Enzymes and

Hormones

Disease or Abnormality

Lactose intolerace - no lactase enzyme to break

down lactose in milk

Diabetes - most common endocrine disorder in

which you don't produce insulin (type 1) or you are

insulin resistant (type 2)

Hyperthyroidism - too much thyroid hormone

(symptom weight loss)

Hypothyroidsim - too little thyroid hormone

(symptom weight gain)

Hyperparathyroidism - too much parathyroid

hormone (symptoms = weak bones,kidney stones)

Above: A severely affected 14-year-old hypothyroid girl with puffiness around

the eyes, thickened lips, depressed root of the nose (saddle nose), and straight,

coarse hair. The second picture was taken after only 6 months of treatment with

desiccated thyroid. Note the elevated bridge of the nose, brighter eyes, thinner

lips, and glossy, curly hair. Her constipation had resolved and her appetite

improved.

Adult woman with the characteristic puffiness that often accompanies

hypothyroidism.

Her puffiness and hair texture markedly improve after treatment with

desiccated thyroid.

Dwarfism

Giantism

acromegaly

Cretinism

Crushing's syndrome - cortisol overproduction (adrenal

gland disease)

Conn's syndrome - aldosterone overproduction (adrenal

gland disease)

Krabbe's disease - inherited, demyelinating, human lipid

storage disease; manifestations include convulsions,

quadriplegia, blindness, deafness, and mental retardation.

Fucosidosis - rare progressive biochemical disorder

involving deficiency of an enzyme (alpha-fucosidase) which

results in accumulation of certain chemicals

(glycosphingolipids) in the central nervous system and other

body tissues

Vitamins

Disease or Abnormality VITAMIN A: (RETINOL)

The important deficiency states due to lack of vitamin A in the diet are:

Night Blindness: In the early stages of vitamin A deficiency, the individual cannot see well in dim light. In advanced deficiency, the subject cannot see objects in dim light.

Xerosis Conjunctiva: The conjunctiva is dry, thickened, wrinkled and pigmented. The pigmentation gives conjunctiva a smoky appearance.

Xerosis Cornea: When dryness spreads to cornea, it takes on a hazy, lusterless appearance.

Bitot’s Spots: Greyish glistening white plaques, formed of desquamated thickened conjuctival epithelium, usually triangular in shape and firmly adhering to the conjuctiva.

Keratomalacia: When xerosis of the conjuctiva and cornea is not treated, it may develop into a condition known as keratomalacia.

Follicullar Hyperkeratosis: The skin becomes rough and dry.

Folic acid deficiency causes megaloblasticanaemia mainly in pregnant women of low income groups.

VITAMIN B12

Vitamin B12 deficiency causes periniciousanemia in humans. Soreness and inflammation of the tongue are commonly observed. Parasthesia (numbness and tingling) occurs in fingers and toes. Persons living exclusively on vegetarian diets develop vitamin B12 deficiency.

Anemia - B12 deficiency

Vitamin B12 deficiency anemia is a low red blood cell count due to a lack of vitamin B12. Anemia is a condition in which the body does not have enough healthy red blood cells.

Paraesthesia

Vitamin B5 is found in nearly every food, and deficiencies are found in people who have been starving, volunteers of particular medical studies, and people on diets restricted to a very small number of foods. A deficiency in vitamin B5 causes chronic paraesthesia. Paraesthesia is most familiar to us as the numbing sensation we feel as „pins and needles‟ or a limb „falling asleep‟.

Vitamin B1 (thiamine) deficiency is a nutritional disorder characterized by nerve, brain, and heart abnormalities. Thiamine is a member of the group of vitamins known as B-complex vitamins.

Beriberi is a disease whose symptoms include weight loss, body weakness and pain, brain damage, 9

VITAMIN C (ASCORBIC ACID)

Severe Vitamin C deficiency results in

the development of the disease scurvy

VITAMIN B2 OR RIBOFLAVIN

Riboflavin deficiency is characterized

by

ANGULAR STOMATITIS

Vitamin B3, also known as Niacin, is

a B complex vitamin that is used by

the body mainly to aid in the

conversion of complex carbohydrates

into glucose.

Pellagra is a vitamin B3 , (Niacin)

deficiency

VITAMIN B6 OR PYRIDOXINE

Pyridoxine deficiency results in the

following:

a) Hypochromic microcytic anaemia.

b) Sleep disturbances, irritability and

depression

c) Angular stomatitis, glossitis and

cheilosis in pregnant and lactating

mothers.

Iron Deffeciency - Anaemia

Anaemia is an umbrella term

employed for a number of

conditions that arise as a result of

a low proportion of red blood cells

or a shortage of haemoglobin in

the red blood cells

Calcium DeficiencyThere are two types of calcium deficiency:

Dietary calcium deficiency is a condition in which there is an inadequate calcium intake, which can lead to depleted calcium stores in the bones, thinning and weakening of the bones, and osteoporosis.

Hypocalcemia is a low level of calcium in the blood. It can occur from taking medications, such as diuretics; medical treatments; or disease processes, such as renal failure or hypoparathyroidism.

Vitamin K Deficiency

Vitamin K deficiency is a nutritional

disorder in which the blood fails to clot

normally, resulting in excessive

bleeding.

Infants with VK deficiency are at risk

for hemorrhagic disease of newborn

Vitamin K is necessary for the

correct blood clotting process. Lack of

it can cause excessive bleeding from

wounds, and excessive bruising from

knocks and bumps.

Chapter IX:

Body Fluids

Body Fluids

Body Fluids Two-thirds of body fluid is intracellular fluid (ICF) and one-third is extracellular fluid (ECF), mainly blood plasma, transcellular fluid and interstitial fluid (ISF). The ICF is primarily a solution of potassium and organic anions, and proteins.

The ECF is primarily a NaCl and naHCO3 solution.

Blood

Blood is a highly specialized

circulating tissue consisting of several

types of cells suspended in a fluid

medium known as plasma. The

cellular constituents are red blood

cells, white blood cells, and platelets.

Functions of Blood

Supply of oxygen

Supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids and fatty acids

Removal of wastes such as carbon dioxide, urea and lactic acid

Immunological functions

Coagulation

Messenger functions

Regulation of body pH

Regulation of core body temperature

General Compositions

Blood consists of fluid portion, the plasma and the formed elements.

Composition of the red blood cells:Water - 80%Hemoglobin - 35%Proteins - like nucleoprotein and globulinLipids - like cholesterol and

lecithin Inorganic salts and organic crystalloids

like urea, amino acids, and glucose

White blood cells or leukocytes (3%)

- White blood cells are part of the

immune system, they destroy

infectious agents, pathogens.

Platelets or Thrombocytes (1.0%)

- Platelets are tiny cells that circulate

in the blood and whose function is to

take part in the clotting process.

Urine

Urine is a liquid produced by animals and humans alike through the kidney, and is collected in the bladder and excreted through the urethra. Urine formation helps to maintain the balance of minerals and other substances in the body. For example, excess of calcium, alcohol and artificial sweeteners, are also eliminated from the body through the urine. Urination is the primary method for excreting toxins, chemicals, and drugs from the body.

Normal urine output

in adults is 1000 to

1500 ml.

Factors that influence the amount

of urine output:

1. Time

2. Age

3. Foods

4. Temperature

5. Exercise

Changes in Urine volume:

1. Polyuria – increase in production of urine

ex. Diabetes, receding edema

2. Oliguria – decrease in production of urine

ex. Diarrhea, vomiting

3. Anuria – suppression of urine

ex. Kidney failure, kidney obstruction

4. Nocturia – increased urine production at

night

ex. prostate cancer, chronic kidney

disease

Urine is produced by the kidneys as a

process of cleaning the blood and

excreting the unwanted soluble waste

products from the body. Kidney

maintain fluid balance, it filters, cleans

and purifies about 150 – 180 liters of

blood and recycles it daily. The urine

formed in the kidney is drained by

ureter into the bladder for storage. The

urethra brings out the urine from the

bladder, when time and place permit.

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

Cerebrospinal fluid is a clear, colorless

liquid that fills and surrounds the brain

and the spinal cord and provides a

mechanical barrier against shock.

Formed primarily in the ventricles of the

brain, the cerebrospinal fluid supports

the brain and provides lubrication

between surrounding bones and the

brain and spinal cord. It is a very pure

saline solution with microglia and acts as

a “cushion” or buffer for the cortex.

Functions of CSF

Buoyancy

Shock Absorption

Nutrition

Waste disposal

Communication

Normal CSF is clear and colorless. If it is…

1. Bright red – admixture of fresh blood after a

lumbar puncture; centrifugation would produce

a clear supernatant.

2. Dull red or brown – hemorrhage in case of skull

fracture and meningitis; supernatant is yellow

or red due to hemoglobin.

3. Yellow (xanthochromic) – due to blood

pigments resulting from dsinitegration of red

blood cells in subarachnoid space

4. Greenish or grayish – pus cells in severe

inflammatory conditions and acute meningitis

Sweat Sweat is a clear, salty liquid produced by

glands in your skin. Sweating is how the body cools itself. If one sweat too much, which is called hyperhidrosis, it might be due to a thyroid or nervous system disorder, low blood sugar or another health problem.

Sweating too little, anhidrosis, can be a life-threatening because the body can overheat. Causes of anhidrosis include dehydration, burns, and some skin and nerve orders.

How Sweat is Made

Sweat is produced in eccrine and apocrine sweat glands. Eccrine gland is found all over the body particularly the palms of the hands, the soles of the feet and forehead. Apocrine gland mostly confined to the armpits (axilla) and the anal-genital area. Sweat itself has no odor, but when bacteria on the skin and hair metabolize the proteins and fatty acids, they produce an unpleasant odor.

Reasons for the formation of

Sweat Sweating is one of the ways we

regulate our body temperature

Sweat helps to keep our skin moist

Sweat from some areas of the body

contains scents (pheromones) that

send secret signals to other people

Sweat contains a natural antibiotic,

dermicidin, that helps to destroy

bacteria on the skin

Feces

Feces is a waste product from an animal‟s digestive tract expelled through the anus (or cloaca) during defecation. The distinctive odor of feces is due to bacterial action. Foods that are naturally high in sulfur – such as cabbage, broccoli, and other cruciferous vegetables and some types of protein – and therefore, strong-smelling feces is produced. Sulfur compounds are also added to foods like beer and bread as preservatives. Even without a major dietary source, some people produce sulfur-rich stool because their large intestines are heavily colonized by bacteria that generate sulfur compounds.

Consistency

Feces are normally about 75% water. Soft feces can lead to incontinence and passive soiling. Hard feces can cause constipation.

Fiber intake also influences stool consistency because it tends to hold on to water as it passes through the large intestine. Diets high in fiber from fruit, vegetables and whole grains have multitude of health benefits.

Feces are made up of 75% water and 25% solid matter.

Physical Characteristics:

1. Color

ex. Brown – normal

Dark gray – chocolate

Dark brown or black – bismuth and iron compounds

Golden yellow – unchanged bilirubin

Green – diarrhea of children with faulty carbohydrate

metabolism

Clay color – bile deficiency, indicates jaundice

Red streaks of blood – bleeding due to hemorrhoids,

carcinoma or lesions of rectum or anus

2. Odor – very foul odor may suggest intestinal or rectum

ulcerration; also observed in cancer, syphilis and gangrenous

dysentery

3. Form and consistency

Soft and watery –diarrhea

Very hard – constipation

Hard rounded, scybalous – atony of the colon

(appendix infection), sign of fecal impaction

Flattened ribbon-like stools – obstruction of the

colon

4. Amount – 80 to 200 grams are eliminated daily,

bulk incresaes with large amounts of vegetable in the

diet. Gases eliminated with feces: hydrogen,

methane, nitrogen, CO2 and H2S