FCE

Linkers

Conditionals

Conditional clauses can begin with:

Unless

As long as – provided/providing (that) – on condition that

In case – in case of

When & How

Unless

Unless is used instead of if...not in conditional sentences

of all types:

I wouldn't eat that food if I wasn't really hungry.

= I wouldn't eat that food unless I was really hungry

I wouldn't have phoned him if you hadn't suggested it.

= I wouldn't have phoned him unless you'd suggested it.

When & How

As long as – provided/providing

(that) – on condition that

As long as – provided/providing (that) – on condition that

are used instead of only if in conditional sentences:

You will get the job only if you prepare for the interview.

= You will get the job as long as you prepare for the

interview.

When & How

In case – in case of

We use in case to express that we are doing something in preparation for something which might happen:

In case I forget later, here are the keys to the garage.(I might forget to give you the garage keys)

We use in case of + noun to mean ‘if and when something happens’:

In case of fire, leave the building as quickly as possible. (If there is a fire)

Exercise 1

1. _______ I phone you, you can assume the train’s on time. (in case, unless)

2. The organisers of the event have made arrangements for indoor as well as outdoor activities ___________ rain. (in case of, unless)

3. You can play in the living room _____________ you don’t make a mess. (as long as, unless)

4. We’ll have to cancel the show__________ we sell more tickets at the last minute. (as long as, unless)

5. Let’s take our swimming costumes _________ there’s a pool at the hotel. (in case, unless)

Exercise 1

1. Unless I phone you, you can assume the train’s on time.

2. The organisers of the event have made arrangements for indoor as well as outdoor activities in case of rain.

3. You can play in the living room as long as you don’t make a mess.

4. We’ll have to cancel the show unless we sell more tickets at the last minute.

5. Let’s take our swimming costumes in case there’s a pool at the hotel.

Contrast Linkers

When we want to introduce contrast in English, we use

the following words:

In spite of/Despite (the fact that)

Although/Even though/Though

However/Nevertheless

Whereas

When & How

In spite of/Despite

Followed by a noun phrase or pronoun (that/this/what,

etc.) or a verb in the ‘ing’ form

Despite their money, they can’t buy happiness. (noun

phrase)

Despite what I said last night, I still love you. (pronoun)

In spite of having so much money, they can’t buy

happiness. (verb in the ‘ing’ form)

When & How

Although/Even though/Though

Followed by a clause/complete sentence with subject +

verb

Although she sang beautifully, she didn’t win the contest.

I am going out tonight, even though I am tired.

When & How

Though

Though is often used at the end of a sentence.

The house isn’t very nice. I like the garden though.

Compare although & in spite

of/despite

Although the traffic was bad, I arrived on time.

In spite of the traffic, I arrived on time.

I couldn’t sleep although I was very tired.

I couldn’t sleep despite being very tired.

Exercise 2

1. ________ it was raining, I didn’t use my umbrella. (although, despite)

2. I’d like to talk to you _______ I know you’re busy. (although, in spite of)

3. _______ her efforts, she failed the exam. (despite, although)

4. _______we were having difficulties, we felt optimistic. (although, in spite of)

5. We didn’t win the game ______ all our hard work. (although, in spite of)

Exercise 2

1. Although it was raining, I didn’t use my

umbrella.

2. I’d like to talk to you although I know you’re

busy.

3. Despite her efforts, she failed the exam.

4. Although we were having difficulties, we felt

optimistic.

5. We didn’t win the game in spite of all our hard

work.

When & How

However/Nevertheless

We can express a contrast by using the adverbs

however/nevertheless with two sentences.

They are always followed by a comma.

She was feeling very ill. However, she went to school.

You need some help with your homework. Nevertheless,

no one can help you and you have to do it yourself.

When & How

Whereas/While

Introduce a contrast between two ideas.

The original movie was quite interesting, whereas the

remake was really boring.

Whereas you have lots of time to do your homework, I

have very little time indeed.

Exercise 3

1. _______ Andrew was warned of the risks, he decided to travel alone to South America. (although, whereas)

2. Maria did not get a promotion ________ her qualifications. (however, despite)

3. Zambia is a land-locked country, _________ Kenya has a coastline. (however, whereas)

4. The city has a 50 kph limit. ____________, people are often caught speeding. (however, whereas)

5. He is quiet and shy, ______ his sister is lively and talkative. (although, whereas)

Exercise 3

1. Although Andrew was warned of the risks, he decided to travel alone to South America.

2. Maria did not get a promotion despite her qualifications.

3. Zambia is a land-locked country, whereas Kenya has a coastline.

4. The city has a 50 kph limit. However, people are often caught speeding.

5. He is quiet and shy, whereas his sister is lively and talkative.

Examples

For example – for instance

Such as

When & How

For example – for instance – suchas

Each phrase can be used within a sentence:

I can play quite a few musical instruments, for example, the flute, the guitar, and the piano.

Colourful vegetables, for instance, bell peppers, contain vitamin C.

She has many good qualities, such as intelligence and wit.

Note: such as is not followed by a comma

When & How

For example – for instance – such

as

If the words after such as are necessary and essential to

the meaning of the sentence – don’t use commas.

Wild flowers such as mountain pansies and thyme are

rapidly disappearing.

If you take out such as mountain pansies and thyme the

meaning will change – it could mean all wild flowers are

disappearing - which is not true.

When & How

For example – for instance – such

as

For example and for instance can begin a new sentence

when the phrase is followed by a complete idea or

sentence:

My father loves going to restaurants which serve exotic

foods. For instance, last week he went to a restaurant

which serves deep-fried rattlesnake.

Adding a point

Also

As well - too

Moreover, furthermore, in addition

As well as

When & How

Also - as well – too

Also occupies different positions in a sentence. It is

placed after auxiliary verbs and before other verbs.

Some tablet computers can also be used to make phone

calls.

I am not about to buy this house. It is small. Also, it needs

a lot of repairs.

She contacted him in the office but he didn’t answer the

phone. His mobile phone was silent also.

When & How

Also - as well – too

As well and too usually go at the end of a clause.

She not only sings; she plays the piano as well.

My brother not only goes to school; he works part time for

a company too.

When & How

In addition - moreover – furthermore

Moreover, furthermore and in addition add extra information to the point you are making and are followedby a comma:

I studied journalism in college. In addition, I had a part-time job at a newspaper.

We often use “moreover” and “furthermore” when we talk about our opinions:

The politician is too old to be our president. Moreover, he is not trustworthy.

When & How

As well as

As well as means not only ….but also. It is followed by a

noun or noun phrase or a verb in the ‘ing’ form:

She is not only beautiful, but also clever.

= She is clever as well as beautiful. (noun)

Running is healthy as well as making you feel good. (verb

in the ‘ing’ form)

Results & reasons

Due to – owing to – on account of

When & How

Due to – owing to – on account of

Due to, owing to and on account of mean because of.

They are followed by nouns or noun phrases:

The man was detained due to his suspicious behaviour.

Owing to the heavy rain, we had to give up the idea of a

boat trip.

When & How

Due to/ owing to/on account of the

fact that

Due to owing to/on account of the fact that are

followed by a clause.

I couldn’t study owing to the fact that I had an headache.

Exercise 4

1. __________ staff shortages, there was no restaurant car on the

train. (owing to, due to the fact that)

2. When they go to Austria, they like walking ________ skiing.(also,

as well as)

3. Marketing plans give us an idea of the potential market.

__________, they tell us about the competition. (moreover, owing

to)

4. Vegetables __________ spinach contain calcium. (for instance,

such as)

5. _____________ offering a 15% discount on the furniture,

Smith’s Furniture delivered it free to our house.. (in addition, as

Exercise 4

1. Owing to staff shortages, there was no restaurant car on the

train

2. When they go to Austria, they like walking as well as skiing.

3. Marketing plans give us an idea of the potential market.

Moreover, they tell us about the competition.

4. Vegetables such as spinach contain calcium.

5. As well as offering a 15% discount on the furniture, Smith’s

Furniture delivered it free to our house..

The End