines

Desmodue: Desmodromic two-valve, air-cooled, L-Twin, 60° included valve angle (Scrambler)

Testastretta 11°: Desmo four-valve, liquid-cooled, L-Twin, 11° valve overlap angle (Hypermotard/Hyperstrada 939, Monster 821)

Testastretta 11° DS: Desmo four-valve, liquid-cooled, L-Twin, 11° valve overlap angle, dual ignition (Monster 1200, Diavel MY'15)

Testastretta 11° DVT: Desmo four-valve, liquid-cooled, L-Twin, variable valve timing, dual ignition (Multistrada 1200 MY'15, XDiavel)

Superquadro: Desmo four-valve, liquid cooled, L-Twin, 157–205 bhp (117–153 kW) (Panigale)

Past engines

Desmodue Evoluzione: Desmo two-valve, air-cooled (Hypermotard 1100 Evo, Monster 1100 Evo)

Desmodue DS: Desmo two-valve, air-cooled, 56° included valve angle, dual ignition (Hypermotard 1100, Multistrada 1100, Monster 1100, Monster S2R 1000, SportClassic GT 1000, SuperSport 1000)

Desmodue LC: Desmo two-valve, liquid-cooled (ST2)

Desmotre DS: Desmo three-valve, liquid-cooled, 40° included valve angle, dual ignition (ST3)

Desmoquattro: Desmo four-valve, liquid-cooled, 40° included valve angle, (851, 888, 916, 996, 748, Monster S4, Monster S4R)

Testastretta: Desmo four-valve, liquid-cooled, 25° included valve angle, (996R, 998, 999, 749, Monster S4R Testastretta)

Testastretta Evoluzione: Desmo four-valve, liquid-cooled, 24.3° included valve angle, 41° valve overlap angle (848, 1098/1198, Streetfighter 1098)

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Motorcycle design history

Ducati has produced several styles of motorcycle engines, including varying the number of cylinders, type of valve actuation and fuel delivery. Ducati is best known for its V-twin engine, called a L-twin by the company, which is the powerplant in the majority of Ducati-marqued motorcycles. Ducati has also manufactured engines with one, two, three or four cylinders; operated by pull rod valves and push rod valves; single, double and triple overhead camshafts; two-stroke and even at one stage manufactured small diesel engines, many of which were used to power boats, generators, garden machinery and emergency pumps (for example, for fire fighting). The engines were the IS series from 7 to 22 hp (5.2 to 16.4 kW) air-cooled and the larger twin DM series water- and air-cooled. The engines have been found in all parts of the globe. Wisconsin Diesel even assembled and "badge engineered" the engines in the USA. They have also produced outboard motors for marine use. Currently, Ducati makes no other engines except for its motorcycles.

On current Ducati motors, except for the Desmosedici and 1199 Panigale, the valves are actuated by a standard valve cam shaft which is rotated by a timing belt driven by the motor directly. The teeth on the belt keep the camshaft drive pulleys indexed. On older Ducati motors, prior to 1986, drive was by solid shaft that transferred to the camshaft through bevel-cut gears. This method of valve actuation was used on many of Ducati's older single-cylinder motorcycles — the shaft tube is visible on the outside of the cylinder.

Ducati is also famous for using the desmodromic valve system championed by engineer and designer Fabio Taglioni, though the firm has also used engines that use valve springs to close their valves. In the early days, Ducati reserved the desmodromic valve heads for its higher performance bikes and its race bikes. These valves do not suffer from valve float at high engine speeds, thus a desmodromic engine is capable of far higher revolutions than a similarly configured engine with traditional spring-valve heads.

In the 1960s and 1970s, Ducati produced a wide range of small two-stroke bikes, mainly sub-100 cc capacities. Large quantities of some models were exported to the United States.

Ducati has produced the following motorcycle engine types:

Single-cylinder,

pullrod actuated, 48 cc and 65 cc (Cucciolo)

pushrod actuated, 98 and 125 cc

two-stroke, 50, 80, 90, 100, 125 cc

bevel actuated, spring valved: 98 cc, 100 cc, 125 cc, 160 cc, 175 cc, 200 cc, 239 cc, 250 cc, 350 cc, 450 cc

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bevel actuated, desmodromic valved : 125 cc, 239 cc, 250 cc, 350 cc and 450 cc

belt actuated, desmodromic valved : 549/572 cc Supermono, only 65 made.

Two-cylinder,

bevel actuated, spring valved (V-twin): 750 cc, 860 cc

bevel actuated, desmo valved (V-twin): 750 cc, 860 cc, 900 cc, 973 cc (Mille)

bevel actuated, desmo valved (parallel twin): 125 cc,

chain actuated, spring valved (parallel twin): 350 cc, 500 cc (GTL)

chain actuated, desmo valved (parallel twin): 500 cc (500SD)

belt actuated, desmo valved (V-twin): Almost all motors since 1986.

Four-cylinder,

gear actuated, desmo valved (V4): Prototype Desmosedici, and Low volume Production Desmosedici RR, 1,500 made

pushrod actuated, spring valved (V4): Prototype Apollo, only two made.

Enthusiasts groups

A key part of Ducati's marketing strategy since the 1990s has been fostering a distinct community identity in connection with branding efforts including online communities and local, regional and national Ducati enthusiast clubs. There are more than 400 Ducati clubs worldwide and 20,000 registered users of the Ducati Owners Club web site and 17,000 subscribers to the racing web site. Enthusiasts and riders are informally referred to in the motorcycling community as Ducatista (singular) or Ducatisti (plural).

In North America there are several Ducati enthusiasts organizations with varying degrees of factory sponsorship, such as the Bay Area Desmo Owners Club (BADOC) located in and around the city of San Francisco, CA. DESMO, the Ducati Enthusiast Sport Motorcycle Organization, is a North American group affiliated with the factory Desmo Owners Club. Some groups are focused on vintage Ducatis while several are based primarily or entirely on email discussion lists or web forums.

Ducati products other than motorcycles

1942 Ducati radio

Ducati Meccanica (as the company was previously known) has its marque on non-motorcycle products as well. In the 1930s and 1940s, Ducati manufactured radios, cameras, and electrical

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products such as a razor. Ducati made a marine binocular called the BIMAR for the Kriegsmarine during World War II, some of which were sold on the civilian market after the war. The Ducati Sogno was a half-frame Leica-like camera which is now a collector's item. Ducati and Bianchi have developed and launched a new line of racing bicycles.

There are four Ducati companies:

Ducati Motor Holding (the subject of this article)

Ducati Corse (which runs the Ducati racing program and is wholly owned by Ducati Motor Holding)

Ducati Energia, a designer and manufacturer of electrical and electronic components and systems; and

Ducati Sistemi, a subsidiary of Ducati Energia.

All are located in Borgo Panigale in Bologna, Italy.

Ducati Motor Holding often uses electrical components and subsystems from Ducati Energia.

Merchandising

Ducati has a wide range of accessories, lifestyle products and co-branded merchandise bearing their logos and designs. The company has a licensing agreement with Tumi Inc., launching a collection of eight co-branded luggage pieces in 2006, sold through both of the brands' retail outlets.

Racing history

Main article: Ducati Corse

Ducati's history with motorsport began with speed records on Cucciolo motorized bicycle factory racers in 1951, followed in 1954 with bringing in Fabio Taglioni to found a road-racing program with the 100 Gran Sport. As of 2009, Ducati was still pursuing the "win on Sunday, sell on Monday" business model and spending 10% of company revenues, €40 million, on its racing business.

MotoGP World Championship

Ducati rejoined Grand Prix motorcycle racing in 2003, after a 30-year absence. On 23 September 2007, Casey Stoner clinched his and Ducati's first Grand Prix World Championship.

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When Ducati re-joined MotoGP in 2003, MotoGP had changed its rules to allow four-stroke 990 cc engines to race. At the time Ducati was the fastest bike. In 2007, MotoGP reduced the engine size to 800 cc (49 cu in), and Ducati continued to be the fastest with a bike that was markedly quicker than its rivals as was displayed by Casey Stoner on tracks with long straights.

For 2009, Ducati Marlboro Team campaigned their Desmosedici GP9 with former World Champions Casey Stoner and Nicky Hayden. Ducati also supplied customer bikes to Pramac Racing, with Mika Kallio and Niccolò Canepa riding for the team in 2009.

Nine-time world champion Valentino Rossi rode for Ducati Corse for the 2011 and 2012 seasons. Rossi returned to the Yamaha team for the 2013 season.

For 2013, Ducati Marlboro Team raced with Nicky Hayden and the Italian rider Andrea Dovizioso. In 2014 Cal Crutchlow teamed up with Dovizioso for the season, and he left at the end of the year.

In 2015, Ducati Marlboro Team, under the control of the new race team director Gigi Dall'Igna and the new Desmosedici GP15, raced with two Italian riders: Andrea Dovizioso and Andrea Iannone. Dovizioso and Iannone returned for another season in 2016 with Michele Pirro as official tester. As well as this, Casey Stoner also tested Ducati machinery during the season.

Superbike World Championship (SBK)

The company has won 14 riders world championships and 17 manufacturers world championships, competing since the series' inception in 1988. At the end of 2015, Ducati has amassed 318 wins, more than any other manufacturer involved in the championship.

Year Champion Motorcycle

1990 France Raymond Roche Ducati 851

1991 United States Doug Polen Ducati 888

1992 United States Doug Polen Ducati 888

1994 United Kingdom Carl Fogarty Ducati 916

1995 United Kingdom Carl Fogarty Ducati 916

1996 Australia Troy Corser Ducati 916

1998 United Kingdom Carl Fogarty Ducati 916

1999 United Kingdom Carl Fogarty Ducati 996

2001 Australia Troy Bayliss Ducati 996R

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2003 United Kingdom Neil Hodgson Ducati 999

2004 United Kingdom James Toseland Ducati 999

2006 Australia Troy Bayliss Ducati 999

2008 Australia Troy Bayliss Ducati 1098

2011 Spain Carlos Checa Ducati 1098

Ducati has also won the manufacturer world championship for years 1991–1996, 1998–2004, 2006, 2008–2009 and 2011.

Supersport World Championship

Year Champion Motorcycle

1997 Italy Paolo Casoli Ducati 748

FIM Superstock 1000 Championship

Year Champion Motorcycle

2007 Italy  Niccolò Canepa Ducati 1098S

2008 Australia  Brendan Roberts Ducati 1098R

2009 Belgium  Xavier Siméon Ducati 1098R

2011 Italy  Davide Giugliano Ducati 1098R

2014 Argentina  Leandro Mercado Ducati 1199 Panigale R

Ducati has also won the manufacturer championship for year 2016.

British Superbike Championship

The British Superbike Championship has been won by Ducati riders on nine occasions and entered since 1988:

Year Champion Motorcycle

1995 Scotland Steve Hislop Ducati 916

1999 Australia Troy Baylis Ducati 996

2000 England Neil Hodgson Ducati 996

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2001 England John Reynolds Ducati 996

2002 Scotland Steve Hislop Ducati 998

2003 England Shane Byrne Ducati 998

2005 Spain Gregorio Lavilla Ducati 999

2008 England Shane Byrne Ducati 1098

2016 England Shane Byrne Ducati 1199R

AMA Superbike Championship

In the AMA Superbike Championship, Ducati has had its share of success, with Doug Polen winning the title in 1993 and Troy Corser the following year in 1994. Ducati has entered a bike in every AMA Superbike season since 1986, but withdrew from the series after the 2006 season.

Year Champion Motorcycle

1993 United States Doug Polen Ducati 888

1994 Australia Troy Corser Ducati 888

Ducati had an important place in early Superbike racing history in the United States and vice versa: In 1977, Cycle magazine editors Cook Neilson and Phil Schilling took a Ducati 750SS to first place at Daytona in the second-ever season of AMA Superbike racing. "Neilson retired from racing at the end of the year, but the bike he and Schilling built — nicknamed Old Blue for its blue livery — became a legend," says Richard Backus from Motorcycle Classics: "How big a legend? Big enough for Ducati to team with Italian specialty builder NCR to craft a limited-edition update, New Blue, based on the 2007 Sport 1000S, and big enough to inspire the crew at the Barber Vintage Motorsports Museum (see Barber Motorsports Park), arguably one of the most important motorcycle museums in the world, to commission Ducati specialist Rich Lambrechts to craft a bolt-by-bolt replica for its collection. The finished bike's name? Deja Blue."

Australian Superbike Championship

Year Champion Motorcycle

1999 Australia Steve Martin Ducati 996RS

Formula TT

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Ducati's first ever world title was the 1978 TT Formula 1 World Championship, achieved thanks to Mike Hailwood's victory at the Isle of Man TT. Between 1981 and 1984 Tony Rutter won four TT Formula 2 World Championships riding Ducati bikes.

Year Class Champion Motorcycle

1978 F1 United Kingdom Mike Hailwood Ducati NCR 900 SS TT1

1981 F2 United Kingdom Tony Rutter Ducati 600 TT2

1982 F2 United Kingdom Tony Rutter Ducati 600 TT2

1983 F2 United Kingdom Tony Rutter Ducati 600 TT2

1984 F2 United Kingdom Tony Rutter Ducati 600 TT2

Industry Motorcycle manufacturerFounded in 1926; 90 years ago

Headquarters Bologna, ItalyFounder Antonio Cavalieri Ducati

Adriano Cavalieri DucatiBruno Cavalieri Ducati

Marcello Cavalieri DucatiKey people Rupert Stadler (Chairman)

Claudio Domenicali (CEO)Products Cucciolo

750 Imola Desmo916

MonsterSubsidiaries Ducati Corse

SCANIA AB

Scania AB, formerly AB Scania-Vabis, is a major Swedish automotive industry manufacturer of commercial vehicles – specifically heavy trucks and buses. It also manufactures diesel engines for motive power of heavy vehicles, marine, and general industrial applications.

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Founded in 1891 in Södertälje as Vabis, and in 1900 as Maskinfabriks-aktiebolaget Scania in Malmö in the Swedish province of Scania, merging in 1911, the company's head office has been in Södertälje, in Stockholm County since 1912. Today, Scania has production facilities in Sweden, France, Netherlands, India, Argentina, Brazil, Poland, and Russia. In addition, there are assembly plants in ten countries in Africa, Asia and Europe. Scania's sales and service organisation and finance companies are worldwide. In 2012, the company employed approximately 42,100 people around the world. Scania was listed on the NASDAQ OMX Stockholm stock exchange from 1996 to 2014.

Scania's logo shows a Griffin, from the coat of arms of the province of Scania (Swedish: Skåne).

History

AB Scania-Vabis was established in 1911 as the result of a merger between Södertälje-based Vabis and Malmö-based Maskinfabriks-aktiebolaget Scania. Vabis (Vagnfabriks Aktiebolaget i Södertelge) was established as a railway car manufacturer in 1891, while Maskinfabriks-aktiebolaget Scania was established as a bicycle manufacturer in 1900. Both companies had tried their luck at building automobiles, trucks and engines, but with varied success. In 1910, Maskinfabriks-aktiebolaget Scania had succeeded in constructing reliable vehicles, while Vabis was at the brink of closing down. An offer from Per Alfred Nordeman, managing director of Maskinfabriks-aktiebolaget Scania, to steel manufacturer Surahammars Bruk, owner of Vabis, led to an agreement in November 1910, and in 1911 the merger was a reality.

Development and production of engines and light vehicles were set to Södertälje, while trucks were manufactured in Malmö. The company's logo was redesigned from Maskinfabriks-aktiebolaget Scania's original logo with the head of a griffin, the coat of arms of the Swedish region Scania (locally known as Skåne), centered on a three-spoke bicycle chainset. Initially the headquarters were located in Malmö, but in 1912 they were moved to Södertälje.

First World War and 1920s

Because there were many inexpensive, imported cars in Sweden at the time, Scania-Vabis decided to build high-class, luxury cars, for instance the type III limousine from 1920 that had a top hat holder in the roof. Prince Carl of Sweden owned a 1913 Scania-Vabis 3S, a type which was fitted with in-car buttons so the passenger could communicate with the driver. Scania-Vabis also built two-seat sports cars (or "sportautomobil").

For the next few years the company's profits stagnated, with around a third of their orders coming from abroad. The outbreak of the First World War, however, changed the company, with almost all output being diverted to the Swedish Army. By 1916, Scania-Vabis was making enough profit to invest in redeveloping both of their production facilities.

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Following the war, in 1919, Scania decided to focus completely on building trucks, abandoning other outputs including cars and buses. However, they were hurt by the swamping of the market with decommissioned military vehicles from the war, and by 1921 the company was bankrupt.

After some economic difficulties in 1921, new capital came from Stockholms Enskilda Bank owned by the Wallenberg family, and Scania-Vabis became a solid and technically, high standing, company.

Denmark

Towards the end of 1913, the company established a subsidiary in Denmark. The following year the first Danish-built car, a four-seater Phaeton, was built at the company's Frederiksberg factory in Copenhagen. In 1914, the factory produced Denmark's first Scania-Vabis truck, and following this developed a V8 engine, one of the first in the world. In 1921, having sold around 175 trucks, and 75 cars, the Danish operation was closed down.

Norway

In 1917 an ageement was established with the newly formed Norwegian company Norsk Automobilfabrik A/S about production under license of Scania-Vabis cars and lorries. Production began in 1919, but was ended in 1921 after production of only 77 lorries, mostly built from Swedish produced parts.

1930s and 1940s

During the Second World War Scania produced a variety of military vehicles for the Swedish Army, including Stridsvagn m/41 light tanks produced under licence.

1950s and 1960s

During the 1950s, the company expanded its operations into new customer segments, becoming agents for the Willys Jeep and the Volkswagen Beetle, the latter being very profitable for Scania-Vabis. It also started to become a genuine competitor to Volvo with their new L71 Regent truck which was introduced in 1954.

During this period, Scania-Vabis expanded its dealer network and country-wide specialist workshop facilities. By the end of the 1950s, their market-share in Sweden was between 40 and 50%, and was achieving 70% in the heaviest truck sector – helped by the entrepreneurial efforts of their dealers into the haulier market.

Probably their largest impact was in export markets. Before 1950, exports accounted for only 10 percent of production output, but a decade later, exports were now at 50% of output. Beers in the Netherlands became a very important partner. Beers became official importers for Scania-Vabis in the Netherlands, and established a dealer network, along with training programmes for both mechanics and drivers. Beers also offered free twice-yearly overhauls of their customers

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vehicles, and offered a mobile service throughout the Netherlands with their custom-equipped service trucks. Due to Beers concerted efforts, Scania-Vabis market share in the country remained at a consistent 20% throughout this period. Scania-Vabis were to adopt the business model of Beers in their own overseas sales operations.

The 1960s saw Scania-Vabis expanding its production operations into overseas locations. Until now, all Scania-Vabis production had been carried out solely at Södertälje, but the 1960s saw the need to expand production overseas. Brazil was becoming a notable market for heavy trucks, and was also dependent on inter-urban buses, with particular requirement for Brazil's mountainous roads which became nigh-on impassable at times. On 2 July 1957, Brazilian subsidiary Scania-Vabis do Brasil S.A. (today known as Scania Latin America Ltda.) was established and started assembling some vehicles themselves in 1958. On 29 May 1959, a new engine plant was inaugurated in the Ipiranga district of São Paulo, and from June 1960, Scania-Vabis do Brasil assembled all vehicles themselves. Scania-Vabis vehicles had already been assembled in Brazil by a local company called Vemag (Veículos e Máquinas Agrícolas S.A.) for several years. Scania-Vabis established its first full manufacturing plant outside Södertälje, by building a new facility in São Bernardo do Campo near São Paulo, which was opened on 8 December 1962, and this was to set the standard for Scania-Vabis international operations.

Closer to home, the recently formed European Economic Community (EEC) offered further opportunities. Based on their now strong presence in the Dutch markets, Scania-Vabis constructed a new plant in Zwolle, which was completed in 1964. This new Dutch facility provided Scania-Vabis with a stepping stone into the other five EEC countries, particularly the German and French markets.

In 1966, Scania-Vabis acquired ownership of a then valuable supplier – Be-Ge Karosserifabrik, who were based in Oskarshamn. Be-Ge had been making truck cabs since 1946, and had been supplying cabs not only to Scania-Vabis, but also to their Swedish competitors Volvo. It was normal practice for truck manufacturers to outsource production of cabs to independent bodybuilders, so their acquisition by Scania-Vabis seemed a good move. Be-Ge owner Bror Göthe Persson had also established an additional cab factory at Meppel.

Scania-Vabis continued their expansion of production facilities through acquisitions. In 1967, they acquired Katrineholm based coachwork company Svenska Karosseri Verkstäderna (SKV), and created a new subsidiary, Scania-Bussar. A year later, all bus production, along with R&D was moved to Katrineholm. Further production locations were added at Sibbhult and Falun, and Scania's employee numbers rose, particularly at Södertälje, which was to help double the town's population.

Scania-Vabis at some point in their history also manufactured trucks in Argentina, Botswana, Brazil, South-Korea, Tanzania, the Netherlands, Zimbabwe and the United States.

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For some time Daimler-Benz waged a 'logo war' with Scania-Vabis, claiming a possible confusion between the Scania-Vabis 'pedal crank' design featuring on Scania bicycles around 1900 and the Mercedes 'three-pointed star'. In 1968, Daimler-Benz won and the Scania-Vabis logo changed to a simple griffin's head on a white background.

In February 1968, a new range of trucks was launched, and at the same time the company was rebranded as just Scania. In addition to Vabis disappearing from the name and a new logo, all current models received new model designations.

In mid-1985 Scania entered the US market for the first time (aside from having sold 12,000 diesel engines installed in Mack trucks from 1962 until 1975), starting modestly with a goal of 200 trucks in all of 1987. Scania limited their marketing to the Northeast, where conditions resemble those in Europe more closely.

Many examples of Scania, Vabis and Scania-Vabis commercial and military vehicles can be seen at the Marcus Wallenberg-hallen (the Scania Museum) in Södertälje.

Ownership

Saab-Scania AB (1969–1995)

On 1 September 1969, Scania merged with Saab AB, and formed Saab-Scania AB. When Saab-Scania was split in 1995, the name of the truck and bus division changed simply to Scania AB. One year later, Scania AB was introduced on the stock exchange, which resulted in a minor change of name to Scania AB (publ).

Aborted Volvo takeover

On 7 August 1999, Volvo announced it had agreed to acquire a majority share in Scania. Volvo was to buy the 49.3% stake in Scania that was owned by Investor AB, Scania's then main shareholder. The acquisition, for $7.5 billion (60.7 billion SEK), would have created the world's second-largest manufacturer of heavy trucks, behind DaimlerChrysler. The cash for the deal came from Volvo selling its car division to Ford Motor Company in January 1999, but the deal had yet to be approved by the European Union.

The deal eventually failed, after the European Union had disapproved of the affair, saying it would create a company with almost 100% market share in the Nordic markets.

Aborted MAN takeover

In September 2006, the German truckmaker MAN AG launched a €10.3bn hostile offer to acquire Scania AB. Scania's CEO Leif Östling was forced to apologise for comparing the bid of

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MAN to a "Blitzkrieg". MAN AG later dropped its hostile offer, but in January 2008, MAN increased their voting rights in Scania up to 17%.

Scania ownership today

The two major stockholders of Scania AB (publ) are:

The German automotive company Volkswagen AG is Scania's biggest shareholder, with a 70.94% voting stake (equity) in Scania. It gained this by first buying Volvo's stake in 2000, after the latter's aborted takeover attempt, increasing it to 36.4% in the first quarter 2007, and then buying the remainder from Investor AB in March 2008. The deal was approved by regulatory bodies in July 2008. Scania then became the ninth marque in the Volkswagen Group.

The German truck manufacturer MAN SE holds a 17.37% voting stake in Scania. Notably, Volkswagen AG also owns 75.03% of MAN.

In December 2015, VW took 9.6 billion Swedish kronor ($1.1B, €1.0B) out of Scania. Media speculated that the move was caused by the losses in the Volkswagen emissions scandal.

Current shareholders

Scania AB (publ) has a total issue of 400 million 'A shares' and 400 million 'B shares', with a total capitalised value of SEK 72,880 million. In terms of voting rights, one 'A share' is eligible for one vote, whereas 10 'B shares' are required for one vote.

As of 29 January 2010, these shares, as published by Swedish Central Securities Depository and Clearing Organisation ("Euroclear"), are allocated to 119,973 owners, and the table below details the top ten shareholders.

Scania AB (publ) principal shareholders

shareholder name A shares B shares % of capital % of votes

Volkswagen Aktiengesellschaft * 306,232,239 59,037,822 45.66 70.94

MAN SE 73,047,179 33,718,857 13.35 17.37

Clearstream Banking 1,170,514 32,973,450 4.27 1.02

JP Morgan Chase Bank 461,584 36,220,219 4.59 0.93

Swedbank Robur Fonder 0 29,043,665 3.63 0.66

Skandia Liv 974,374 9,646,318 1.33 0.44

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Alecta Pensionsförsäkring 0 19,085,000 2.39 0.33

AMF Försäkring och fonder 650,000 9,678,411 1.23 0.36

Handelsbanken fonder 0 7,202,362 0.90 0.16

The Government Pension Fund of Norway 0 6,937,665 0.87 0.16

largest 10 owners 382,535,890 243,021,708 78.19 92.46

Others 17,464,110 156,978,292 21.81 7.54

total ownership 400,000,000 400,000,000 100.00 100.00

* Further to the shares listed above, Volkswagen AG also holds shares in trust by a credit institution of Scania, which gives additional voting rights amounting to 0.87 percent and an equity interest of 3.63 percent attributable to Volkswagen AG, as disclosed in January 2009.

Trucks and special vehicles

Scania develops, manufactures and sells trucks with a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of more than 16 tonnes (Class 8), intended for long-distance haulage, regional, and local distribution of goods, as well as construction haulage.

The 1963 forward-control LB76 forged Scania-Vabis's reputation outside Sweden, being one of the first exhaustively crash-tested truck cabs.

Current

All current trucks from Scania are part of the PRT-range, but are marketed as different series based on the general cab height.

P-series – launched in August 2004, typical applications are regional and local distribution, construction, and various specialised operations associated with locally based transportation and services. P-series trucks have the new P cabs, which are available in several variations: a single-berth sleeper, a spacious day cab, a short cab and a crew cab

G-series – launched in September 2007, the series offer an enlarged range of options for operators engaged in national long haul and virtually all types of construction applications. All models have a G cab, and each is available as a tractor or rigid. The G-series truck comes with five cab variants: three sleepers, a day cab and a short cab. There are different axle configurations, and in most cases a choice of chassis height and suspension

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R-series – launched in March 2004, and won the prestigious International Truck of the Year award in 2005 and again in 2010. The range offers various trucks optimised for long haulage. All models have a Scania R cab, and each vehicle is available as a tractor or rigid. There are different axle configurations and a choice of chassis height and suspension. The Scania R 730 is the most powerful variant of the R-series. Its 16.4-litre DC16 Turbo Diesel V8 engine produces 730 PS (540 kW; 720 hp) at 1,900 rpm and 3,500 N·m (2,600 lb·ft) of torque at 1,000–1,350 rpm.

S-series – launched in August 2016. It is the highest cab Scania has ever built. It features a completely flat floor and a low bed that is extendable up to 100 cm (about 3.28 feet).

Historical

CLb/CLc (1911−27)

DLa (1911−26)

ELa (1912−26)

FLa (1911−24)

GLa (1914−23)

314/324/325 (1925−36)

335/345/355 (1931−44)

L10/F10/L40/F40/L51 Drabant (1944−59)

L20/L60/L71 Regent (1946−58)

L75/L76/LB76 (1958−68)

L55/L56/L66 (1959−68)

L36 (1964−68)

50, 80, 85, 110, 140 (1968−74)

81, 86, 111, 141 (1974−81)

2-series: 82, 92, 112, 142 (1980−88)

3-series: 93, 113, 143 (1987−95)

4-series: 94, 114, 124, 144, 164 (1995−2004)

T-series (2004−05) - former part of the PRT-range

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Buses and coaches

Scania's bus and coach range has always been concentrated on chassis, intended for use with anything between tourist coaches to city traffic, but ever since the 1950s, when the company was still known as Scania-Vabis, they have manufactured complete buses for their home markets of Sweden and the rest of Scandinavia, and since the 1990s even for major parts of Europe.

Chassis

Scania-Vabis 3243 bus from 1927.

Scania-Vabis B15V bodied by Helko in Finland in 1949.

Preserved 1973 Vest Karosseri-bodied Scania B110 in Norway.

Ikarus E99 on Scania K124EB chassis in Hong Kong.

Scania K230UB bodied by Gemilang Coachworks, operated by SBS Transit in Singapore.

Scania-Vabis was involved in bus production from its earliest days, producing mail buses in the 1920s.

In 1946, the company introduced their B-series of bus chassis, with the engine mounted above the front-axle, giving a short front overhang and the door behind the front-axle. The first generation consisted of the B15/B16, the B20/B21/B22 and the B31, primarily divided by weight class, and then by wheelbase. The latter became upgraded in 1948 and renamed 2B20/2B21/2B22 and 3B31. The T31/T32 trolleybus chassis was also available from 1947. In 1950, the next generation was introduced, with the B41/B42, the B61/B62/B63/B64 and later the B83. From then, Scania-Vabis also offered the BF-series chassis, available as BF61/BF62/BF63, which had the engine more conventionally mounted before the front-axle, leaving room for the door on a longer front overhang. From 1954, the B-series came as B51 and B71, and the BF as BF71 and later BF73. In 1959, the B55, B65 and B75, plus the BF75 were introduced, and were from 1963 available as B56, B66 and B76, plus the BF56 and BF76.

Before the rebranding to Scania in 1968, Scania-Vabis had delivered a very limited number of CR76 chassis-frameworks (less actual bodywork) with transversally rear-mounted engine for external bodying, based on the complete bus with the same name. From 1968 it was also delivered as a standard bus chassis known as BR110.[27] The other chassis models were renamed too, so the Scania-Vabis B56/B76 became the Scania B80/B110 and the BF56/BF76 became BF80/BF110. The numbers in the new model designations were based on the engine displacement (8 and 11 litre), a scheme that Scania used for almost 40 years.

In 1971, a new range of longitudinally mounted rear-engined chassis was launched, with the BR85 and its larger brother, the V8-powered 14-litre BR145, targeted at the coach market. In Brazil, the higher powered version was equipped with the standard 11-litre instead of the V8,

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known as the BR115. Also the BR111 was launched as the replacement for the BR110, being derived from the CR111 complete bus. In 1976, many of the models were renewed, and designations were upped from 80 and 85 to 86, and from 110 to 111, except the BR145 which was later replaced by the BR116 in 1978.

The BR112 was launched in 1978 as a forerunner to the 2-series, replacing the BR111. The rest of the 2-series were launched in 1981 with the F82/F112 replacing the BF86/BF111 and the S82/S112 replacing the B86/B111, and then in 1982 the K82/K112 replacing the BR86/BR116. The BR112 was then updated to the N112 in 1984, and a tri-axle version of the K112 became available, known as the K112T. In 1985, the K82 and F82 were replaced by the 8.5-litre engined K92 and F92. Front-engined versions were in general discontinued on the European markets in the mid-1980s, but production continued in Brazil.

In 1988, the 3-series was introduced, continuing the main models of the 2-series. In 1990, the new L113 became available, with a longitudinally rear-mounted engine which was inclined 60° to the left, to make a lower height than the K113. The 4-series was launched in 1997, continuing all model characteristics from the 3-series, but with all of them being just modular configurations of the basic chassis. The 8.5-litre engine was replaced by a 9-litre, and the 11-litre was replaced by an 11.7-litre. They were joined by a 10.6-litre engine in 2000.

The current Scania's bus and coach range has been available since 2006, and is marketed as the K-series, N-series and F-series, based on the engine position.

Current

K-series - rear-engined (longitudinal mounted) with Euro III - Euro VI compliant engines

N-series - rear-engined (transversal mounted) with Euro III - Euro VI compliant engines

F-series - front-engined with Euro III and Euro V compliant engines

Historical

B55/B56/B65/B66/B75/B76/B80/B110

BF56/BF75/BF76/BF80/BF110

BR110

BR85/BR115/BR145

B86/B111

BF86/BF111

BR111

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BR86/BR116

2-series: BR112/N112, F82/F92/F112, K82/K92/K112, S82/S112

3-series: F93/F113, K93/K113, L113, N113, S113

4-series: F94, K94/K114/K124, L94, N94

Complete buses

Scania-Vabis Capitol (C75) from 1962.

Scania MaxCi (CN113CLL) in Russia.

Bluestar Scania OmniCity in Southampton.

Scania Touring HD in Poland.

A Scania Metrolink operated by the MSRTC in India.

Scania-Vabis' first complete bus model was the transversally rear-engined commuter bus Metropol (C50), which was built in the workshop in Södertälje on licence from the Mack C50 in 1953-1954 for customer Stockholms Spårvägar. It was followed in 1955 by the slightly shorter city bus version Capitol (C70/C75/C76), which was manufactured until 1964. In 1959, the front-engined CF-series was introduced with the CF65 and CF75 (later CF66 and CF76). The CF-series was built until 1966.

In 1965, the rear-engined CR76 was introduced as a replacement for the Capitol. It was available in two versions; the CR76M with double doors (2-2-0) for city and suburban traffic, and the CR76L with single doors (1-1-0) for longer distances. Because of Sweden's switch to right-hand traffic in September 1967 and the need for new buses with doors on the right-hand side, the model sold well. With the rebranding from Scania-Vabis to Scania in 1968, the model was renamed CR110 (CR110M and CR110L). In 1967, the coachwork manufacturer Svenska Karosseri Verkstäderna (SKV) in Katrineholm was acquired, and all production of bus chassis soon moved there too.[15] Together with the rebranding in 1968, Scania re-introduced the front-engined CF range for customers in Sweden as a body-on-chassis product with the newly acquired SKV's former bodywork model "6000" on standard Scania chassis, but less than 100 were delivered until 1970. The CF110L (BF110 chassis) was the most successful, while a handful of C80L (B80) and C110L (B110) were made.[29]

In 1971, the CR110 was upgraded and became the CR111. With extended sound-proofing for its time, it was marketed as the "silent bus". The same year, Scania also introduced a new range of longitudally rear-engined coaches known as the CR85 and the CR145. While CR85 had the

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small 8-litre engine, the CR145 was powered by a 14-litre V8 engine. The coaches were built until 1978, but never sold very well. In 1973, one right-hand drive CR145 prototype was built in Sweden, with the finishing touches done by MCW, but it remained the only one of its kind.[30] The CR111 was replaced by the all-new CR112 in 1978. With its angular design, the CR112 was called a "shoebox". As with the BR112 chassis being renamed the N112, the CR112 was renamed the CN112 in 1984, and it was also launched in an articulated version. A North American version of the CN112 was built in around 250 units between 1984 and 1988. The CK112 was launched as a simple coach or intercity bus in 1986, sharing most of the styling with the CN112. With the launch of the 3-series in 1988, both the CN112 and CK112 were upgraded to CN113 and CK113. The CK113 was replaced by the L113-based CL113 in 1991 with new rectangular headlights, but production ended in 1992. Less than 100 units of the CK112/CK113/CL113 were ever built.

The MaxCi (CN113CLL), launched in 1992, was Scania's first ever low-entry bus, with a low floor between the front and centre doors, and kneeling to make entering even easier. The bodywork was based on the CN113, but with a lowered window line in the front half, and a new front including the headlights from the CL113. In 1996, the aluminium body OmniCity was launched as Scania's first full low-floor bus, and in 1998 the MaxCi was replaced by the OmniLink, which shared styling with the OmniCity. A step-entrance intercity bus returned with the OmniLine in 2000. In 2007, Scania returned to the complete coach market with the Finnish-built OmniExpress, which in 2011 even replaced the OmniLine, which had gone out of production in 2009.

Scania's current styling was first seen in 2009, with the launch of the Touring coach, manufactured by Higer Bus in China, and in 2011 the Citywide was launched to replace both the OmniCity and the OmniLink. Scania in India launched their very own Metrolink coach in 2013, built at their plant there. The latest addition to Scania's complete bus models is the Interlink, which was launched in October 2015 to replace the OmniExpress.

Current

Citywide - low-floor and low-entry city bus range

Interlink - coach and intercity bus range, launched in October 2015 to replace the OmniExpress

Metrolink - coach for India

OmniExpress - coach and intercity bus range

Touring - premium coach, manufactured by Higer Bus

Historical

Metropol (C50) - rear-engined step-entrance commuter bus

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Capitol (C70/C75/C76) - rear-engined step-entrance city bus

CF65/CF75/CF66/CF76 - front-engined step-entrance city/intercity bus

CR76/CR110/CR111 - rear-engined step-entrance city/intercity bus

C80/C110/CF110 - front-engined step-entrance city/intercity bus

CR85/CR145 - rear-engined coach

CR112/CN112/CN113 - rear-engined step-entrance city/intercity bus (rigid/articulated)

CK112/CK113/CL113 – rear-engined intercity bus

MaxCi (CN113CLL) – low-entry city bus

OmniCity – low-floor city bus (rigid/articulated/double-decker)

OmniLink – low-entry city bus (rigid/articulated)

OmniLine – intercity bus

Buses through collaborations

Preserved 1972 Metro-Scania from Leicester City Transport at Showbus 2012.

Preserved 1988 Scania Classic on K112 chassis in Norway, belonging to Telemark Bilruter.

Van Hool TDX21 Altano on Scania K EB chassis in Germany.

In addition to supplying chassis for external bodywork, and their own bodyworks, Scania have also collaborated with some bodywork manufacturers to deliver buses through Scania's distribution lines, both on a global base and on smaller markets.

In 1969, Scania teamed up with MCW to make the Metro-Scania single-decker for the UK market based on the BR110MH, and since 1971 the BR111MH chassis. In 1973, it was replaced by the Metropolitan double-decker, built on the BR111DH chassis. Production ended in 1978, when the BR111 was replaced by the BR112. East Lancashire Coachbuilders (ELC) launched their low-entry MaxCi in 1993, one year after Scania's own left-hand drive version. It was followed by the L113-based European in 1995 until 1996. In 2003, ELC was back with both the OmniDekka double-decker and the OmniTown midibus to complement Scania's own OmniCity.

Since the mid-1990s, Scania started a long-lasting collaboration with Spanish bus builder Irizar to sell their coaches through Scania's global distribution network. The agreement meant that Scania had exclusive distribution rights for all Irizar coaches in Northern Europe for many years. The most widespread model was the Irizar Century, but later also the Irizar PB was sold as Scania's premium coach.

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In 1985, Scania's Norwegian distributor and the Finnish bus builder Ajokki announced the Scania Classic, a coach built exclusively for Norway. It was technically based on Ajokki's own Royal coach model, but received its own styling details. In 1990, when Ajokki had become Carrus, the second generation was launched based on the Vector/Regal models. The third generation from 1995 was also available in Sweden and Finland in limited numbers, and the fourth and last generation from 2001 was built with the same bodywork as the Volvo 9700. Volvo, who had bought Carrus in 1998, put the foot down against any further Scanias with this bodywork from 2002, and since then Scania instead put the "Classic" sticker on all Irizar Century sold in Norway for several years. The collaboration also led to some Norway-exclusive intercity buses; the Scania Cruiser (Ajokki Victor), Scania Universal (Carrus Fifty) and Scania InterClassic (Carrus Vega), but neither of these had special styling, nor as successful as the Classic.

In 2006, Scania and Higer Bus announced the A80, the first coach in the Higer A Series of coaches built on Scania chassis in China. The coaches are generally available in Asia, but the A30 is also available in Europe as an affordable intercity bus or simple coach. Even the A80 is globally available, but under make-up known as the Scania Touring HD, also referred to as the A80T.

Since 2012, Scania and Belgian bus manufacturer Van Hool offer some of their most luxurious coaches from their TX series on Scania K EB chassis, including the Astronef with theatrical floor, the Astromega double-decker and the Altano. Since 2014, also the Exqui.City BRT concept is available on Scania N UA chassis with CNG-powered engines.

Diesel engines

In addition to bus and truck engines, Scania's industrial and marine engines are used in generator sets and in earthmoving and agricultural machinery, as well as on board ships and pleasure crafts.

Scania's involvement with internal combustion engine production dates back to 1897, when engineer Gustav Erickson designed the engine for the company's first motor car. Over the subsequent years, Scania has grown to be one of the world's most experienced engine manufacturers, building engines not only for trucks and buses, but also for marine and general industrial applications, which are exported across the globe.

Year in parentheses is first year of application in road vehicles.

Current

DC07 I6 6,692 cc (2014) − licensed Cummins ISB 6.7 for buses

DC09/DI09 I5 9,291 cc (2007)

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DC13/DI13 I6 12,742 cc (2007)

DC16/DI16 V8 16,353 cc (2010)

Historical

D10/DS10 I6 10,261 cc (1958)

D7 I6 7,167 cc (1959)

D8/DS8 I6 7,790 cc (1962)

D11/DN11/DS11/DSC11/DSI11 I6 11,021 cc (1963)

D5/DS5 I4 5,193 cc (1964)

DI14/DS14/DSC14/DSI14 V8 14,188 cc (1969)

DC9/DI9/DN9/DS9/DSC9 I6 8,476 cc (1984)

DC9 I6 8,974 cc (1996)

DH12/DI12/DSC12/DSI12/DT12 I6 11,705 cc (1996)

DC11 I6 10,641 cc (1999)

DC16 I6 15,607 cc (2000)

DC9 I5 8,867 cc (2004)

Other products

Scania also designs and manufacture clothes especially designed for truckers under the label Scania Truck Gear.

Production sites

The table below shows the locations of the current and former production facilities of Scania AB. As Scania is now majority owned by Volkswagen AG, making it part of Volkswagen Group, the table also includes Volkswagen Group references.

Notes: the second column of the table, the 'factory VIN ID code', is indicated in the 11th digit of the vehicles' 17 digit Vehicle Identification Number, and this factory code is only assigned to plants which produce complete vehicles. Component factories which do not produce complete vehicles do not have this factory ID code.

Industry AutomotiveFounded in 1911(Vabis-1891)

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Headquarters Södertälje, SwedenNumber of locations 10

Key people Andreas Renschler (Chairman)Henrik Henriksson (President and CEO)

Products Commercial vehiclesDiesel engines

Subsidiaries -

MAN SE

MAN supplies trucks, buses, diesel engines and turbomachinery. Until September 2012 MAN SE was one of the top 30 companies listed on the German stock exchange (DAX). The company celebrated its 250th anniversary in 2008. In 2008, its 51,300 employees generated annual sales of around €15 billion in 120 different countries. The company operates through fully owned subsidiaries or joint ventures with local companies in India, Poland, Turkey, China, United States, United Arab Emirates, South Africa, Uzbekistan, Portugal and Germany/Austria.

Corporate overview

The MAN Group currently operates its production output through three main subsidiaries, with each subsidiary's output destined for different locations.

MAN Truck & Bus is one of Europe's leading commercial vehicle manufacturers.

MAN Diesel & Turbo is a world leader in large diesel ship engines, stationary engines and turbomachinery.

MAN Latin America has a leading position in heavy trucks in Brazil.

History

File:MAN Feuerwehrfahrzeug, Füssen.webm

Foundation

MAN SE (pronounced [ˈman ʔɛsˈʔeː], abbreviation of Maschinenfabrik Augsburg-Nürnberg, pronounced [maˈʃiːnənfaˈbʁiːk ˈʔaʊ̯ksbʊʁk ˈnʏʁnbɛʁk] or [-faˈbʁɪk-]), formerly MAN AG (pronounced [ˈman ʔaːˈgeː]), is a German mechanical engineering company and parent company of the MAN Group. MAN SE is based in Munich. Its primary output is for the automotive industry, particularly heavy trucks. Further activities include the production of diesel engines for various applications, like marine propulsion, and also turbomachinery.

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MAN traces its origins back to 1758, when the "St. Antony" ironworks commenced operation in Oberhausen, as the first heavy-industry enterprise in the Ruhr region. In 1808, the three ironworks "St. Antony", "Gute Hoffnung" (English: "Good Hope"), and "Neue Essen" (English: "New Forges") merged, to form the Hüttengewerkschaft und Handlung Jacobi (English: "Jacobi Iron And Steel Works Union And Trading Company"), Oberhausen, which was later renamed Gute Hoffnungshütte (GHH).

In 1840, the German engineer Ludwig Sander founded in Augsburg the first predecessing enterprise of MAN in Southern Germany: the "Sander'sche Maschinenfabrik." It firstly became the "C. Reichenbach'sche Maschinenfabrik", which was named after the pioneer of printing machines Carl August Reichenbach, and later on the "Maschinenfabrik Augsburg". The branch Süddeutsche Brückenbau A.G. (MAN-Werk Gustavsburg) was founded when the company in 1859 was awarded the contract for the construction of the railway bridge over the Rhine at Mainz.

In 1898, the companies Maschinenbau-AG Nürnberg (founded 1841) and Maschinenfabrik Augsburg AG (founded 1840) merged to form Vereinigte Maschinenfabrik Augsburg und Maschinenbaugesellschaft Nürnberg A.G., Augsburg ("United Machine Works Augsburg and Nuremberg Ltd."). In 1908, the company was renamed Maschinenfabrik Augsburg Nürnberg AG, or in short, M·A·N.

While the focus initially remained on ore mining and iron production in the Ruhr region, mechanical engineering became the dominating branch of business in Augsburg and Nuremberg. Under the direction of Heinrich von Buz, Maschinenfabrik Augsburg grew from a medium-sized business of 400 employees into a major enterprise with a workforce of 12,000 by the year 1913.

Locomotion, propulsion and steel building were the big topics of this phase. The early predecessors of MAN were responsible for numerous technological innovations. The success of the early MAN entrepreneurs and engineers like Heinrich Gottfried Gerber, was based on a great openness towards new technologies. They constructed the Wuppertal monorail ("Wuppertaler Schwebebahn") and the first spectacular steel bridges like the Großhesseloher Brücke in Munich in 1857 and the Müngsten railway bridge between 1893 and 1897.

The invention of the rotary printing press allowed the copious printing of books and newspapers and since 1893, Rudolf Diesel puzzled for four years with future MAN engineers in a laboratory in Augsburg until his first Diesel engine was completed and fully functional.

During 1921, the majority of M.A.N. was taken over by the Gutehoffnungshütte Actienverein für Bergbau und Hüttenbetrieb, Sterkrade (GHH), (founded 1873). Through well-directed equities and acquisitions of processing industries, e.g., Deutsche Werft (1918), Ferrostaal (1921), Deggendorfer Werft und Eisenbau (1924), MAN advanced to a nationwide operating enterprise, with a workforce of 52,000 by 1921.

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Crisis and World War II

At the same time the GHH’s economic situation worsened. The causes for this were, among others, the reparations after World War I, the occupation of the Ruhr region and the world economic crisis. In only two years the number of the MAN employees sank from 14,000 in the year 1929/30 to 7,400 in 1931/32. While the civil business was largely collapsing, the military business increased with the armament under the national socialist regime. GHH/MAN enterprises supplied diesel engines for submarines, tanks (Panzers), cylinders for projectiles and artillery of every description. MAN also produced gun parts, including Mauser Karabiner 98k rifle bolts. Their Waffenamt code was WaA53, and ordnance code was "coc".

The MAN works in Augsburg, which produced diesel engines for U-boats, and the MAN works in Nuremberg, which built 40 percent of Germany's Panther tanks, were often the target of massive Allied bombing attacks during World War II.

Postwar period

After the end of World War II the allies split up the GHH group. A vertical integration in which mining, iron and steel production are consolidated was not allowed any more. The “Gutehoffnungshütte”, together with the MAN firms of Southern Germany, therefore concentrated on engineering, plant construction, commercial vehicles and printing machines. This process has been supported by strategic acquisitions and dispositions; one of the most important was the take-over of the truck and bus division of the commercial vehicles manufacturer Büssing (1971), the disposition of the shares of the shipyard Deutsche Werft (1966/67) and the acquisition of the printing machine producer Faber&Schleicher as well as its fusion to MAN Roland Druckmaschinen AG (1979).

In 1982/83 the “Gutehoffnungshütte” plunged into a deep corporate crisis. The enterprise suffered from the late effects of the second oil crises and a bad economic situation. This was particularly displayed by the dramatic downturn of the commercial vehicles sales figures. Besides external factors, the chief course of these problems was the obsolete company structure with extensive cross-subsidisation between the divisions. At this time the former director of GHH presented a reclamation concept that envisioned a complete consolidation of the subsidiary with the holding company. This concept encountered great resistance with GHH's major shareholders Allianz AG and Commerzbank. The media speculated about a “Bavarian conspiracy” against the Management in Oberhausen.

In 1986, with Klaus Götte, the group got a new company structure and became a contractual group with economically independent division at several locations. This was also attended by the transferring of the MAN headquarters from Oberhausen to Munich and by the new company name MAN AG.

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Rudolf Rupprecht repelled a takeover attempt in 2003. Furthermore, the disposition of the 50-percent share of the SMS Group and the strengthening of the turbomachinery division through the takeover of Sulzer Turbo induced MAN’s focusing process.

In 2006, MAN entered into an agreement with Indian company Force Motors to establish a 50:50 joint venture for the production of trucks and buses in India for the domestic and export markets. The joint-venture established a truck manufacturing plant in Pithampur, Madhya Pradesh and launched its first truck for the Indian market in 2007. At the end of 2011, MAN bought out the stake of its Indian partner, and its operations in India became a wholly owned subsidiary of MAN in early 2012.

In September 2006, MAN produced an offer for the take-over of the Swedish competitor Scania AB. The European Commission approved the takeover on December, 14. Nevertheless, MAN voluntarily withdrew the offer on January 23, 2007, after Scania’s major shareholders Volkswagen AG and the influential Wallenberg family had declined the offer. On December 24, 2008, MAN published to possess further stock options of Scania and to therefore maintain more than 20 percent of the voting rights.

In 2008, the MAN group celebrated its 250th anniversary with numerous events, like exhibitions in several museums, a vintage car tour with the motto “MAN on the road again” and a great anniversary gala. At the beginning of December 2008 MAN took over the company VW Truck and Bus Brazil and changed the firm’s name to MAN Latin America. Therewith, MAN now is market leader in Brazil with a market share of 30 percent.

Since May 2009, the group is incorporated as European corporation MAN SE. In July 2009 MAN published to merge the two divisions MAN Turbo and MAN Diesel into one business area called Power Engineering. In addition the group contracted a strategic partnership with the Chinese truck manufacturer Sinotruk. In the course of this focusing process many smaller subsidiaries and division have been sold.

In 2009, investigators of the Munich Prosecutor's Office uncovered a corruption affair, in which MAN had been bribing business partners and governments in over 20 countries during the years 2001 to 2007, in order to get large orders for buses and trucks. MAN CEO Håkan Samuelsson and further Board Members had to resign. The board of directors appointed Dr.-Ing. Georg Pachta-Reyhofen, the former CEO of MAN Diesel, as successor. On December 17, 2009 Pachta-Reyhofen was assigned as speaker of the board and CEO of MAN SE by the board of directors.

Takeover by Volkswagen

In July 2011, Volkswagen AG acquired a 55.9% voting stake and 53.7% of the share capital in MAN SE. Pending regulatory approval, Volkswagen planned to merge MAN and Scania to create Europe's largest truckmaker. The combined trucks group is planned to save about 400

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million euros per year, mainly by bundling procurement. Regulatory approval was granted, and the takeover completed, in November 2011.

In April 2012 MAN SE announced that Volkswagen had increased its interest to a 73.0% voting stake and 71.08% of the share capital.

On 6 June 2012 Volkswagen AG announced that it had increased its share of voting rights in MAN SE to 75.03%, paving the way for a domination agreement to be put in place.

Other holdings

Renk (76% stake)

Manufacturers of special gears, components of propulsion technology and test systems.

Sinotruk (Hong Kong) ("25% + 1 share" stake)

Hong Kong-based subsidiary of Sinotruk.

Industry Automotive, Marine EngineeringFounded in 1758

Headquarters Munich, GermanyNumber of locations manufacturing facilities in the Ruhr area,

Augsburg, and outside GermanyKey people Georg Pachta-Reyhofen (CEO)

Products Commercial Vehicles, diesel and other engines, turbomachinery

Subsidiaries MAN Truck & BusMAN Diesel & TurboMAN Latin America

NeoplanRenk (76%)

ÖAFNEOPLAN

Neoplan Bus GmbH is a German automotive company that manufactures buses, trolleybuses and coaches. It is a subsidiary of MAN SE.

History

Foundations

Trathens Travel Services, Plymouth 1983 Neoplan Skyliner

Neoplan Skyliner in February 2006

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Neoplan Airliner at Dubai Airport

Stagecoach Oxfordshire Neoplan Skyliner in June 2009

Neoplan Megaliner in Japan

The company was founded by Gottlob Auwärter in Stuttgart in 1935, and manufactured bodywork for bus and truck chassis. From the very beginning, the designs of the buses produced were considered stylish. After World War II, an all-steel body design was developed, a rarity at that time. By 1953, the company had moved away from manufacturing buses on truck chassis, to a partial monocoque design with a steel tube skeleton, providing the structural support, enhanced by welded side panels. The engine was moved to the rear, and the running gear and body functioned as one. In 1957, air suspension was made available, improving the ride of the bus for passengers.

1960s

In 1961, a new bus design, the Hamburg, was unveiled at the Geneva Motor Show. At a time when most coaches were rounded, bulbous or streamlined, the new design had clear-cut lines with edges and large windows. Developed by the founder's eldest son, Albrecht Auwärter, and another student, Swiss national Bob Lee, as part of their dissertation at Hamburg University. The design also allowed every passenger to regulate their fresh air supply through a nozzle from two air ducts, commonly seen today.

Both Albrecht and Lee joined Neoplan after graduating from the university. Albrecht took over management of the company in 1965, and Bob Lee later became head of Engineering and Design.

In 1964, the founder's second son, Konrad Auwärter, developed a double-deck bus design for a service bus as part of his dissertation. The 'Do-Bus' design had low weight, and could carry over 100 passengers. It also featured a low-frame front axle with forward-mounted steering gear that permitted a low flat floor. The double-deck principle was applied to the coach design, creating a high-capacity comfortable touring vehicle. This vehicle was known as the Skyliner.

1970s

In 1971, the Cityliner was introduced to the public. This design had a passenger platform above the driver's cab, and included an onboard toilet. The vehicle also made use, of glass-fibre reinforced plastic for certain areas of the body, this was the first instance when this technique was used. In 1973, the Jetliner was introduced, featuring a large one-piece windshield, with the driver and door windows sloping from the passenger window line down to the bottom of the windshield level.

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A second manufacturing facility opened in Pilsting in 1973, and a third opened in Kumasi, Ghana in December 1974 to support increasing orders.

In 1975, the Jumbocruiser was launched, a double-deck articulated coach 18 metres (59 ft 1 in) long and 4 metres (13 ft 1 in) high. The Spaceliner, introduced in 1979 took the Cityliner concept of passenger floor level above the driver, and extended the actual floor above the cab. This kept the height of the vehicle lower than a double-decker, at 3.65 metres (12 ft), but still allowed installation of toilets, kitchens or sleep cabins below the passenger compartment.

1980s

A new fourth plant was added in 1981 in Berlin, and Bob Lee led the establishment of a fifth plant in Lamar, Colorado. In 1984, a further plant was added in Honey Brook, Pennsylvania. The United States plants were later spun off into a separate, and now defunct, independent company (Neoplan USA) that used the Neoplan name under licence.

In 1980, the United Kingdom deregulated services over 35 miles (56 km) in length.This led to intense competition on a variety of long-distance services, with operators looking to differentiate their service. Neoplan vehicles, with their futuristic design and high quality construction began to be imported in greater numbers.

The Metroliner was introduced in 1988.

1990s

A manufacturing facility was opened in Ehrenhain in 1990.

In 1992, the 15 metres (49 ft 3 in) four-axle Megaliner was introduced, prompting a change in European Union regulations to allow non-articulated vehicles greater than 12 metres (39 ft 4 in) in length. The Starliner was introduced in 1996, and would go on to win the Bus of the Year award for two consecutive years – in 1998 and 1999.

2000s

In 2001, Neoplan, or correctly, "Gottlob Auwärter GmbH & Co KG" was acquired by MAN AG subsidy MAN Nutzfahrzeuge AG to form Neoman Bus GmbH. The Starliner won the Bus of the Year award for two more consecutive years in 2001 and 2002.

A new coach designed for touring was introduced in 2003 under the name Tourliner, and the Starliner was redesigned in 2004 and included the Electronic Stability Programme (ESP). The

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Trendliner was released in 2004, as a 'dual purpose' intercity and combination bus – which is designed to be used seven days a week.

In 2005, two new shorter 13 metres (42 ft 8 in) versions of the Tourliner and Trendliner were released. From 2006, Euro4 compliant engines from MAN began being fitted in the new generation Cityliner.

In 2007, a new Auwärter Museum was opened in Landau/Isar.

On 1 February 2008, Neoman Bus GmbH was fully integrated into the bus division of the larger MAN Nutzfahrzeuge Group, and ceased to exist in its own right. Neoplan and MAN Truck & Bus now operate as two separate but integrated marques of MAN Nutzfahrzeuge Group. As a result of the reorganisation and restructuring of the Bus Division, Neoplan will concentrate on production at its Plauen and Pilsting sites, with Plauen being used for luxury coaches, whilst Pilsting will concentrate on customisations.

Accidents

On 17 May 2003 in France, a Neoplan Skyliner overturned on a highway, killing twenty-eight people.

In January 2007, a Neoplan Skyliner operated by National Express overturned and crashed on the M25 motorway near Heathrow Airport, killing two passengers; a third passenger died six-months later due to the injuries sustained in the crash. The company temporarily withdrew all twelve Skyliners from service pending investigations. The crash was deemed to have been caused by travelling at excessive speed and the driver was charged with three counts of causing death by dangerous driving. He was subsequently jailed for five years and banned from driving for an additional three years. No safety issues were found in the bus.

On 28 May 2008, in Japan one of two Neoplan Megaliners operated by West JR Bus Company caught fire while in service, and burnt down completely. No passengers were injured. The company resumed operations with its second Megaliner on July 2008.

On 16 March 2009, in Japan one of two Megaliners operated by JR Kanto Bus Company caught fire on an overnight Seishun Mega-Dream Go service between Osaka and Tokyo. The 77 passengers and driver evacuated safely before the coach was completely destroyed. Following this accident, both operators suspended operations of the remaining two Megaliners in Japan.

On 23 June 2013 a Neoplan Tourliner was involved in the 2013 Podgorica bus crash, 18 people being killed. The Tourliner derailed from a bridge and fell about 40 meters into a ravine. The causes of the accident are uncertain, but survivors claim that the driver was overspeeding while the tight mountain road was wet after a storm.

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Industry AutomotiveFounded in 1 july, 1935

Headquarters Stuttgart, GermanyNumber of locations Plauen, Saxony, Germany

Key people Joachim Reinmuth,Chairman of the Board of Management

former designers: Albrecht Auwärter, Bob Lee, Konrad Auwärter

Products Buses,Coaches,Trolleybuses,Subsidiaries -

Clients include the Volkswagen Group, BMW, PSA Peugeot Citroën, Fiat, Ford Motor Company, General Motors, Porsche and Toyota. Component manufacturer clients include Robert Bosch GmbH, Delphi, Continental AG and ZF Group.

Shareholders

As of 2013 the shareholders of IAV GmbH were:

Volkswagen Group - 50%

Continental Automotive GmbH - 20%

IAV

IAV GmbH (German: Ingenieurgesellschaft Auto und Verkehr, literal Engineer Society Automobil and Traffic), abbreviated to IAV, is an engineering company in the automotive industry, designing products for powertrain, electronics and vehicle development. Founded in Berlin in 1983 by Prof. Dr. Hermann Appel as a university-affiliated research institute, the company employs over 5,000 members of staff, and supplies automobile manufacturers and component suppliers. In addition to development centres in Berlin, Chemnitz and Gifhorn, IAV operates at sites in France, United Kingdom, Italy, Russia, China, India, Japan, South Korea, Brazil, Mexico and the United States.

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Schaeffler Technologies AG & Co. KG - 10%

Freudenberg & Co. KG - 10%

SABIC Innovative Plastics B.V. - 10%

Subsidiaries

IAV has the following worldwide subsidiary companies:

Europe

Consulting4Drive GmbH, Berlin

IAV S.A.S.U. (France)

IAV Cars GmbH

IAV Rus, LLC (Russia)

IAV U.K. Ltd.

IAV Fahrzeugsicherheit GmbH & Co. KG, Gifhorn

TR Engineering powered by IAV GmbH, Neustadt/Weinstraße

Asia

IAV Automotive Engineering (Shanghai) Co. Ltd.

IAV India Private Ltd.

IAV Japan Co. Ltd.

IAV Korea Co. Ltd.

North / South America

IAV Automotive Engineering Inc. (USA)

IAV do Brasil Ltda.

IAV Automotive Engineering de México

In-road electric vehicle charger

In 2009 the company submitted a patent for an electric vehicle recharger that is built into the road. The technology would allow electric vehicles to be charged as they drive over roads embedded with a recessed wireless recharging strip, using electromagnetic induction.

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Industry AutomotiveFounded in Berlin, Germany (1983)

Headquarters Berlin, GermanyNumber of locations 16 operations across Germany, several

SubsidiariesKey people Kurt Blumenröder,

President, CEO;Michael Schubert,

President, CFOProducts Automobiles,

Subsidiaries -

DKW

In 1916, Danish engineer Jørgen Skafte Rasmussen founded a factory in Zschopau, Saxony, Germany, to produce steam fittings. That year he attempted to produce a steam-driven car, called the DKW. Although unsuccessful, he made a two-stroke toy engine in 1919, called Des Knaben Wunsch – "the boy's wish". He put a slightly modified version of this engine into a motorcycle and called it Das Kleine Wunder – "the little wonder" the initials from this becoming the DKW brand: by the late 1920s, DKW was the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer.

In 1932, DKW merged with Audi, Horch and Wanderer to form Auto Union. After World War II, DKW moved to West Germany, with the original factory becoming MZ. Auto Union came under Daimler-Benz ownership in 1957 and was purchased by the Volkswagen Group in 1964. The last German-built DKW car was the F102, which ceased production in 1966. Its successor, the four-stroke F103, was marketed under the Audi brand, another Auto Union marque.

DKW-badged cars continued to be built under license in Brazil and Argentina until 1967 and 1969 respectively. The DKW trademark is currently owned by Auto Union GmbH, a wholly owned subsidiary of Audi AG which also owns the rights to other historical trademarks and intellectual property of the Auto Union combine.

Automobiles made between 1928 and 1942

1931 DKW F1

DKW (Dampf-Kraft-Wagen, English: steam-driven car) is a German car and motorcycle marque. The company and brand is one of the ancestor companies of the modern day Audi Company as one of the four companies that formed Auto-Union.

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DKW cars were made from 1928 until 1966, apart from an interruption caused by the Second World War. DKWs always used two-stroke engines, reflecting the company's position by the end of the 1920s as the world's largest producer of motorcycles. The first DKW car, the small and rather crude Type P, emerged on 7 May 1928 and the model continued to be built at the company's Spandau (Berlin) plant, first as a roadster and later as a stylish if basic sports car, until 1931.

More significant was a series of inexpensive cars built 300 km (185 miles) to the south in Zwickau in the plant acquired by the company's owner in 1928 when he had become the majority owner in Audi Werke AG. Models F1 to F8 (F for Front) were built between 1931 and 1942, with successor models reappearing after the end of the war in 1945. They were the first volume production cars in Europe with front wheel drive, and were powered by transversely mounted two-cylinder two-stroke engines. Displacement was 584 or 692 cc: claimed maximum power was initially 15 PS, and from 1931 a choice between 18 or 20 hp (15 kW). These models had a generator that doubled as a starter, mounted directly on the crankshaft, known as a Dynastart. DKWs from Zwickau notched up approximately 218,000 units between 1931 and 1942. Most cars were sold on the home market and over 85% of DKWs produced in the 1930s were the little F series cars: DKW reached second place in German sales by 1934 and stayed there, accounting for 189,369 of the cars sold between 1931 and 1938, more than 16% of the market.

Between 1929 and 1940, DKW produced a less well remembered but technically intriguing series of rear-wheel drive cars called (among other names) Schwebeklasse and Sonderklasse with two-stroke V4 engines. Engine displacement was 1,000 cc, later 1,100 cc. The engines had two extra cylinders for forced induction, so they appeared like V6 engines but without spark plugs on the front cylinder pair.

In 1939, DKW made a prototype with the first three-cylinder engine, with a displacement of 900 cc and producing 30 hp (22 kW). With a streamlined body, the car could run at 115 km/h (71 mph). It was put into production after World War II, first as an Industrieverband Fahrzeugbau (IFA) F9 (later Wartburg) in Zwickau, East Germany, and shortly afterwards in DKW-form from Düsseldorf as the 3=6 or F91.

DKW engines were used by Saab as a model for the Saab two-stroke in its Saab 92 car manufacturing venture, in 1947.

Automobiles made after 1945

Osmo Kalpala servicing his DKW during the 1956 Rally Finland.

As Auto Union was based in Saxony in what became the German Democratic Republic, it took some time for it to regroup after the war. The company was registered in West Germany as Auto Union GmbH in 1949, first as a spare-part provider, but soon to take up production of the RT

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125 motorcycle and a new delivery van, called a Schnellaster F800. Their first line of production took place in Düsseldorf. This van used the same engine as the last F8 made before the war.

Their first car was the F89 using the body from the prototype F9 made before the war and the two-cylinder two-stroke engine from the last F8. Production went on until it was replaced by the successful three-cylinder engine that came with the F91. The F91 was in production 1953–1955, and was replaced by the larger F93 in 1956. The F91 and F93 had 900 cc three-cylinder two-stroke engines, the first ones delivering 34 hp (25 kW), the last 38 hp (28 kW). The ignition system comprised three independent sets of points and coils, one for each cylinder, with the points mounted in a cluster around a single lobed cam at the front end of the crankshaft. The cooling system was of the free convection type assisted by a fan driven from a pulley mounted at the front end of the crankshaft.

The F93 was produced until 1959, and was replaced by the Auto-Union 1000. These models where produced with a 1,000 cc two-stroke engine, with a choice between 44 hp (33 kW) or 50 hp (37 kW) S versions until 1963. During this transition, production was moved from Düsseldorf to Ingolstadt, where Audi still has its production. From 1957, the cars could be fitted with a saxomat, an automatic clutch, the only small car then offering this feature. The last versions of the Auto-Union 1000S had disc brakes as option, an early development for this technology. A sporting 2+2 seater version was available as the Auto-Union 1000 SP from 1957 to 1964, the first years only as a coupé and from 1962 also as a convertible.

In 1956, the very rare DKW Monza was put into small-scale production on a private initiative, with a sporting two-seater body of glassfiber on a standard F93 frame. It was first called Solitude, but got its final name from the long-distance speed records it made on the Autodromo Nazionale Monza in Italy in November 1956. Running in Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) class G, it set records including 48 hours at an average speed of 140.961 km/h (87.589 mph), 10,000 km at 139.453 km/h (86.652 mph) and 72 hours at 139.459 km/h (86.656 mph). The car was first produced by de: Dannenhauer & Strauss in Stuttgart, then by Massholder in Heidelberg and lastly by Robert Schenk in Stuttgart. The number produced is said to be around 230 and production finished by the end of 1958.

A more successful range of cars was sold from 1959, the Junior/F12 series based on a modern concept from the late 1950s. The range consist of Junior (basic model) made from 1959 to 1961, Junior de Luxe (a little enhanced) from 1961 to 1963, F11 (a little larger) and F12 (larger and bigger engine) from 1963 to 1965, and F12 Roadster from 1964 to 1965. The Junior/F12 series became quite popular, and many cars were produced. An assembly plant was licensed in Ireland between 1952 and c.1964 and roughly 4,000 vehicles were assembled, ranging from saloons, vans and motorbikes to commercial combine harvesters. This was the only DKW factory outside Germany in Europe.

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All the three-cylinder two-stroke post-war cars had some sporting potential and formed the basis for many rally victories in the 1950s and early 1960s. This made DKW the most winning car brand in the European rally league for several years during the fifties.

In 1960, DKW developed a V6 engine by combining two three-cylinder two-stroke engines, with a capacity of 1,000 cc. The capacity was increased and the final V6 in 1966 had a capacity of 1,300 cc, which developed 83 hp (62 kW) at 5,000 rpm using the standard configuration with two carburettors. A four-carburettor version produced 100 hp (75 kW), a six-carburettor one 130 hp (97 kW). It weighed only 84 kg (185 lb). The V6 was planned to be used in the DKW Munga and the F102. About 100 engines were built for testing purposes and 13 DKW F102 and some Mungas were fitted with the V6 engine in the 1960s.

The last DKW was the F102, coming into production in 1964 as a replacement for the old-looking AU1000. However, the F102 sold poorly - largely due to its two-stroke engine technology which was at the limit of its development, resulting in Auto Union's parent - Daimler-Benz, to offload the company to Volkswagen. The car was re-engineered with a four-stroke engine and relaunched under the resurrected Audi brand as the F103. The transition to four-stroke engines marked the end of the DKW marque for cars, and the rebirth of the Audi name.

From 1956 to 1961, Dutch importer Hart, Nibbrig & Greve assembled cars in an abandoned asphalt factory in Sassenheim, where they employed about 120 workers, two transporter, that collected SKD kits from Duesseldorf and build about 13.500 cars. When the DKW plant moved the import of SKD kits stopped, as it became too expensive.

DKW in South America

From 1956 to 1967, DKW cars were made in Brazil by the local company Vemag (Veículos e Máquinas Agrícolas S.A., "Vehicles and Agricultural Machinery Inc."). Vemag was assembling Scania-Vabis trucks, but Scania Vabis became an independent company in July 1960. The original plans were to build the Candango off-roader (Munga), a utility vehicle and a four-door sedan, called Vemaguet and Belcar respectively. The first model built was the 900 cc F91 Universal but the Belcar and Vemaguet names were applied later.

A second series 1967 DKW-Vemag Belcar in front of a first series 1964 DKW-Vemag Belcar

In 1958, the F94 four-door sedan and station wagon were launched, in the early 1960s renamed Belcar and Vemaguet. The company also produced a luxury coupe (the DKW Fissore) and the off-road Munga (locally called Candango). In 1960 Vemag cars received the larger one-litre, 50 PS (37 kW) engine from the Auto Union 1000.

Vemag had a successful official racing team, with the coupe GT Malzoni, with fiberglass body. This project was the foundation of the long-lasting Brazilian sports car brand Puma. The

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Brazilian F94 line has been improved with several cosmetic changes and became more and more different from the German and Argentine models. Vemag had no capital to invest in new products and came under governmental pressure to merge. In 1964-1965 Volkswagen gradually took over Auto Union, a minority holder in Vemag, and in 1967 Volkswagen bought the remainder of the stock. VW quickly began phasing out DKW-Vemag production and introduced the Volkswagen 1600 sedan to the old Vemag plant, after a total of 109,343 DKW-Vemag cars had been built.

DKW vehicles were made in Argentina from 1960 to 1969 by IASF S.A. (Industria Automotriz Santa Fe Sociedad Anónima) in Sauce Viejo, Santa Fe. The most beautiful were the Cupé Fissore, which had many famous owners (Julio Sosa, César Luis Menotti, and others). Other models are the Auto Union 1000 S Sedán (21,797 made until 1969) and the Auto Union 1000 Universal S (6,396 made until 1969) and the Auto Union Combi/Pick-up. The last version of the Auto Union Combi/Pick-up (DKW F1000 L), launched in 1969, survived a few months and was bought out by IME, which continued production until 1979.

DKW GT Malzoni

Vans and utility vehicles

DKW Munga

The DKW Munga was built by Auto Union in Ingolstadt. Production began in October 1956 and ended in December 1968, with 46,750 cars built.

From 1949 to 1962, DKW produced the Schnellaster with a trailing-arm rear suspension system with springs in the cross bar assembly. Spanish subsidiary IMOSA produced a modern successor introduced in 1963, the DKW F 1000 L. This van started with the three-cylinder 1,000 cc engine, but later received a Mercedes-Benz Diesel engine and was renamed a Mercedes-Benz in 1975.

DKW Motorcycles

During the late 1920s and until WWII broke out, DKW was the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer and the pioneer of front wheel drive automobiles with their DKW Front. In 1931, Ing Zoller started building split-singles and this concept made DKW the dominant racing motorcycle in the Lightweight and Junior classes between the wars. This included off road events like the International Six Days Trial where the marque scored some considerable inter-war year successes alongside Bavarian Motor Works At the same time, the company also had some success with super-charged racing motorcycles which because of their light weight were particularly successful in the ISDT

The motorcycle branch produced famous models such as the RT 125 pre- and post-World War II, and after the war with production at the original factory in GDR becoming MZ it made 175, 250 and 350 models. As war reparations, the design drawings of the RT125 were given to Harley-

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Davidson in the US and BSA in the UK. The Harley-Davidson version was known as the Hummer, while BSA used them for the Bantam. IFA and later MZ models continued in production until the 1990s, when economics brought production of the two strokes to an end. Other manufacturers copied the DKW design, officially or otherwise. This can be seen in the similarity of many small two-stroke motorcycles from the 1950s, including from Yamaha, Voskhod, Maserati, and Polish WSK.

Cars

DKW F12 Saloon (1963-1965)

DKW 3=6 (1953–1959)

DKW 900 (1958–1959)

DKW F1 (1931–1932)

DKW F2 (1932–1935)

DKW F4 (1934–1935)

DKW F5 (1935–1937)

DKW F7 (1937–1938)

DKW F8 (1939–1942)

DKW F9 (1949–1956)

DKW F10 (1950)

DKW F11 (1963–1965)

DKW F12 (1963–1965)

DKW F89 (1950–1954)

DKW F91 (1953–1957)

DKW F93/94 (1955–1959)

DKW F102 (1963–1966)

DKW Junior (1959–1963)

DKW Monza (1956–1958)

DKW Munga (1956–1968)

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DKW Schnellaster van (1949–1962)

DKW Sonderklasse (1953–1959)

Motorcycles and scooters

DKW Super Sport 500

DKW ARE 175

DKW Golem (Sesselmotorrad)

DKW Hobby-Roller

DKW Hummel

DKW KM 200

DKW KS 200

DKW NZ 250

DKW NZ 350

DKW NZ 500

DKW ORE 250

DKW RT 100

DKW RT 125

DKW RT 175

DKW RT 200

DKW RT 200H

DKW RT 250/2

DKW RT 250 H

DKW RT 350 S

DKW SB 200

DKW SB 350

DKW SB 500

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DKW Sport 250

DKW SS 500 (water-cooled)

DKW SS 600 (water-cooled)

DKW ZS 500

DKW ZSW 500 (water-cooled)

DKW Hercules (Wankel)

DKW (1939)

DKW (1940)

DKW RT 125 W (1950)

DKW RT 200 (1952)

DKW RT 175 S (1955)

DKW Hummel

Express T. Sport (DKW-Motor)

DKW Motorroller Hobby of 1954 in the Deutsches Zweirad- und NSU-Museum

Industry AutomotiveFounded in 1916

Headquarters Zschopau, Germany (1906-1932)Number of locations -

Key people Dr Jørgen Skafte Rasmussen, founder of DKWProducts Automobiles, motorcycles

Subsidiaries -

HORCH

History at a Glance

Horch was a car brand manufactured in Germany by August Horch & Cie, at the beginning of the 20th century. It is the direct ancestor of the present day Audi Company, which in turn came out of Auto Union, formed in 1932 when Horch merged with DKW, Wanderer and the historic Audi enterprise which August Horch founded in 1910.

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August Horch in his car (1908)

Horch hood ornament (1924)

Horch 670, 12-cylinder luxury cabriolet (1932)

Horch 930 V Phaeton (1939)

The company was established first by August Horch and his first business partner Salli Herz on November 14, 1899 at Ehrenfeld, Cologne. August Horch was a former production manager for Karl Benz. Three years later in 1902 he moved with his company to Reichenbach im Vogtland. On May, 10th, 1904 he founded the Horch & Cie. Motorwagenwerke AG, a joint-stock company in Zwickau (State of Saxony). The city of Zwickau was the capital of the South Western Saxon County and one of Saxony's industrial centres at that time.

After troubles with Horch chief financial officer, August Horch founded on July 16, 1909, his second company, the August Horch Automobilwerke GmbH in Zwickau. He had to rename his new company because Horch was already a registered brand and he did not hold the rights on it. On April 25, 1910 the Audi Automobilwerke was entered in the company's register of Zwickau registration court. Audi is the Latin translation of horch, from the German verb "Horchen", which means "Listen" (compare English "hark"). The Audi name was proposed by a son of one of his business partners from Zwickau.

Both companies from Zwickau (Horch and Audi) were unified in 1932 with Zschopauer Motorenwerke J. S. Rasmussen (brand DKW) and the car producing piece of Wanderer to Saxony's Auto Union Corporation. The Silver Arrow racing cars of the Auto Union racing team in Zwickau, developed by Ferdinand Porsche and Robert Eberan von Eberhorst, driven by Bernd Rosemeyer, Hans Stuck, Tazio Nuvolari, Ernst von Delius, were known the world over in the 1930s.

Initial cars

The company initially began producing 5 hp (3.7 kW; 5.1 PS) and 10 hp (7.5 kW; 10 PS) twin-cylinder engine automobiles near Cologne in 1901.

The first Horch had a 4.5 hp (3.4 kW; 4.6 PS) engine, with an alloy crankcase, a unique achievement in those days. It had an open-body design, with lighting provided by lanterns with candles in them. In contrast with the powerful cars of later years, the first Horch could barely reach a top speed of 32 km/h (20 mph). It was significant at that time because it used a friction clutch, and also had a drive shaft to power the wheels.

The firm soon ran into financial troubles, not surprising considering the pioneering nature of the automobile business at that time. Horch had to seek new partners.

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In March 1902, August Horch produced a 20 hp (15 kW; 20 PS) four-cylinder car with a shaft drive in Reichenbach in Vogtland. Horch cars were considered more advanced and superior to those being then built by Mercedes or Benz (who were then separate manufacturers).

By 1903, Horch had built a car with a four-cylinder engine. In March of the following year, he introduced his new car at the Frankfurt Fair.

In 1904, August Horch developed the first six-cylinder engine, which appeared in 1907. In 1906 a Horch automobile driven by Dr. Rudolf Stöss from Zwickau won the Herkomer Competition (equivalent to a 'brand-name' world championship at the time). In the 1920s, Moritz Stauss, a cosmopolitan Berliner, was the principal stockholder of the Horch Company. He succeeded in making the Horch brand highly desirable by introducing art into the advertising of their products. He recognized that only a brand emphasising Horch's unique characteristics would be successful.

In 1923, Paul Daimler (a Stauss associate) worked for Horch as the chief engineer for 8-cylinder engines. Horch vehicles were subsequently the first to introduce 8-cylinder engines in series production.

Audi connection

In 1909, the supervisory board (the German equivalent of the Board of Directors) of the corporation forced out Horch. Horch went on to found Audi as Audiwerke GmbH, which became effective on 25 April 1910. The name was a solution to the legal dispute with his old company over use of the Horch brand and a clever play of words ("audi" is the literal Latin translation of the Old German "horch", meaning the imperative "Listen!").

In 1928, the company was acquired by Jørgen Skafte Rasmussen, owner of DKW (from the German Dampfkraftwagen, or steam engine vehicle) who had bought the remains of the US automobile manufacturer Rickenbacker in the same year. The Rickenbacker purchase included their manufacturing equipment for eight-cylinder engines.

Auto Union

Eventually, on 29 June 1932, Horch, Audi, DKW and Wanderer merged to form the Auto Union AG, Chemnitz affiliated group. The current Audi four-ring logo is the Auto Union logo that represents the merger of these four brands. In the 1930s, Horch introduced a new line of smaller and cheaper, but still presentable, V8 automobiles. In 1936, Horch presented the 25,000th 8-cylinder luxury car in Zwickau.

The Auto Union Grand Prix racing cars types A to D, were developed and built by a specialist racing department of Horch works in Zwickau between 1933 and 1939. Between 1935 and 1937

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Auto Union cars won 25 races, driven by Ernst von Delius, Tazio Nuvolari, Bernd Rosemeyer, Hans Stuck and Achille Varzi.

Auto Union became a major supplier of vehicles to the German Wehrmacht, such as Heavy standard passenger car (Horch 108), Medium standard passenger car (Horch 901 and Wanderer 901) and Half-track Sd.Kfz. 11. Civilian production was suspended after March 1940. After the war the Auto Union AG at Chemnitz was dissolved and in Ingolstadt, West Germany the new Auto Union GmbH was founded, where civilian car production continued. Due to widespread poverty in postwar Germany, only small DKW vehicles with two stroke engines were produced. After Auto Union was purchased in 1964 by the Volkswagenwerk AG, the old brand Audi was introduced again, together with the new four stroke vehicle Audi F103. Daimler-Benz retained the trademark rights to the Horch brand until the mid 1980s. Daimler-Benz then transferred the rights to the Horch brand name to Audi who in turn signed a waiver to use the name „Silberpfeil“ (silver-arrow) for any modern Audi racing car.The brand has, however, remained dormant.

Trabant connection

During the Second World War, the factories suffered heavy bomb damage. Later, the advancing Soviet forces captured the area, and it became part of the Soviet sector of divided Germany in 1945, and later became part of East Germany.

From 1955-1958, old Horch factories produced the Horch P240, a 6-cylinder car that was respected at the time. The former Horch and Audi operations from Zwickau were unified in 1958. A new brand, Sachsenring, within the East German corporation IFA was born. After unification in 1958, the P240 car was renamed as the Sachsenring P240. As the Soviet Administration inexplicably banned the foreign exportation of the P240, the East German economic administration decided to stop production of the vehicle. IFA also produced the initial Trabant "P-50" model from 1957.

The Zwickau site was acquired in 1991 by Volkswagen, effectively restoring its connection with Audi.

Rare collectibles

On June 24, 2006, an incredibly rare 1937 Horch 853A Sport Cabriolet in original unrestored, unprepared condition sold at auction in Cortland NY for $299,000 US.

In the late 1930s, Horch supplied a limited number of promotional scarves bearing the Horch logo. Sent only to the wealthiest drivers, it is a major collectible amongst diehard enthusiasts of the pre-war car era. However, there is also a degree of controversy associated with these scarves as they were commonly sought by senior SS members.

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Industry AutomotiveFounded in 1904

Headquarters Zwickau, Saxony, GermanyNumber of locations -

Key people August Horch, founderProducts Luxury cars

Subsidiaries -

NSU

Origin

NSU originated as the "Mechanische Werkstätte zur Herstellung von Strickmaschinen", a knitting machine manufacturer established in 1873 by Christian Schmidt, a technically astute entrepreneur, in the town of Riedlingen on the Danube. The business relocated in 1880 to Neckarsulm. There followed a period of rapid growth and in 1886, the company began to produce bicycles, the first of them a 'high wheeler' or 'Penny-farthing' branded as the "Germania". By 1892, bicycle manufacturing had completely replaced knitting machine production. At about this time, the name NSU appeared as a brand name.

The first NSU motorcycle appeared in 1901, followed by the first NSU car in 1905.

In 1932, under pressure from their bank (Dresdner Bank), NSU recognised the failure of their attempt to break into volume automobile production, and their recently built car factory in Heilbronn was sold to Fiat, who used the plant to assemble Fiat models for the German market.

NSU Motorenwerke AG, or NSU, was a German manufacturer of automobiles, motorcycles and pedal cycles, founded in 1873. Acquired by Volkswagen Group in 1969, VW merged NSU with Auto Union, creating Audi NSU Auto Union AG, ultimately Audi. The name NSU originated as an abbreviation of "Neckarsulm", the city where NSU was located.

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During World War II NSU produced the Kettenkrad, the NSU HK101, a half-tracked motorcycle with the engine of the Opel Olympia. They also made the 251 OSL motorcycle during the war.

After WW II

In December 1946, Das Auto reported the company had resumed the manufacture of bicycles and motor-bicycles at Neckarsulm. For Germany, this was a time of new beginnings: in July 1946, a new board had been appointed, headed up by General Director Walter Egon Niegtsch, who earlier in his career had spent 17 years with Opel.

NSU motorbike production restarted, in a completely destroyed plant, with prewar designs like the Quick, OSL, and Konsul motorbikes; furthermore, the HK101 continued to be sold by NSU as an all-terrain vehicle in a civilian version. The first postwar model was the NSU Fox in 1949, available in 2-stroke and 4-stroke versions. In 1953, the NSU Max followed a 250 cc motorbike with a unique overhead camdrive with connecting rods. All these new models had an innovative monocoque frame of pressed steel and a central rear suspension unit. Albert Roder, the chief engineer behind the success story, made it possible that in 1955, NSU became the biggest motorcycle producer in the world. NSU also holds four world records for speed: 1951, 1953, 1954, and 1955. In August 1956, Wilhelm Herz at the Bonneville Salt Flats, Utah, became the first man to ride a motorcycle faster than 200 mph (322 km/h).

In 1957, NSU re-entered the car market with the new Prinz (Prince), a small car with a doubled NSU Max engine, an air-cooled two-cylinder engine of 600 cc (37 cu in) and 20 hp (15 kW). Motorbike production continued until 1968. NSU's last production motorcycle was the Quick 50.

In 1964, NSU offered the world's first Wankel engined car: the Wankelspider. In development of the project, NSU built the Sport Prinz, with a 129 hp (96 kW) 995 cc (60.7 cu in) 2-rotor. In the same year Prinz 1000 and derivatives like the TT and TT/S followed. The Typ 110 (later called 1200SC) was launched in 1965 as a family car with a more spacious body design. The last NSU cars with a conventional four-stroke engine had the air-cooled OHC four-cylinder engine in common. The car was marketed in the U.K. as "NSU TYP 110", and Karobes, a major supplier of car accessories, provided a head rest specially for this car: "A new one which can be fitted without a screw, and may be adjusted forwards and backwards."

In 1967, the four-door NSU Ro 80, with a 115 hp (86 kW) version of the same 2-rotor, was presented to the public. Weighing 1,200 kg (2,600 lb), it had a Cd of 0.36, disc brakes, independent suspension, and front wheel drive by Fichtel & Sachs Saxomatic three-speed transmission. It soon gained several design awards such as "car of the year 1967", while drivers liked its performance. Virtually all the world's major motor manufacturers purchased licenses from NSU to develop and produce the rotary engine, with the notable exception of BMW.

Despite its public acclaim, sales of the Ro 80 were disappointing. The transmission drew complaints and the engine suffered numerous failures even at low mileage. Competitor

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automakers, apart from Mazda, held back from taking a lead in developing and marketing the Wankel technology, and anticipated income associated with those royalty deals failed to materialize.

Volkswagen Group takeover

The development of the rotary engine was very cost-intensive for the small company. Problems with the apex seals of the engine rotor significantly damaged the brand's reputation amongst consumers. In 1969, the company was taken over by Volkswagenwerk AG, which merged NSU with Auto Union, the owners of the Audi brand which Volkswagen had acquired five years earlier. The new company was called Audi NSU Auto Union AG and represented the effective end of the NSU marque with all future production to bear the Audi badge (although retaining the four interlocking circles of Auto Union). The management of the new combine was initially based at the Neckarsulm plant, however when the small rear-engined NSU models (Prinz 4, 1000, 1200) were phased out in 1973, the Ro 80 was the last car still in production carrying the NSU badge. Audi never made use of the brand name NSU again after April 1977, when the last Ro 80 was sold. In 1985, the company name was shortened to Audi AG and management moved back to Audi's headquarters in Ingolstadt.

Even as production of the Ro 80 continued in the Neckarsulm plant, production of larger Audi models like 100 and 200 was started. The Porsche 924 and later Porsche 944 were also assembled at Neckarsulm. Those models were joint venture projects of Porsche and VW, but Porsche did not have the internal capacity to build the 924 and 944. Currently, Neckarsulm is the production plant for Audi's topline vehicles like A6, A8, and R8. It is also the home of the "Aluminium- und Leichtbauzentrum" where Audi's aluminium-made space frame bodies are designed and engineered.

NSU is primarily remembered today as the first licensee and one of only three automobile companies to produce cars for sale with rotary Wankel engines. NSU invented the principle of the modern Wankel engine with an inner rotor. The NSU Ro 80 was the second mass-produced two-rotor Wankel-powered vehicle after the Mazda Cosmo. In 1967, NSU and Citroën set up a common company, Comotor, to build engines for Citroën and other car makers. Norton made motorcycles using Wankel engines. Only Mazda has continued developing the Wankel engine and made several more cars with the Wankel engine. NSU developed their last car in a recognised conventional layout, (front engine front wheel drive, water cooled) -this was the NSU K70, Volkwagen adopted as their new car the VW K70, the transmission was used in the Golf cars. The VW Golf GTI etc all used the same NSU engine, probably used in modern form in later models.

Lawn mower engine

In the early 1970s, NSU manufactured a vertical-crankshaft small engine for use as a lawn mower power unit.

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NSU Museum

A museum in Neckarsulm, the Deutsches Zweirad- und NSU-Museum, has many of NSU's products on display.

NSU cars

NSU- (and NSU-Pipe-) Cars 1905-1918

The first NSU cars were the single cylinder 3-wheeled Sulmobil, first produced in 1905. At the same time NSU produced the NSU-Pipe 34 PS and NSU-Pipe 50 PS under licence from the Belgian firm of Pipe. Two further Pipe models were to follow, and a range of NSU-specific 3- and 4-wheeled models.

The NSU Prinz was also built in Yugoslavia, Argentina and Egypt under licence.

In Uruguay, the Prinz 4 was built by Nordex S.A. and a new model, the P6, combined the engine and mechanics of the NSU model with a separate body completely redesigned by Carlos Sotomayor. From 1970, the P10 was built as the successor model to the NSU P6. This had the larger engine of the NSU Prince 1000 and a 21 cm extended wheelbase.

The first "Neckarsulmer Motorrad" motorcycle was produced in 1901, using a Swiss 1 3/4 hp Zedel single-cylinder AIV (automatic inlet valve) motor with battery/coil ignition, clamped at the underside of a heavy-duty bicycle frame (of NSU manufacture), with the crankcase slightly below and in front of the pedal crank. Specialized racing motorcycles were campaigned from 1905 in events in Europe, the UK, and USA. In 1907, British manager Martin Geiger rode an NSU in the inaugural Isle of Man TT, placing fifth. NSU had several successes in the Isle of Man TT races in the 1950s. In 1908, an NSU v-twin took part in the Ormonde-Daytona beach speed record races for cars and motorcycles, ridden by Eugene Gaestral, who returned with an improved machine the following year. During the 1930s, and in the mid-1950s, NSU was the largest motorcycle producer of the world, in its peak year (1955) producing 350,000 machines. NSU holds four world records for speed: 1951, 1953, 1954 and 1955. In 1956, NSU brought a team of six motorcycles of different engine capacities to Bonneville, Utah, to set World Land Speed Records. They had success in all categories, and most notably raised the absolute motorcycle speed record to 211 mph, with Wilhelm Herz piloting the DelphinIII, a fully streamlined motorcycle with a 500cc supercharged DOHC twin-cylinder Rennsport engine. This machine still exists, in the Audi Museum in Stuttgart, Germany. The NSU Quickly was the most popular moped of its time. It was produced between 1953 and 1966 in over 1,000,000 examples and still can be found today all over the world as more than 60% were exported.

NSU bicycles

Bicycle production began in 1900 and continued into the early 1960s.

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NSU military vehicles

NSU was the principal maker of the Kettenkrad halftracked motorcycle (1940–1949)

Industry AutomotiveFounded in 1873

Headquarters Neckarsulm, GermanyNumber of locations -

Key people -Products Knitting machines, Automobiles Motorcycles

Subsidiaries -

CHAPTER 6

Conclusion & Recommendation

Volkswagen Group is one of the largest automotive industries, not only in Germany, but also allover the world. From the study we have known about the birth history, as well as how they became famous & succeed, most importantly, why they lead the automotive industries. We found a strong management as well as skill and strategic movement behind their success.

6.1 Limitation

I’ve studied on certain topic for a limited period of time. And this is not the finishing of the topic.

6.2 Recommendation

I recommend that more and more study should be done on this topic to get the latest and authentic information

6.3 Future Work

In future, new researcher will work on this topic and get many unknown information to reaveal.

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Reference

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswagen_Group

http://www.volkswagenag.com/content/vwcorp/content/en/homepage.html

http://www.volkswagenag.com/content/vwcorp/content/en/brands_and_products.html

http://www.volkswagenag.com/content/vwcorp/content/en/the_group.html

http://www.volkswagenag.com/content/vwcorp/content/en/the_group/senior_management.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswagen_Group#Subsidiaries_and_marques

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audi

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamborghini

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bentley

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugatti_Automobiles

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porsche

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ducati

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MAN_SE

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scania_AB

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SEAT

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0koda_Auto

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IAV

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswagen_Commercial_Vehicles

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswagen

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auto_Union

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dampf-Kraft-Wagen

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horch

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NSU_Motorenwerke_AG

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wanderer_(car)