Environmental and Socio-economic Effects Of Artisanal Mining in Oke Ogun region, Oyo State Nigeria

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ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC

EFFECTS OF ARTISANAL MINING IN OKE-OGUN

REGION

BY

OPARA MICHAEL OBINNA

170723

A FIELDWORK REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

GEOGRAPHY, FACULTY OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY

OF IBADAN, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

OF THE COURSE, GEO 385

MARCH,2016

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ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF

ARTISANAL MINING IN OKE-OGUN REGION

BY


170723

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ABSTRACT

Oke-Ogun Region is endowed with a lot of mineral resources which include gemstones like beryl,

tourmaline, rube lite, quartz, amethyst, sapphire, aquamarine, and garnet. Other economic minerals

found here are tantalite, columbite, marble, dimension stones, clay minerals, feldspar, gravel and

silica sand. However, minerals found in this region, in their order of decreasing abundance are

marble, tourmaline, amichist, limestone, redstones, tantalite, capstone, quartz. Amongst others.

Mining jobs are the most predominant occupation in the mining communities and this is

due to insufficient job opportunity. The population of males in the study area are more than, that of

females (65.7%:34.3%) and many of them reside in villages around mining sites. 84.5% of the

populace are literate while only 36.1% have attained tertiary education status. Conflicts between

indigenes and mine workers are minimal, while electricity supply to the area is low.

The roads are not in top form, while the standard of living is low with a moderate social life.

Crime rates are moderate, while the cost of acquiring land (or house rent) is cheap. There is also a

low agricultural output experienced, especially in villages very close to mining sites.

Mining activities which adversely affect the environment include digging of burrow pits, removal of

topsoil, removal of vegetation, noise pollution as a result of rock blasting, and excessive release of

dust particles into the atmosphere, amongst others.

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DEDICATION

To the Glory of God, The Alpha, The Omega, The Elshaddai; I dedicate this work to my parents, my

sibling and all friends of goodwill; especially those who love Geography.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank God Almighty for giving me the grace to complete this work successfully. Next I wish to

express my profound indebtedness to our fieldwork supervisors; Dr O.J Taiwo, Dr Olutoyin Fashae,

Dr F.A Olaniyan, Mr H.D Olaniran, and Mr T.O Osayomi , for creating time out of their busy

schedule to accompany us for the fieldwork.

I also acknowledge my fellow course mates for conducting themselves properly throughout the

duration of the fieldwork. Not forgetting the drivers who were patient in conveying us to different

locations for the three days.

Next, I thank some of my colleagues who were members of the fieldwork organizing committee;

Yemi, Samuel, Temi, Aanu, Cindy, Esther, Ayo, and Rotimi for a job well done in terms of a perfect

organization, before, during and after the fieldwork.

All good efforts are appreciated. May God continue to shower his blessings on all of you. Amen.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page………………………………….………..…………………………………

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………… …

Dedication………………………………………………………………………………

Acknowledgement…………………………………………………………………….. .

Table of Contents………………………………………………………………...

List of Tables……….……………………………………………………………..

List of Figures…………………………………………………………………..…..

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Background of Study………… …………… …… …………

1.2. Statement of the Problem….……………. ………… ………… …. .

1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study…………………………………………….

1.4. The Study Area …………… …… ………… ………… …..

1.5. History of Mining in the Study Area: …………… …… …………

1.6. Structure of this Report …………… …… ………… ……

1.7 Hypothesis of the Study …………………………………………………….

CHAPTER TWO: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction……………………………………………………….… .. …

2.2. Conceptual Framework: Framework of Environmental Sustainability……

2.2.1 Concept of Environmental Risk Cells………………………………………

2.3 Literature Review: An Overview of the Nigerian Minerals and Mining Acts 2007…

2.3.1 Mineral Titles…………………………………………………………………

2.3.2 A Reconnaissance Permit…………………………………………………….

2.3.3 An Exploration Licence……………………………………………………….

2.3.4 A Small Scale Mining Lease………………………………………………….

2.3.5 A Mining Lease…………………………………………………………………

2.3.6 A Quarrying Lease……………………………………………………………….

2.3.7 A Water Use Permit………………………………………………………………

2.3.8 Environmental Considerations and Rights of Host Communities …………….

2.4 The Resource Curse Phenomenon. …… ……… ……….…… ………..

2.5 The Impact of Artisanal Mining on the Environment………… …… ……..

2.6 Socio-Economic Impacts of Artisanal Mining. …… ……… ………..……

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CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.

3.1. Introduction……………………… …… ……… … ….……............

3.2 Research Design…………………… …..…….…... …………………

3.3 Types and Sources of Data………… …… …… ……... ……………..

3.3.1. Primary Data…………………… …..… ….…... ……..… ………

3.3.2 Secondary Data…………………… .. …..…….…... ……….. ………

3.4 Sampling Techniques and Data Collection Procedure ……………………

3.5: Data Analysis. …………………… …….…... …..................................

3.6 Limitations of Data Sources. …………………… …….…………………

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Introduction …………. …… …… ….. .…………

2 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents………………….…... ……..

4.3 Socio-economic Impact of Mining Activities……………………………………

4.4 Environmental Impact of Mining Activities ……………………………………..

4.5 Hypothesis Testing………………………………………………………………..

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary………………………………………………………………………...

5.2 Conclusions…………………………………………………………………..…

5.3 Recommendations………..………………………….. …………………..

Reference

Appendix

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.4.1 Place of Residence of Respondents.

Table 4.2.1 Gender of Respondents.

Table 4.2.2 Place of Residence of Respondents.

Table 4.2.3 Type of Residential Location.

Table 4.2.4 Community Type.

Table 4.2.5 Educational Status.

Table 4.2.6 Type of Mining Workers.

Table 4.2.7 Descriptive Statistics.

Table 4.3.1 Frequency Analysis of Socio-economic Impact of

Mining Activities.

Table 4.4.1 Frequency Analysis of Environmental Impact of

Mining Activities.

Table 4.4.2 Has there been any loss of relative as a result of mining?

Table 4.4.3 Has the state government indicated interest in the mining

of minerals?

Table 4.4.4 Problems involved in Mining.

Table 4.4.5 Disease Frequencies.

Table 4.5.1 ANOVA Table.

Table 4.5.2 Paired Sample Statistics.

Table 4.5.3 Paired Sample Test.

Table 4.5.4 Correlation.

Table 4.5.5 Chi-Square Test.

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.4.1 Map of Oyo State Showing 10 L.G.A‟s that Make-up Oke-

Ogun Region.

Figure 1.4.2 Pile of White Marbe at Igbetti.

Figure 1.4.3 A Mining Pit

Figure 4.2.1 Marital Status of Respondents.

Figure 4.2.2 Occupation of Respondents.

Figure 4.2.3 Reasons for Quitting Former Jobs.

Figure 4.2.4 Abundance Level of Minerals being mined.

Figure 4.4.1 What steps is government taking towards exploiting this

minerals for the development of this community?

Figure 4.5.1 Occupation of Respondents.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Broadly speaking, artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) refers to mining by individuals, groups,

families or cooperatives with minimal or no mechanization, often in the informal sector of the market.

Despite many attempts, a common definition of ASM has yet to be established. In some countries a

distinction is made between „artisanal mining‟ that is purely manual and on a very small scale, and

„small-scale mining‟ that has some mechanization and is on a larger scale. In some West African

countries (for example, Mali), small-scale mining is differentiated from artisanal mining by the presence

of permanent, fixed installations that are established once an ore body is confirmed

Nevertheless, ASM is characterized by a number of conditions:

Lack of or limited use of mechanization, and a lot of physically demanding work.

Low level of occupational safety and health care.

Poor qualification of personnel at all levels of the operation.

Inefficiency in exploitation and processing of mineral production (low recovery value).

Exploitation of marginal and/or very small deposits, which are not economically exploitable by

mechanized mining.

Low level of productivity.

Low level of salaries and income.

Periodic operation by local peasants by season or according to the market price development.

Lack of social security.

Insufficient consideration of environmental issues.

Chronic lack of working and investment capital.

Majority of the earth crust in the Oke-Ogun region is overlain with pegmatite. Pegmatite are

found to possess various gemstones like beryl, tourmaline, rube lite, quartz, amethyst, aquamarine,

garnet, and other economic minerals like tantalite, columbite, clay minerals, feldspars, construction

gravels and silica sand. “The increase in global demand for these economic minerals has led to keen

interest in prospecting for mineral deposits from different areas of south western Nigeria” (Okunlola and

Oyedokun, 2009). Pegmatite are important because they are classic source of broad spectrum of rare

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earth elements such as Lithium (Li), Rubidium (Rb), Caesiun (Cs), Berylium (Be), gallium (Ga),

Scandium (Sc), Yttrium (Y), Tin (Sn), Niobium (Nb), Tantalum (Ta), Uranium (U) and Thorium (Th) .

1.2 Statement of the Problem

In Nigeria, the most commonly talked about environmental impacts have been on the oil producing

region of the Niger-Delta where agricultural, surface and underground water resources have been badly

affected. However, artisanal mining of solid minerals pervade the entire country leaving behind their

effects on the environment. Most of these artisanal miners (men, women and children) are rural and poor

and usually work without legal mining title. Their activities include mining of gemstones like tourmaline,

beryl, amethyst, aquamarine and garnet and precious minerals like gold. It also includes mining of other

minerals like columbite, tantalite and cassiterite. Mining of river sands, digging of burrow pits, removal

of topsoil, sand and laterite for building purposes are also carried out. Other activities include removal of

vegetation and cleaning of dams to produce dam sands. These arrays of activities lead to uncoordinated

and unregulated mining which usually result in haphazard extraction of the minerals and eventual

destruction of the environment. Evidences of such destruction are observed in the form of soil erosion,

and, change in topography, and water pollution and dumps of overburden material. The resultant effects

of abandoned pits and other mining sites that becomes flooded during the raining season pose health

dangers to the citizens. All these impact negatively on and degrade the environment.

“Mining extraction comes at a cost to environment, community health and with social consequences,

most of which are borne by mining host communities. At the core of planning and implementation in the

mining sector, there must be a deliberate attention to the protection of the rights of mining host

communities”(Abiodun Baiyewu, 2014)

In spite of high revenues generated from extractive activities, socio-economic development in

the host communities is not commensurate by any standard. Most residents complained that mining have

done little to enhance their economic, social and infrastructural development. At Komu where a

gemstone mining camp is located for example, there is a noticeable absence of governmental presence

evidenced by the abysmal level of infrastructural development in and around the camp. The community

lacks good roads, portable water, a functional healthcare centre, power supply and telephone services.

There are also myriads of health challenges that these communities face, such as, asthma, chronic

bronchitis, and pneumoconiosis which are due to air effluent and dust pollution. Noise pollution due to

rock blasting has causeeded a varying degree of deafness and stress related disorders and water pollution

causing outbreaks of cholera and other water borne ailments.

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1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study

The principal study aim of this research is to; investigate the environmental and socio-economic effect of

artisanal mining in Oke-Ogun region on people‟s livelihood.

In order to achieve the aim above, the research is structured around two specific objectives.

(1). To locate certain communities located around mining areas in order to conduct a firsthand assessment

of the impacts of mining in these areas.

(2). To conduct a credible survey in these areas, of how mining activities have affected the environment

and the people living in these areas.

1.4 The Study Area

Oke-Ogun is situated entirely within the north side of Oyo State in Nigeria. It is located at an elevation of

188 meters above sea level and its population amounts to 174,153. Oke-Ogun is made up of 10 out of the

33 local government areas in Oyo State, which include; Irepo, Orelope, Olorunsogo, Saki East, Saki

West, Atisbo, Itesiwaju, Kajola, Iseyin and Iwajowa. Oke-Ogun makes up 60% of total land mass of

Oyo State and is fondly referred to as the “food basket of Southwestern Nigeria”. Oke-Ogun area is

situated between Oyo and the present Kwara state. The area starts from Iseyin and ends in Bakase, a

small town along the boundary of Oyo State and Kwara State.

Communities where artisanal and small scale mining (ASM) is being carried out in Oke-Ogun region of

Oyo State include Igbetti (in Olorunsogo L.G.A). Others are Komu, Igbojaiye , (in Itesiwaju L.G.A) ,and

Ofiki (in Atisbo L.G.A)

The mining sites at Igbojaiye are Balogun Ojo, Ibudo Are and Ibudo Fulani. The mining site at Ofiki is at

Iluku while the mining site at Komu is at Agate and Abuja Leather.

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Figure 1.4.1: MAP OF OYO STATE SHOWING 10 L.G.A’s THAT MAKE UP OKE-OGUN

REGION

Source: Environment Systems Research Institute (ESRI) Database.

However, two mining locations were visited for the purpose of this study. These are Igbetti and

Komu.

Igbetti lies within latitude 8 40 and 9 05 North, longitude 3 45 and 4 15 East in Olorunsogo L.G.A of

Oyo State. It has a large deposit of marble. Marble is formed from limestone as a result of heat and

pressure in the earth crust causing a change in texture and make-up of the stone. It has been highly valued

for its beauty, strength and resistance to fire and erosion and is used in construction of statues, columns,

floors and other parts of buildings. They can also be crushed and used as abrasives in soaps and other

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such products. Crushed or ground marble can also be used in paving roads and in manufacturing roofing

materials and soil treatment products.

Figure 1.4.2: Pile of white marble at Igbetti.

Source: Fieldwork (2015)

Komu, on the other hand, is located in Itesiwaju L.G.A, at latitude 8 20 North and longitude 3 2 30 East.

Komu has two mining sites, which are Agate and Abuja Leather. The area is rich in pegmatite, which is a

host rock to many gemstones like tourmaline, rube lite, quartz, garnet etc.

Figure 1.4.3: A mining pit

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1.5 History of Mining in the Study Area

Post-colonial peasant mining started in Southern Kaduna (Goma Lafia and Kafanchan) at Jamaa Local

Government Area in the late 1970s. New mining sites were discovered in Borno state; Idoyi and Okene

in Kogi state; Keffi in Nassarawa state and Ijero-Ekiti, Ekiti state in the 1980s.

When the precious stones became scarce in Northern Nigeria, peasant miners and West African „stone

boys‟(gemstone buyers from other West African contries) migrated southwards to new mining frontiers

in Ibadan, Oyo State in 1993. Gemstones were discovered at Olode, Ibadan in commercial quantities.

Mining activities also started in Komu along the Oyan River.

The new mining frontiers motivated migration of the “stone boys” to the hinterland areas,

about 200 kilometres from Ibadan. They established major mining camps at Agate and Abuja Leather

about 27 kilometers from Komu, Itesiwaju Local government; and Ofiki in Atisbo local government.

Abuja Leather was developed by the massive influx of the miners. In July 1998, Ofiki and Igbojaiye

areas were swamped by “stone boys” when other mines were discovered at Ibudo Are (Igbojaiye area)

about 3 miles from Komu. The new mining sites were discovered by Fulani pastoralists (called

pathfinders). The discovery and mining of gemstones in Komu led to controversies over land acquisition

as miners fiercely protected their “territories”.

Komu was opened up to influx of migrants from various parts of Nigeria and West Africa.

The population explosion led to unplanned expansion of the community in which socio-economic lives

were dislocated. Local youths and women abandoned farming for „emergency mining.‟ Among the

“stone boys”, Senegalese and Malians were the pioneers

The major gemstones in Oyo state exported by West African immigrant entrepreneurs included:

Tourmalin-Red, Blue, Yellow and Ruby Lite; Quartz; Ganet-Red and Yellow; and Tantalite (not

gemstone but industrial material). These gemstones were largely unknown in Yoruba society where they

exist in commercial quantities. Mining was pioneered by Hausa peasant miners who discovered and dug

the sites. Many of them were involved in accidents while digging pits for gemstones. These retinue of

peasant miners were tolerated by the local population because mining provided greater source of cash for

an impoverished rural economy. The rural population took up the advantage of unprecedented

commercial opportunities created by the new mineral rush.

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1.6 Structure of this Report

This report is divided into five chapters along conventional lines, which reflects the transition from

introduction to conceptual background, followed by methodological issues to more substantive/empirical

findings and then the conclusion. A summary of the contents of each chapter is presented below.

Chapter one presents a brief introduction to the report providing a background to the artisanal mining

industries and its associated “risks” .The aims and objectives and structure of the report are also

presented.

Chapter two provides a review of the literature on the relationship between resource extraction and

national development and the conceptual framework. Attention is paid to the related discourse on the

“resource curse” and the Nigerian Minerals and Mining Acts 2007. Additionally, the chapter examines

the theoretical and empirical debates concerning the concept of local mining communities and mining

impacts. In short, the literature review highlighted in Chapter Two forms the backdrop against which the

analysis in subsequent chapters is undertaken.

Chapter three presents the research design to examine the impacts of mining in Oke-Ogun region, types

and sources of data, sampling techniques and data collection procedure, data analysis and limitation of

data source. In short, this chapter gives a detailed justification of the methods used.

Chapter four presents the results of analysis and further discussions, including hypothesis testing. The

first section is the demographic characteristics of the respondents, which is followed by; socio-economic

impacts of mining activities, environmental impacts of mining activities and lastly, hypothesis testing.

Chapter five rounds up the essay with summary, conclusion and recommendation.

1.7 Hypothesis of the Study

1. Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference in the respondents‟ income based on their type

of occupation.

Alternative hypothesis: There is a significant difference in the respondents‟ income based on their

type of occupation.

2. Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the mean of the respondents‟ income

in his previous occupation and the mean of the respondents‟ income in his present occupation.

Alternative hypothesis: There is a significant difference

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3. Null hypothesis: There is no relationship between the estimated distance from your residence to

the nearest mining site and the level of environmental impact of mining activities.

Alternative hypothesis: There exist a relationship.

4. Null hypothesis: There is no relationship between the level of socio-economic impact and

occupation.

Alternative hypothesis: There exist a relationship between the level of socio-economic impact and

occupation.

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CHAPTER TWO

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter reviews the conceptual framework, propositions and practices relating to the key aims of the

research introduced in Chapter One. The major aim of the review is to pull together the relationship

between “resources” and “development” in the literature and locate it within the Nigerian context. The

first section of the chapter is the conceptual framework, which is on framework of environmental

sustainability, and concept of environmental risk cells. The literature review begins with the Nigerian

Minerals and Mining Acts 2007, which is followed by resource curse phenomenon, particularly within

developing countries, with particular emphasis on Nigeria as a resource-cursed economy. After which it

looks into the environmental impacts of artisanal mining, before concluding with the socio-economic

impacts of artisanal mining.

The sequence of the literature review proceeds from a broader perspective to a narrower focus that

matches the aims of the report. This chapter contains varied sources of theoretical and contextual

discussions; further references are contained at the end of the report

2.2 Conceptual Framework: Framework of Environmental Sustainability.

The framework which emerged from the concept of sustainable development. Environmental

sustainability in development has become a cardinal principle in developmental processes all over the

world. The need to plan, organize, control, regulate and manage the available natural resources is vital if

development and growth are to be achieved in a sustainable way. The concept of sustainable development

came into prominence in 1980, when the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural

Resources (IUCN) presented the World Conservation Strategy (WCS) with the overall aim of “achieving

sustainable development through the conservation of living resources”. It became a global tool in 1987,

after publication of the report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED).

The popularly accepted definition of sustainable development is “development that meets the needs of the

present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”

(WCED 1987). The implication of this definition is that development must not endanger the natural

systems that support life on earth (the atmosphere, water, soils and the living being). The concept has

been put forward as a framework within which we can balance immediate and long-term human demands

and the health of the environment, both now and in the future.

2.2.1 Concept of Environmental Risk Cells

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The concept of environmental risk cells (ERCs) provides the conceptual basis for this study also. ERCs

indicates that in any settlement, human beings are influenced by artificial factors to such an extent that

indicators of ill-health can be interpreted by considering their living conditions and lifestyle

characteristics. The concept therefore recognizes the important role of human activities in man-

environment interaction (Johnston, 1979). As a result of the ecological dominance of humans over the

environment, the balance between environmental elements as well as between himself and the

environment is altered. The altered environment so created exposes humans to backwash repercussions

(Johnston, 1983; Last, 1998; Enger and Smith, 2002) which informed an aggravation of certain illnesses

and emergence of new ones. In a city for instance, the concentration pollutants or hazards create areas or

zones of varying risks magnitude (risk cells). The regularity of individual‟s interaction with such cells

(zones) of varying hazards (Shannon and Spurlock, 1976) determines their possibility of contacting

diseases. The concept of ERCs assists us to appreciate the fact that particulate matter concentration

constitutes hazards to humans that either work at quarry sites or live in close proximity to quarry sites.

Different ailments, most especially respiratory diseases are risks to which humans exposed to particulates

are likely to contact. Due to the dilution and spread of particulates from quarry sites to other locations,

workers at the quarry are expected to experience multiple episodes of respiratory ailments than people

that live at distances away from the quarry sites. Although, the general approach of public health to

reducing the burden of respiratory tract infection is hinged on controlling indoor and outdoor air

pollution, ERCs concept equally identified frequency of human interaction with zones of high

particulates concentration and the distance of human residence to quarry sites as important factors in

respiratory diseases intervention.

2.3 Literature Review: An Overview of the Nigerian Minerals and Mining Act 2007.

The Nigerian Minerals and Mining Acts 2007 was passed into law on March 16, 2007 to repeal the

Minerals and Mining Act, No. 34 of 1999 for the purposes of regulating the exploration and exploitation

of solid materials in Nigeria.

The Act vests control and ownership of all properties and minerals in Nigeria in the hands of the Federal

Government and prohibits unauthorized exploration or exploitation of minerals. All lands in which

minerals have been found in commercial quantities shall be acquired by the Federal Government in

accordance with the Land Use Act. Property in mineral resources shall pass from the Government to the

person by whom the mineral resources are lawfully won, upon their recovery in accordance with

provisions of the Act.

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The Act further provides that the use of land for mining operations shall have a priority over other uses of

land and be considered (for the purposes of access, use and occupation of land for mining operations) as

constituting an overriding public interest within the meaning of the Land Use Act. In the event that a

mining lease, a small scale mining lease or a quarry lease is granted over land subject to an existing and

valid statutory or customary right of occupancy, the Governor of the state within which such rights are

granted shall within 60 days of such grant or declaration revoke such right of occupancy in accordance

with the provisions of section 28 of the Land Use Act.

2.3.1 Mineral Titles

The right to search for or exploit Mineral Resources is obtained through one of the following underlisted

mineral titles and engaging in any of these activities without the requisite mineral title or authority is an

offence under the Act.

2.3.2 A Reconnaissance Permit:

This is a non-exclusive permit granted for a period of 1 year renewable annually upon compliance with

relevant provisions of the Act. It permits its holder to search for mineral resources and obtain and remove

surface samples in small quantities over any land which is not already subject to an exploration lease,

small scale mining lease, mining lease or water use permit.

2.3.3 An Exploration License:

This License is granted for the duration of 3 years renewable for further two periods of 2 years each

provided that the holder has complied with his minimum work obligation commitments and other

relevant provisions of the Act. It is granted over land area not exceeding 200 square kilometers which is

not already subject to an existing exploration license, mining lease, small scale mining lease or quarry

lease and provides an exclusive right to its holder to conduct exploration activities upon the land within

the area of his license including but not limited to the right to explore for all mineral resources and to

carry out the operations and work necessary for the achievement of this objective, to take specimens and

samples within specified limits for the purpose of analysis and conducting bulk sampling and trial

processing for determining mining potential. The holder of an exploration license has the exclusive right

to apply for, and to be granted subject to the Act, one or more Small Scale Mining Leases, Mining Leases

or Quarry Leases in respect of any part (s) of the exploration area, upon due compliance with its

exploration obligations under the Act. The holder of an exploration license who sells any mineral

resources as provided for in the Act shall be subject to the payment of royalty as if the mineral resources

sold were obtained under a mining lease.

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2.3.4 A Small Scale Mining Lease:

A Small Scale Mining Lease covers an area not exceeding 3 square kilometers and requires its holders to

carry out effective rehabilitation of the mined out areas and pay prescribed fees. The Government through

the Ministry shall provide certain extension services to duly registered and performing mining co-

operatives of small scale artisanal miners to include amongst other services prospecting and exploration

services to determine the geological setting, structure, nature of occurrence, quantity and quality of

minerals being mined, provision of environmental impact assessment report and detailed guidelines on

waste and tailing disposal and holding regular workshops to update miners knowledge on legal,

marketing, business skills and infrastructural support.3

2.3.5 A Mining Lease:

This is an exclusive permit granted in respect of an area not exceeding 50 square kilometers which is not

within an exploration license area or a small scale mining area except to the holder of the Exploration

License or Small Scale Mining Lease covering such area. It is granted for a period of 25 years renewable

every 24 years provided the holder has complied with his minimum work obligation commitments and all

other obligations and requirements of the Act. The Lease confers upon the holder the right to among

other things, use, occupy and carry out mineral exploitation within the mining lease area, and market,

sell, export or otherwise dispose of the mineral products resulting from the mining operations. subject to

the provisions of the Act and any other enactment, the exclusivity of the mining lease does not derogate

from the right of the lawful occupier of a licensed area to retain the right to graze livestock upon or to

cultivate the surface of the land in so far grazing or cultivation does not interfere with the mining

operations in such area.

2.3.6 A Quarrying Lease:

This part of the Act applies in relation to all naturally occurring quarriable minerals such as asbestos,

china clay, fuller's earth, gypsum, marble, limestone, mica, pipe clay, slate, sand, stone, late rite, gravel,

which may also be lawfully extracted under mining leases and prohibits every operation for the purpose

of extracting any quarriable mineral from a quarry including sand dredging in the navigable water ways

or else for industrial use without the grant of a lease or license by the Minister under the Act.

A Quarrying Lease is granted in respect of any area of land not exceeding 5 hectares and unless

previously revoked or otherwise determined, remains in force for a period of five years or less from the

date of the grant of the lease and shall then expire unless renewed. The holder is authorized to amongst

other things, carry out quarry operations on the land within the area of the lease, remove and dispose of

any quarriable minerals specified in the lease and do all such things as specified in the Act which may be

necessary or convenient for the carrying out of its quarrying operations.

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2.3.7 A Water Use Permit:

A Water Use Permit confers on its holder, the right to obtain and use water for its exploration and mining

operations.

2.3.8 Environmental Considerations and Rights of Host Communities.

This provides for the winning of materials [such as salt, soda, potash or galena] by host communities in

relation to areas covered by mining leases; prohibition of mineral exploration in certain areas; reservation

of rights of owner or occupier; payment of surface rents; assessment of various compensations and

payment of same; restoration of mines land; reclamation; Community Development Agreements;

Environmental obligations to include preparation and submission of environmental impact assessment

statements and participation in the environmental protection and rehabilitation program.

The Minister shall establish an Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation Fund for the purpose of

guaranteeing the environmental obligations of Holders of Mineral titles as provided under the Act. The

trustees appointed by the Minister shall operate the fund in accordance with the provisions of the

Trustees Investment Act or amendments thereof.

It prohibits pollution of water course, alterations in water supply and provides that everyone who uses

water in connection with mining operation shall ensure that the water in use does not contain injurious

substances in quantities likely to prove detrimental to animal or vegetable life. Also, no person shall, in

the course of Exploration or mining, carry out operations, in or under any area held to be sacred or permit

injury or destruction of any tree or other thing which is the object of veneration.

2.4 The Resource Curse Phenomenon

Resource endowment can bring huge wealth to countries and can be a valuable development asset.

Considering the rising mineral prices and increasing revenue to resource-rich countries after the Second

World War, this view was challenged, as it was observed that resource-rich countries grew more slowly

than resource-poor countries (Auty and Warhusrst, 1993; Sachs and Warner, 1995). This gave rise to

alternative views that resources are a “curse” that hinder rather than promote economic sustainability in

mineral economies (e.g. Auty, 1993; Davis, 1998).

The conventional view argues that revenue from mineral wealth should generate substantial

wealth for the economy, which would then translate into economic prosperity, just like the path taken by

the developed nations. Proponents of this view, known as the “big push theorists” (e.g. Rosenstein-Rodan

1943; 1961), suggested that mineral endowment would industrialize the developing countries based on

23

revenue windfalls from extractive activities. Likewise, Rostow‟s (1960) third stage of the five-stage

development model

argued that the presence of abundant natural resources would allow developing countries to “take off” (a

transitional stage) similar to Britain‟s course to development. No doubt, resources have historically

played a vital role in the economic success of resource-rich countries, such as in Canada, Australia and

the United States.

However, the global economy has changed significantly since the nineteenth century, and

assumptions based on historical analogy that all resource-rich countries will take the same path to

development are misleading (Power, 2002).

Furthermore, the ICMM, UNCTAD and The World Bank (2006) and the ODI (2006) established that

mineral extraction provides economic growth and poverty eradication opportunities to countries that are

at their early stages of development. This was based on case studies where the mineral industry is

bringing about economic prosperity. Surely the above are examples of countries that have managed to

avoid the curse. For example, Ross (2001:62) admitted that “some states with large extractive industries -

like Botswana, Chile and Malaysia - have overcome many of the obstacles …and implemented sound

pro-poor strategies”. Other similar instances include Indonesia (Temple, 2001) and Norway (Wright and

Czelusta, 2002).

The alternative view is negative about the ability of mineral revenues to promote economic

prosperity. While Auty was the first to use the term resource curse in economic literature to show why

resource wealth hinders economic growth and development, Sachs and Warner (1995) are among the first

authors to use cross-country evidence for the resource curse phenomenon. An earlier study by Auty

(1991) found that per capita income of non-mineral producing nations is two to three times higher than

that of the mineral economies. The resource curse thesis, however, offers a diverse set of explanations

covering, amongst others, terms of trade effects, Dutch disease, internal conflict, human rights violation,

debt overhang, institutional quality, corruption and rent-seeking behaviour, and other political economy

arguments.

The transition to resource curse can be broken into behavioural, state-centred and social capital

perspectives (Rosser, 2006) - Nigeria incorporates each of these. The behaviouralist perspective places

blame on the attitude of rent-seeking political actors in the context of natural resource wealth (Jensen and

Wantchekon, 2004; Lam and Wantchekon, 2003; 1987; Ross, 1999; UNDP, 2006). The concentration of

capital ownership among political elites reproduces social inequalities between those inside the elite

(mostly politicians) and those outside it.

24

Based on a mixture of cognitive, societal, and institutional arguments, state-centred explanations

elucidate how over-reliance on resource rents can inhibit the development of sound economic policies,

increase public spending through ill co-ordinated decisions, and result in less accountability and

transparency (Auty, 2001; Ross, 1999). The state-centred explanation contends that oil extraction, for

example, generates large streams of foreign exchange, and these large flows become the basis for

patronage that supports dictatorship and autocracy, and less accountability to the societies they govern

(Bray, 2003). The failures of governance and complete lack of public accountability can be one of the

main reasons for the failure of resource wealth to translate into development. Part of the revenue surplus

is used in suppressing opposition through tax policies (Ross,1999). Mehlum (2002) considers reduction

or elimination of taxes by governments in mineral economies as the commonest way of making people

less likely to hold the government accountable.

There exist evidences to show that commodity price volatility has a negative effect on economic growth

of mineral economies (e.g. Ploeg and Poelhekke, 2009; Santos, 2010). Instead of saving the excess

revenue during the boom period for the future, the boom cycle encourages governments to initiate

immediate, often short-term, unrealistic expenditures. This leads to a spending spree including embarking

on high-cost infrastructure projects that may be financed by external debts. More importantly in this

context, Palley (2006:5) argued, making unproductive investments and unplanned spending is the

“vehicle for corruption and influence peddling. The net result is loss of fiscal discipline that contributes

to inflation, the build-up of external indebtedness, and the development of cultures of corruption”. This

way, the Dutch disease sets in, because the additional wealth generated induces exchange rate volatility

which, if uncontrolled, can harm domestic production in the long-run.

The social capital perspective argues that access to and the struggle for ownership of natural

resources creates conflicts (Humphreys, 2005; Jensen and Watchenko, 2004; Lujala, 2003). Jensen and

Watchenko (2004) make a further suggestion that the concentration of power among the few makes it

rational for the opposition to pursue power through extra-constitutional means. Second, it gives rise to

agitation over the acquisition of a fair share of the natural resources revenue. Third, separatist tendencies

may arise with the feeling that resources revenue has been siphoned from the producing region to the

capital or abroad. Ross (2006) suggests that conflict in resource-rich regions can emanate through

insurgency or trade shocks. These views have in part led to conflict and instability in the Niger Delta

(Obi, 2008; Orogun, 2010; Watts, 2004a, b, 2008; Xavier and Subramanian, 2003).

A number of solutions for transforming the resource curse into a blessing have being proffered.

Several scholars have focused on sound economic policy changes (Auty, 1995; Collier and Hoeffler

2000), diversification (Adeloye and Ekwere, 2010; Solomon, 2000; Veit et al., 2011), the creation of

stabilisation funds (Santos, 2010; Skancke, 2003), introduction of neo-liberal economic policies (Ross,

25

2003:200 and UNDP, 2006) and the reform of governance and social structures (Iimi, 2006; McPhail,

2008; Woolcock et al., 2001:90). Other scholars have called for international intervention to reduce the

curse (Bannon and Collier, 2003:10) and Auty (2004: 46) has supported the use of international

certification processes, such as the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme. According to Müller (2010),

the institutionalisation of best practices such as the EITI is a means to overcome lack of transparency and

corruption in the management of resource wealth. Lastly, Gylfason (2001:850) suggested investment in

human resources through education. Detailed explanations of these solutions to the resource curse are

outside the scope of this study.

While the various suggestions outlined above can foster development in resource-rich countries

of the developing world, they tend to centre at the national level, neglecting the communities where the

resource economy hits the ground, and who are the ones that bear the brunt of the curse. This study,

however, concentrates on the local impacts of resource development, which attempts to provide a basis

for the discussions on the potential impacts of mining development on local communities. The focus of

the study on the communities extends the resource curse thesis by considering local issues that can hinder

or help a national economy‟s ability to manage resources for development.

2.5 The Impact of Artisanal Mining on the Environment

Mining in Nigeria is currently in a rudimentary stage and also serves as secondary occupation. At

the same time, there is the tendency for most operators to change occupation from farming and adopt

mining as their primary occupation. In Nigeria, artisanal miners produce the following minerals:

cassiterite, columbite, tantalite, gold, gemstones (garnets, tourmaline, aquamarine, and amethyst),

limestone, marble, talc, gypsum, galena/sphalerite, barites, sand, gravel and crushed stones. Some of

these (limestone, marble, sand, gravel, crushed stones) are useful mainly in the construction industry

while the others are exported usually illegally. The implements and equipment they use are simple and

crude and in most cases include shovels, pickaxes, hammers, headpans, simple crushers, sluice boxes,

rolling mills and sieves. All the mining activities at present in Nigeria fall within the small-scale

category, since there are no big corporations miners in the country.

The following are the ways they carry out their operations which explain the manner of their

impacts on the environment:

Panning: Panning is done for mining gold, cassiterite, tantalite, and columbite. This is done by simply

stripping the overburden materials which ranges between 2 and 3 meters before getting to the mineralized

26

zone of the bottom of the river bed. The material is brought out for hand panning (gravity separation).

Occasionally, mercury is added to the pan to enhance recovery. Many tonnes of materials are extracted

to produce a few ounces of the mineral. Panning, therefore, is characterized by large mounds of sand

punctuated by numerous pits along the riverbanks.

Artisanal Mining : Minerals worn by artisanal mining include limestone for lime production, marble,

gemstones, barites, gypsum, galena and sphalerite. For these minerals, the miners use simple implements

such as pickaxes for digging, and shovels for removing the materials. For gemstones, hammers are used

for cobbing out undesired minerals.

Open cast mining: This is carried out by excavating pits that are usually not more than 20 metres deep in

the case of the artisanal and illegal miners. Minerals worn by this method include gemstones, tantalite in

weathered pegmatites, etc. Also, river sand and laterite mining involve shoveling and scooping. Stone

aggregates are mined using pickaxes and shovels while final napping is by a hammer.

In general, all these extraction methods are technically inefficient and carried out without much

knowledge about basic technical parameters such as ore grades or reserves. However, provided the

operations are still profitable despite poor management „the miners‟ only objective is to extract the

greatest amount of mineral in the least amount of time and get out.

The array of minerals produced and the manner of their production as well as the materials and features

left behind cause the environmental problems. The following are the negative impacts left after the

mineral has been extracted:

De-vegetation and soil erosion: wherever mining is taking place, land has to be cleared which

means removal of vegetation. So in all the above aforementioned mining activities, land clearing

has led to de-vegetation and soil erosion.

The aesthetics of the landscape is destroyed through the production pits on the surface which pose

danger because of rock falls and flooding during the raining season. They are hazardous in that

they lack ground support, are poorly ventilated and badly lit. They are not even fenced off as

danger zones. Many deaths have occurred due to caving but have not been reported officially.

This is to ensure that these miners‟ location and identity are not exposed because of the illegal and

clandestine nature of their operations.

In the case of panning and alluvial mining, their actions impact directly on the river and water

system. Some of the tailings are dumped directly into the river system thereby polluting it.

Where tailings are discharged into the river, the river course may be diverted. So, apart from river

pollution, the river system is affected. Gold panners are usually normadic and whenever they

discover a lucrative panning site, they move there and construct make-shift homes using local

27

trees. In addition, 100% of their fuel needs come from wood. Hence they add to vegetation

destruction. The gold panners move considerable millions of tonnes of material for panning per

year and this ends up directly in the streams and dams as silt causing siltation. Also, they destroy

about 2 metres of river bank on either side of the river in cases where mineralization continues

beyond the banks.

Where minerals like galena, sphalerite and barites are mined, their tailings produce acid rock

drainage. The leachates from their tailings are potential pollutants if they are discharged into river

systems.

Burrow pits, sites of stone aggregates mining etc that leave behind open pits all constitute

hazards. At times, these sites are near to urban centres where they are used for dumping solid

waste and garbage. The main pollutants of ground and surface water were found to be mercury

from gold extraction and to some extent, human excreta (because of lack of good health and

sanitation facilities).

Dust generated by sand, laterite and gravel digging affects the individual miner who does not

usually use nose dust shield to cover his nose. Thus, such a miner inhales the dust and stands the

risk of developing diseases such as silicosis and tuberculosis. However, because of their

clandestine mode of operation, this phenomenon has not been easy to monitor in the mining areas.

Erosion destroys river banks, diverts rivers from their normal courses and increases siltation

(caused by direct panning in the river systems). Rivers are diverted and water accumulates as

pools in open pits, becoming good breeding grounds for mosquitoes and other disease causing

animals.

The problems caused by concentrating so many people in places without infrastructure and

digging great holes, particularly in weathered pegmatites looking for tantalite and gemstones are

great. The mining of gemstones causes extensive excavations which are left open and

unprotected and they not only pose hazard to the community but also damage the environment.

Ecological disturbance: Another adverse effect of mineral extraction and processingactivities,

which may not be immediately felt, is the disturbance of the ecosystem with possible adverse

consequences on the floral and faunal community in general. For example, the deforestation of an

area during the mine development may cause the elimination of some plants and the exodus of

some animals that feed on such plants or depend on them for cover, from the affected area.

Similarly, the noise generated in the course of blasting, quarrying and crushing can also frighten

away part of the fauna in a mining locality.

Geological hazards: Mining operations normally upset the equilibrium in the

geological environment, which may trigger off certain geological hazards such as landslide,

subsidence, flooding, erosion and tremors together with their secondary effects.

28

2.6 Socio-Economic Impacts of Artisanal Mining.

Mining activities also impact negatively on the socio-economic activities of the mining

community. In Nigeria, the number of artisanal miners is approximately 300,000 of which women and

children constitute up to 50% and 10% respectively. For example, women and girls are prominent in the

middle and upstream sectors of the industry i.e. processing and marketing. Also, in highly prosperous

areas especially rich in gemstones, the enormous influx of miners commonly results in the creation of

enclaves of overcrowded shanty settlements. There is increase in child labour involving young boys and

girls and school drop outs. This commonly leads to shortage of farm hands and hence loss of agricultural

produce. In addition, substantial immigration and human trafficking consequently result in increase in

sexual trade, prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases (STD), unwanted pregnancies and early

marriages.

Some socio-environmental problems are sometimes created as a result of certain peculiarity of the

mineral industry. Since minerals are exhaustible and irrenewable commodities, the life of a mine and,

consequently, the mining activities in a place have a limited time. The stoppage of mining activities

imposed by depletion of the available reserves often leads to migration of people from the mining areas

to other places. This may result in the formation of “ghost towns”, which are abandoned towns and

previous bubbling mining communities.

\

29

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter comprises of research design, types and sources of data, sampling techniques and data

collection procedure, data analysis and limitation of data sources.

3.2 Research Design

Specifically, this study was a cross-sectional survey of respondents who live around mining areas in Oke-

Ogun Region.

3.3 Types and Sources of Data

The types and sources of data collection used for this work are primary and secondary data.

3.3.1 Primary Data

The primary source involves collection of information through the field survey by administering

questionnaire and to an extent oral interview. The data required is related to information on

environmental and socio-economic impacts of mining in Oke-Ogun Region. These include demographic

characteristics of respondents amongst others.

3.3.2 Secondary Data

Secondary data such as the information about the study area, history of mining in the area, geographic

and population characteristics etc. were sourced from the internet and other relevant materials like

journals, thesis, textbooks etc.

3.4 Sampling Techniques and Data Collection Procedure

The actual survey spanned two days and covered some parts of Oke-Ogun. These are Komu and Igbetti.

A total of 290 questionaires were administered randomly.

30

Table 3.4.1: Place of Residence of Respondents

Frequency Percent Valid

Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Valid Komu 123 42.4 43.5 43.5

Igbeti 160 55.2 56.5 100.0

Total 283 97.6 100.0

Missing System 7 2.4

Total 290 100.0


43.5% (123) of the respondents replied that they live in komu community whereas

56.5% (160) of the respondents replied that they live in Igbeti community

However, the illiterates amongst the respondents (who could not read nor write) were interviewed.

3.5 Data Analysis

There are a total of 63 questions designed for the questionnaire. The questionnaires were partly open

ended and partly close ended, where necessary to promote easy and effective response from the

respondents. In the analysis of the data, the responses were cross tabulated and were presented using bar

charts and frequency tables. Chi-square, ANOVA, measures of dispersion and correlation were used to

analyze and draw inferences from the data collected.

3.6 Limitations of Data Sources

There were some limitations that were experienced during the course of carrying out this research study,

and they include:

(1). We spent more time navigating through the bad roads which left us with not enough time to

administer more questionaires.

(2). Some of the respondents are illiterates and as such did neither understand the question asked nor the

purpose of the research. Most of them did not grant us audience.

31

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter is divided into four sections. The first section shows the demographic characteristic of the

respondents like their place of residence, gender, marital status, community type, educational status,

occupation etc.

The second section deals with the socio-economic impact of artisanal mining in Oke-Ogun region, and

these are; level of employment, dress sense of the people, conflict between indigenes and mine workers,

electricity supply, crime rate, standard of living, health related diseases, price of land, price of rent,

agricultural productivity amongst others.

The third section examines the environmental impact of artisanal mining on the livelihood of the people

living in Oke-Ogun region. These include dust release, air pollution, water pollution, threat to farmland

and crops, damage to buildings, noise from blasted, deforestation, land degradation amongst others.

Finally, the last section is all about hypothesis testing.

4.2 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

We had a total of of 290 respondents from the survey carried out in Oyo state in Nigeria. The major

language of the people in this region is Yoruba. 65.7% of the valid respondents (186) are males while

34.3% of the respondents (97) are females as shown below. Therefore, males are dominant in this area.

Frequency Analysis

Table 4.2.1: Gender of Respondents


Percent

Cumulative Percent

Valid Male 186 64.1 65.7 65.7

Female 97 33.4 34.3 100.0

Total 283 97.6 100.0


Total 290 100.0

32

Source: Fieldwork (2015).

Table 4.2.2: Place of Residence of Respondents


Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Valid Komu 123 42.4 43.5 43.5

Igbeti 160 55.2 56.5 100.0

Total 283 97.6 100.0


Total 290 100.0


43.5% (123) of the respondents replied that they live in komu community whereas

56.5% (160) of the respondents replied that they live in Igbeti community

Table 4.2.3: Type of Residential Location


Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Valid Town 220 75.9 77.7 77.7

Village 53 18.3 18.7 96.5

Hamlet 8 2.8 2.8 99.3

Others 2 .7 .7 100.0

Total 283 97.6 100.0


Total 290 100.0


From the table above, we can notice that most of the respondents (220) are located in the village and then

about 53 respondents are located in the village while a few others are located in hamlet and other

locations.

33

Table 4.2.4: Community Type


Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Valid Mining Community 231 79.7 87.5 87.5

Non-Mining

community 33 11.4 12.5 100.0

Total 264 91.0 100.0


Total 290 100.0


A good percentage of the respondents (87.5%) are from a mining community while others are from a

non-mining community.

Table 4.2.5: Educational Status


Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Valid primary school 50 17.2 17.7 17.7

secondary school 102 35.2 36.0 53.7

Polytechnic 45 15.5 15.9 69.6

college of

education 48 16.6 17.0 86.6

University 9 3.1 3.2 89.8

no formal

education 29 10.0 10.2 100.0

Total 283 97.6 100.0


Total 290 100.0


From the table above, we can see that most of the respondents were only educated to Secondary School

Level. 10.2% (29) of the respondents have no formal education, 17.2% (23) of the respondents have

undergone primary school education, 32.9% (48) have undergone polytechnic and college of education

34

and 3.2% (9) have a university education. From this we can conclude that a major percentage of the

respondents (84.5%) are Literates therefore responding to the questionnaire was quite easy.

Table 4.2.6: Type of Mine Workers


Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Valid mine owner 9 3.1 12.3 12.3

Digger 27 9.3 37.0 49.3

Security 11 3.8 15.1 64.4

mine

intermediary 11 3.8 15.1 79.5

mineral buyer 15 5.2 20.5 100.0

Total 73 25.2 100.0


Total 290 100.0


Out of the respondents who are mine workers, 12.3% (9) of the respondents are mine owners, 37%(27) of

the respondents are diggers, 15.1%(11) of the respondents are security workers, 15.1% of the respondents

are mine intermediary and the remaining 20.5%(15) are mineral buyers.

Figure 4.2.1: Marital Status of Respondents

35


From the chart above, we can see that most of the respondents are married, followed by being single and

a few others divorced, separated and so on.

Figure 4.2.2: Occupation of Respondents


Considering the chart above, most of the respondents are mine workers while the rest undertake other

occupations such as artisan, private employee, business personnel, civil servant and so on. We can

conclude that mining is predominant in this area.

36

Figure 4.2.3: Reasons for quitting former Job


The above chart shows the frequency of the reasons chosen by the respondent for why

they changed occupation.

37

Figure 4.2.4: Abundance level of minerals being mined


The above chart shows that marble and tourmaline are in high concentration in these areas

The table below shows the number of respondents, mean, standard deviation, maximum and minimum of

the distribution of the numerical variables respectively.

Table 4.2.7: Descriptive Statistics

VARIABLES N Minimum Maximum Mean Std.

Deviation

HOUSEHOLD_SIZE 266 .00 10.00 8.4135 10.38513

NUMBER OF YEARS LIVING IN

THIS TOWN 269 5.00 95.00 25.3941 21.16550

AGE OF RESPONDENT 269 25.00 95.00 41.6703 18.06958

HOW LONG HAVE YOU BEEN

ENGAGED IN THIS

OCCUPATION?

253 2.00 85.00 14.1067 14.07366

38

ESTIMATED DISTANCE FROM

YOUR RESIDENCE TO THE

NEAREST MINING SITE

In kilometers

199 1.00 1000.00 15.7196 79.13953

ESTIMATED TIME SPENT TO

GET TO THE NEAREST MINING

SITE IN MINUTES

248 1.00 480.00 42.2419 57.25774

ANNUAL INCOME BEFORE in

Naira 153 4500 1000000

101366.3

1 143733.081

ANNUAL INCOME AFTER in Naira

198 5000 3000000 229529.0

4 366467.413

ESTIMATED COST OF

TRANSPORTATION 236 100 70000 816.00 4944.999

HOW MUCH RENT DO YOU

PAY? 79 300 60000 9828.48 15558.755

HOW MUCH DO YOU PAY AS

ROYALTY? 10 2000 10000000

1032700.

00 3151324.873

HOW MUCH IS A BAG OF 50 KG

OF

TANTALITE/TOURMALINE/SAPP

HIRE/DIMENSION/STONE/MARB

LE

33 1350 1000000 147845.0

0 286716.164

39

4.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT OF MINING ACTIVITIES

Table 4.3.1: Frequency Analysis of socio-economic impact of mining activities

VARIABLES Very

low Low Moderate high

Very

high

Change in style of dressing 22

(8.7%)

63

(24.8%)

95

(37.4%)

49

(19.3%)

25

(9.8%)

Conflict between indigenes and migrant

workers

77

(29.7%)

103

(39.6%)

53

(20.4%)

15

(5.8%)

12

(4.6%)

Creation of employment 23

(8.8%)

34

(13.0%)

69

(26.4%)

76

(29.1%)

59

(22.6%)

Drop in school enrolment 40

(15.6%)

104

(40.5%)

65

(25.3%)

34

(13.2%)

14

(5.4%)

electricity supply 40

(15.4%)

76

(29.2%)

79

(30.4%)

51

(19.6%)

14

(5.4%)

social live 15

(21.1%)

59

(22.9%)

102

(39.5%)

56

(21.7%)

26

(10.1%)

living standard 15

(5.9%)

53

(20.6%)

98

(38.1%)

65

(25.3%)

26

(10.1%)

sale of petty trade items 19

(7.5%)

43

(16.9%)

70

(27.5)

81

(31.8%)

42

(16.5%)

Crime 56

(22.0%)

98

(38.4%)

47

(18.4%)

38

(14.9%)

16

(6.3%)

health related diseases 52

(20.6%)

102

(40.3%)

61

(24.1%)

26

(10.3%)

12

(4.7%)

land price 40

(15.6)

76

(29.7%)

71

(27.7%)

53

(20.7%)

16

(6.3%)

food crop sales 17

(6.7%)

65

(25.8%)

74

(29.4%)

64

(25.4%)

32

(12.7%)

house rent price 29

(11.6%)

82

(32.7%)

80

(31.9%)

44

(17.5%)

16

(6.4%)

social vices 51

(21.1%)

84

(34.9%)

55

(22.8%)

39

(16.2%)

12

(5.0%)

influx of immigrants and visitors in search of

jobs

17

(6.8%)

43

(17.1%)

69

(27.5%)

75

(29.9%)

47

(18.7%)

40

Agricultural productivity 39

(15.5%)

85

(33.7%)

74

(29.4%)

38

(15.1%)

16

(6.3%)

Security threat 59

(23.9%)

103

(41.7%)

49

(19.8%)

25

(10.1%)

11

(4.5%)

Truancy 56

(24.3%)

102

(44.2%)

40

(17.3%)

27

(11.7%)

6

(2.6%)


4.4 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF MINING ACTIVITIES

Table 4.4.1: Frequency Analysis of Environmental Impact of Mining Activities

VARIABLES Very

low Low Moderate High

Very

high

Dust release 50

(20.4%)

79

(32.2%)

48

(19.6%)

49

(20.0%)

19

(7.8%)

Air pollution 61

(24.4%)

73

(29.2%)

53

(29.2%)

48

(19.2%)

18

(6.0%)

Mine pits collapse 68

(27.8%)

71

(29.1%)

50

(20.5%)

43

(17.6%)

12

(4.9%)

Water pollution 50

(20.4%)

106

(43.3%)

49

(20.0%)

32

(13.1%)

8

(3.3%)

Threat to farmland and crops 48

(19.3%)

108

(43.4%)

50

(20.1%)

32

(12.9%)

11

(4.4%)

Damages to building 63

(25.3%)

92

(36.9%)

46

(18.5%)

36

(14.5%)

12

(4.8%)

Noise from blasting 33

(13.1%)

66

(26.3%)

57

(22.7%)

50

(19.9%)

45

(17.9%)

Deforestation 29

(12.0%)

62

(25.6%)

74

(30.6%)

52

(21.5%)

25

(10.3%)

Land degradation

29

(12.2%)

58

(24.5%)

54

(22.8%)

75

(31.6%)

21

(8.9%)


41

Table 4.4.2: HAS THERE BEEN ANY LOSS OF RELATIVE AS A RESULT TO MINING?

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid No 47 16.2 78.3 78.3

Yes 13 4.5 21.7 100.0

Total 60 20.7 100.0


Total 290 100.0


From the table above, we can conclude that there has been little loss of relatives as a result of mining.

Table 4.4.3: HAS THE STATE GOVERNMENT INDICATED INTEREST IN THE

MINING OF MINERALS?

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid No 25 8.6 29.1 29.1

Yes 61 21.0 70.9 100.0

Total 86 29.7 100.0


Total 290 100.0


Most of the respondents (61) replied that the state government has indicated interest in the mining of

minerals.

Table 4.4.4: PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN MINING

Frequenc

y

Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Valid pit collapse / water table

breach / poisonous gas

emission

12 4.1 24.5 24.5

Inadequate Funding 12 4.1 24.5 49.0

crude implements 7 2.4 14.3 63.3

42

lack of equipments 5 1.7 10.2 73.5

Pollution 2 .7 4.1 77.6

spiritual effect 3 1.0 6.1 83.7

accommodation problem 2 .7 4.1 87.8

non-availability of

transport facilities 2 .7 4.1 91.8

faulty equipment 1 .3 2.0 93.9

high rainfall 2 .7 4.1 98.0

communication problem 1 .3 2.0 100.0

Total 49 16.9 100.0


Total 290 100.0


The table above shows the distribution of the problems involved in mining. Pit collapse / water table

breach / poisonous gas emission and inadequate funding seems to be one of the most common problems

experienced by the respondents in this area.

Figure 4.4.1

43


The government has made more impact towards the provision of social infrastructure and attraction of

investments.

Table 4.4.5: Diseases Frequencies

Responses Percent of Cases

N Percent

$Diseasesa pulmonary diseases 30 54.5% 71.4%

infectious diseases 14 25.5% 33.3%

skin rashes 11 20.0% 26.2%

Total 55 100.0% 131.0%


From the table above, 30 respondents have had pulmonary diseases as a result of mining, 14 respondents

have had infectious diseases as a result of mining and 11 respondents have had skin rashes as a result of

mining as well.

4.5 Hypothesis Testing

i) Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference in the respondents income based on their

type of occupation.

Alternative hypothesis: There is a significant difference in the respondent‟s income based on

their type of occupation.

Dependent variable: income

Independent variable: occupation

44

Table 4.5.1: ANOVA

ANNUAL INCOME

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 2151705815421.232 10

215170581542.12

3 1.618 .104

Within Groups 24066126996753.246 181

132962027606.37

2

Total 26217832812174.477 191

A one-way analysis of variance was conducted to evaluate the null hypothesis that there is no difference

in the respondent‟s annual income based on their present occupation. The independent variable,

occupation included 11 groups.

The one-way anova was significant, F(10,181)=1.618, p=0.104.

Thus, we fail to reject the null hypothesis based on sufficient evidence provided by the dataset and

conclude that there is no significant difference in the respondent‟s income based on their type of

occupation.

ii) Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the mean of the respondent‟s

income in his previous occupation and the mean of the respondent‟s income in his present

occupation.

Alternative hypothesis: There is a significant difference

Table 4.5.2: Paired Samples Statistics

Mean N Std.

Deviation

Std. Error Mean

P

a

i

r

1

ANNUAL INCOME BEFORE 90986.71 117 136652.183 12633.499

ANNUAL INCOME AFTER

247418.80 117 415929.573 38452.703

45

Table 4.5.3: Paired Samples Test

Paired Differences T Df Sig.

(2-

tailed)

Mean Std.

Deviation

Std.

Error

Mean

95% Confidence

Interval of the

Difference

Lower Upper

Pair 1 INCOME

BEFORE –

INCOME

NOW

-

156432.09

4

381624.72

2

35281.2

18

-

226310.9

92

-

86553.1

96

-

4.434 116 .000

A paired-samples T test was carried out on the two variables annual income before and annual income

now. From the table above, we can notice that our p value is .000. This means that our result is

significant since p < 0.05. we therefore reject the null hypothesis in favour of the alternative hypothesis

and conclude that there was a significant difference in their income before and their income now.

The average of their previous income is approximately N91, 000.00 and the average of their present

income is approximately N250, 000.00. This shows that there was an increase in their income and this

can imply increase in standard of living.

iii) Null hypothesis: There is no relationship between the estimated distance from their residence

to the nearest mining site and the level of environmental impact of mining activities.

Alternative hypothesis: There exist a relationship.

H0: ρ = 0 [There is NO actual correlation]

HA: ρ ≠ 0 [This is a correlation]

Table 4.5.4: Correlations

ESTIMATED DISTANCE ENVIRONMENT

AL IMPACT

ESTIMATED

DISTANCE

Pearson

Correlation 1 -.521

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 199 184

46

ENVIRONMEN

TAL

IMPACT

Pearson

Correlation -.521 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 184 255

A Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to examine whether there is a relationship between the

estimated distance from your residence to the nearest mining site and level of environmental

impact. The results revealed a significant and negative relationship (r = -0.521, N = 184, p = .000).

Hence, the closer your house of residence to the mining site (shorter distance) the higher the level of

environmental impact (such as increased dust release, air pollution, water pollution, damges to buildings,

noise from blasting and so on).

The p-value is the probability that the r-value (-.521) occurred by chance. Since the p-value is less than

all α values we can conclude that the correlation is significant (i.e. did not just occur by chance) and

reject the null-hypothesis. Therefore there is a relationship between the estimated distance from their

houses of residence to the nearest mining site and the level of environmental impact.

iv) Null hypothesis: There is no relationship between the level of socio-economic impact and

occupation.

Alternative hypothesis: There exist a relationship between the level of socio-economic

impact and occupation.

Figure 4.5.1: Occupation of Respondents

47


Table 4.5.5: Chi-Square Tests

Value

Df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 46.844a 50 .601

N of Valid Cases 258

A CHI-SQUARE test was performed on the two varibles, occupation and level of socio-economic

impact to study their relationship. We had a chi-square value of 46.844 with a significance, p = .601.

Since the significance value, p is not less than 0.05, it is therefore not significant so we fail to reject the

null hypothesis.

In conclusion, there is no relationship between the respondent‟s occupation and level of socio-economic

impact.

48

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

The aim of the study was to investigate the environmental and socio-economic effects of artisanal mining

in Oke-Ogun Region on people‟s livelihood. The conceptual framework is on the framework of

environmental sustainability and concept of environmental risk cells. While the literature review was on

the imports of the Nigerian Minerals and Mining Acts 2007, resource-curse phenomenon, the impact of

artisanal mining on the environment and socio-economic impacts of artisanal mining. Four hypothesis

were formulated and tested, and in the end, the following findings were realized;

There is no significant difference in the respondents‟ income based on their type of occupation.

There was a significant difference in their income before and their income now. The average of

their previous income is approximately N91, 000.00 and the average of their present income is

approximately N250, 000.00. This shows that there was an increase in their income and this can

imply increase in standard of living.

There is a relationship between the estimated distance from their house of residence to the nearest

mining site and the level of environmental impact. Therefore the negative impacts of mining is

felt more by people who live closer to mining sites than those who live faraway

There is no relationship between the respondent‟s occupation and level of socio-economic impact.

5.2 Conclusion.

Extraction and processing of mineral resources is the backbone of the national economy in many

developed and developing countries of the world. However, the great danger posed to mining

communities in Oke-Ogun by mineral exploitation such as abandoned sites, biodiversity damage, use of

hazardous chemicals with potential health risk to mine workers and neighboring communities, deserve

urgent attention.

Mining has negatively affected farming in the area by contaminating the soil. Particulates from mineral

mining have degradable effect on soil physicochemical properties and these are added burden to

microvariability of soil properties of the study area.

49

5.3 Recommendations

It is clear that artisanal miners have been operating in the study area but their activities should not be

ignored because of the impacts on the socio-economy and environment. Though their activities cannot be

monitored by government thus enforcement of regulations on violators is not possible. It is essential to

address the issues of these miners so that their activities are formalized. However, when their positive

socio-economic impacts are considered, opinions favour their retention but with strong laws to guide

their operations. It is therefore now fashionable to suggest ways that these activities can promote

sustainable development.

The government should put in place certain programmes to encourage these miners to operate according

to best practice and standard. The advantages of this are that their activities can be monitored and they

can contribute meaningfully to positive environmental and socio-economic development. The following

actions should be undertaken by government:

• The artisanal operators, land owners, and local authorities need to be urgently organized into

cooperative bodies or shareholders of the ventures with the government being involved in the supervision

of the operations.

• Government must support research and development in the designing and fabrication of necessary

operational facilities and equipment for enhancing productivity and minimizing health hazards and risks.

• There is need to implement comprehensive primary health programmes incorporating effective

and efficient epidemiological units in each district or rural division or local government area. Such units

would undertake periodic survey, monitoring and handling of epidemiological problems in mining

communities. They should also be empowered to enforce the use of safety devices such as mining

helmets, nose dust shields and first aids.

• Government should evolve necessary approach for effective conflicts management and resolution

for a sustainable development of the minerals industry.

• Government should establish special mining development Bank (MDB) to provide investment

facilities for the operators. In addition, all current programmes involving international funding such as

by the World Bank need to be appropriately and efficiently managed.

• For effective and optimal revenue derivation and collection, local or district or divisional

governments should preferably in collaboration with relevant departments/ministries at State and Federal

levels be directly involved in the regulation of artisanal mining activities.

50

REFERENCES

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Savanna Zone of SouthWestern Nigeria. Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies and Management.

Vol 4(2).

Aigbedion, I and Iyayi, S.E (2007), Environmental Effect of Mineral Exploitation in Nigeria.

International Journal of Physical Science. Vol 2 (2) 033-038.

Argau, G.O.,Jr (1978): Conference on the Future of Small-Scale Mining. Important for the Future.

UNTAR, New York.

Down, C.G and Stocks, J.(1997): Environmental Impacts of Mining. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Jimoh, M.T (2011), Petrochemical Studies of Pegmatite around Awo, SouthWestern Nigeria. Journal of

Environmental Issues and Agriculture in Developing Countries. Vol 3 (2) 19-32.

Murtala, Ibraheem .C. (2011), An Examination of the Socio-Economic and Environmental Impact of

Planned Oil Sands Development in Nigeria. PhD Thesis, University of Leicester.

Oguntoke, Olusegun; Aboaba, Adeniyi and Gbadebo, T. Adeola (2009), Granite Quarrying on the Health

of Workers and Nearby Residents in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria. Ethiopian Journal of Environmental

Studies and Management. Vol 2 (1).

Okeogun/Home. (n.d.). Retrieved March 1, 2016, from http://the%20craftman%20shop.html

Rasheed, A. Ishola and Amuda, Abdulgafar .K. (2014), Impacts of Artisanal Mining on Some Heavy

Metals Concentration in Surface Water in Kutcheri, Zamfara State, NorthWestern Nigeria. Academic

Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies. Vol 3 (7).

Rasheed, Olaniyi , “West African „Stone Boys‟ and the making of the Ibadan Mining Frontiers since the

1990‟s” Paper presented at the African Development Bank Conference, Accra, Ghana (2013).

Ripley et al. (1996): Environmental effects of mining. Delray Beach, Florida: St Lucie Press.

51

Skelding, F. (1972): Small-Scale Mining in the Developing Countries: United Nations, New York.

Stearns, S. (2009): Illegal Mining Threatens Liberian Rainforest. File://E:/illegal mining threatens

Liberian rainforest.htm

Svotwa, R. and Mtetwa, C. (1997): The Environmental Impact of Small-Scale Mining in Zimbabwe.

ITDC, August 1997.

United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) (1996): “Environmental and Safety Incidents

Concerning Tailings Dams and Mines”. Results of a Survey for the years 1980-1996, London: Mining

Journal Research Services.

Warhurst, A. (1999): “Environmental Regulation, Innovation and Sustainable Development”: In

Warhurst, A. (ed). Mining and the Environment: Case studies from the Americas (Ottawa, Canada).

International Development Research Center.

Warhurst, A and Insor, R. (1996): Environmental Issues for Developing Countries arising from

Liberalized trade in the mining industry. Natural Resources Forum, 20 (1): 27-35.

Wojciechowski, M.J. (1979): Junior Mining in Canada: The problem of Investment and securing fair

returns. Proceedings 6. Centre for Resources Studiers, Queen‟s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.

52

APPENDIX: Questionaire

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF ARTISANAL MINING IN OKE-

OGUN REGION

Sir/Ma,

This study aims at investigating the environmental and socio-economic effects of artisanal mining in

Oke-Ogun Region on people‟s livelihood. This survey is purely an academic exercise. We assured you

that any information provided shall be treated as strictly confidential.

SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS

1. Name of Community/Settlement…………………………………………………………

2. Type of Location (a) Town (b) Village (c) Hamlet (d) Others (Specify)…………………..

3. Community type (a) Mining Community (b) Non-Mining Community

4. Local Government Area ……………………………………………………………………

5. Nationality ………………………………………………………………………………….

6. Gender (a) Male (b) Female

7. Marital status (a) Married (b) Single (c) Divorced (d) Separated (f) Others

8. Household size of respondents……………………………………………………………...

9. How long have you been living in this town/village?............................................................

10. Age of respondent.........................................

11. Highest educational level attained (a) Primary School (b) Secondary School (c) Polytechnic (d)

College of Education (e) University (f) No formal Education

12. Present occupation of respondents (a) Agriculture (b) Mining (c) Petty Trading (d) Agriculture

and mining (e) Agriculture and livestock (f) Charcoal producer (g) Charcoal trader (h)

Government employee (i) Construction worker (j) Agriculture and petty trade (k) Others

(Specify)……………….

13. What was your initial occupation before you switch to the present occupation (a) Agriculture (b)

Mining (c) Petty Trading (d) Agriculture and mining (e) Agriculture and livestock (f) Charcoal

producer (g) Charcoal trader (h) Government employee (i) Construction worker (j) Agriculture

and petty trade (k) Others (Specify)……………….

14. How long have you been engage in this present occupation? ............................................

15. How many years did you spent on the previous occupation………………………………

16. What is your annual income then? .......................................................

17. What is your annual income now? ……………………………………

18. Do you own or rent house here?..........................................................

19. How much do you pay as rent?.............................

20. Estimate distance from your residence to the nearest mining site in Kilometers…………………

21. Estimate time spent to get to the nearest mining site in minutes from your

residence…………………

22. Estimate cost of transportation to the nearest mining site from your residence

……………………………………………

23. List some of the reasons for the occupational change …………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………

24. If you are a mining worker, which aspect of mining do you work

a) Mine owner/ Proprietor of mine shaft

b) Digger

c) Security

d) Mine intermediary.

53

e) Mineral buyer.

f) Please give names of minerals mined here ………………………………………

25. If you are mine owner, how much do you pay as royalty? ………………………………..

SECTION B: SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT OF MINING ACTIVITIES

26. How much is a bag of 50 kilogram of tantalite/tourmaline/sapphire/dimension stone/marble

………………………………………………..

27. Where are these stones washed? ………………………………………………………

TABLE 1: SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT OF MINING ACTIVITIES

Benefits Very

high

(5)

High

(4)

Moderate

(3)

Low

(2)

Very

low

(1)

Changed in style of dressing

Conflict between indigenes and migrant workers

Creation of employment

Drop in school enrollment

Improved electricity supply

Improved social life

Improvement in living standards

Improvement in sale of petty trade items

Increase in crime

Increase in health related diseases

Increase in land price

Increased food crop sales

Increased house rent price

Increases social vices, specify

Large scale influx of immigrants and visitors in

search of jobs

Low agricultural productivity

Security threat

Truancy

Others (Specify)

SECTION C: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF MINING ACTIVITIES

28. Kindly rate the environmental effects of mining on this community as indicated in table (Please

tick as appropriate)

Table 2: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF MINING ACTIVITIES

Disadvantages Very

high

(5)

High

(4)

Moderate

(3)

Low

(2)

Very

low

(1)

Increased dust release

Air pollution

Increase in mine pits collapse

Water pollution

54

Threat to farmland and crops

Damages to buildings

Noise from blasting

Deforestation

Land Degradation

Others (Specify)

29. How many members of your family are in the business of mining? …………………….

30. Please indicate any of the under listed diseases you might have had as a result of mining of

tantalite/tourmaline/sapphire/dimension stone/marble;

a) Pulmonary diseases e.g asthma, lung inflammation etc. please indicate……….......

b) Infectious diseases (please indicate …………………

c) Skin rashes

d) Others

31. Has there been any loss of relative as a result mining and processing of

tantalite/tourmaline/sapphire/dimension stone/marble …………………………………

32. What are problem confronting the mining of tantalite/tourmaline/sapphire/dimension

stone/marble …………………………………

33. Has state government indicated interest in the mining of tantalite/tourmaline/sapphire/dimension

stone/marble in this town/village? ……………

34. What steps is government taking towards exploiting this mineral for the development of this

community…………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………..

……………………………………………………………………………………………..

35. What other relevant information do you have in respect of mining in this

community?.........................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................

Thank you.