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2. General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: An Integrated Approach, Second EditionKenneth W. RaymondJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc. 3. Every one of your students has the potential to make a difference. And realizing that potential starts right here, in your course. When students succeed in your coursewhen they stay on-task and make the breakthrough that turns confusion into confidencethey are empowered to realize the possibilities for greatness that lie within each of them. We know your goal is to create an environment where students reach their full potential and experience the exhilaration of academic success that will last them a lifetime. WileyPLUS can help you reach that goal.WileyPLUS is a suite of resourcesincluding the complete online textthat will help your students: come to class better prepared for your lectures get immediate feedback and context-sensitive help on assignments and quizzes track their progress throughout the coursewww.wileyplus.com88%of students surveyed said it improved their understanding of the material. * 4. TO THE INSTRUCTORWileyPLUS is built around the activities you perform Prepare & Present Create outstanding class presentations using a wealth of resources, such as PowerPoint slides, image galleries, interactive learningware, and more. Plus you can easily upload any materials you have created into your course, and combine them with the resources Wiley provides you with.CATALYST With the 2nd edition of Raymond GOB, we are introducing an innovative online learning program called CATALYST. The CATALYST assignments ask students to consider the key concepts and topics at hand from different perspectives; with different givens/desired responses required each time a new question is presented.Create Assignments*Based on 7000 survey responses from student users of WileyPLUS in academic year 2006-2007.Automate the assigning and grading of homework or quizzes by using the provided question banks. Student results will be automatically graded and recorded in your gradebook. WileyPLUS also links homework problems to relevant sections of the online text, hints, or solutions context-sensitive help where students need it most! 5. in your class each day. With WileyPLUS you can: Track Student Progress Keep track of your students' progress via an instructor's gradebook, which allows you to analyze individual and overall class results. This gives you an accurate and realistic assessment of your students progress and level of understanding.Now Available with WebCT and eCollege! Now you can seamlessly integrate all of the rich content and resources available with WileyPLUS with the power and convenience of your WebCT or eCollege course. You and your students get the best of both worlds with single sign-on, an integrated gradebook, list of assignments and roster, and more. If your campus is using another course management system, contact your local Wiley Representative.I studied more for this class than I would have without WileyPLUS. Melissa Lawler, Western Washington Univ.For more information on what WileyPLUS can do to help your students reach their potential, please visit TMwww.wileyplus.com/experience84%of students would recommend WileyPLUS to their next instructors.* 6. TO THE STUDENTYou have the potential to make a difference! WileyPLUS is a powerful online system packed with features to help you make the most of your potential, and get the best grade you can!With WileyPLUS you get: A complete online version of your text and other study resources Study more effectively and get instant feedback when you practice on your own. Resources like self-assessment quizzes, interactive learningware, and video clips bring the subject matter to life, and help you master the material.Problem-solving help, instant grading, and feedback on your homework and quizzes You can keep all of your assigned work in one location, making it easy for you to stay on task. Plus, many homework problems contain direct links to the relevant portion of your text to help you deal with problem-solving obstacles at the moment they come up.74%The ability to track your progress and grades throughout the term. A personal gradebook allows you to monitor your results from past assignments at any time. Youll always know exactly where you stand.If your instructor uses WileyPLUS, you will receive a URL for your class. If not, your instructor can get more information about WileyPLUS by visiting www.wileyplus.comIt has been a great help, and I believe it has helped me to achieve a better grade. Michael Morris, Columbia Basin Collegeof students surveyed said it helped them get a better grade. * 7. GENERAL, ORGANIC, AND BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRYAn Integrated Approach SECONDEDITION 8. GENERAL, ORGANIC, AND BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRYAn Integrated Approach SECONDKenneth W. RaymondEastern Washington UniversityJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc.EDITION 9. VICE PRESIDENT AND EXECUTIVE PUBLISHER PROJECT EDITOR PRODUCTION SERVICES MANAGER PRODUCTION EDITOR EXECUTIVE MARKETING MANAGER CREATIVE DIRECTOR ART DIRECTOR DESIGNER SENIOR PHOTO EDITOR EDITORIAL ASSISTANT SENIOR MEDIA EDITOR PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT COVER ILLUSTRATION/DESIGN BICENTENNIAL LOGO DESIGN COVER PHOTOSKaye Pace Jennifer Yee Dorothy Sinclair Janet Foxman Amanda Wygal Harry Nolan Hope Miller Brian Salisbury Lisa Gee Catherine Donovan Thomas Kulesa Suzanne Ingrao/Ingrao Associates Norm Christiansen Richard J. Pacifico Image of orange based on photo Stock Food/Punchstock (top) and Photodisc/Superstock (bottom)This volume contains selected illustrations from the following texts, reprinted with permission by John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Boyer, Rodney, Concepts in Biochemistry, Second Edition, 2002. Hein, Morris; Best, Leo R.; Pattison, Scott; Arena, Susan, Introduction to General, Organic, and Biochemistry, Eighth Edition, 2005. Holum, John R., Fundamentals of General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Sixth Edition, 1998. Pratt, Charlotte W.; Cornely, Kathleen, Essential Biochemistry, 2004. Voet, Donald; Voet, Judith G.; Pratt, Charlotte W., Fundamentals of Biochemistry: Life at the Molecular Level, 2nd Edition, 2006.This book was set in 10.5/12 Adobe Garamond by Prepar and printed and bound by Courier/Kendallville. The cover was printed by Courier/Kendallville. This book is printed on acid-free paper. Copyright 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, website www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, website www.wiley.com/go/permissions. To order books or for customer service, please call 1-800-CALL WILEY (225-5945).ISBN: 978-0-470-12927-2 Printed in the United States of America 10987654321 10. P R E F A C Esecond edition of General, Organic, and Biochemistry: an Integrated Approach This dentalwritten fornutrition, preparingtechnology, andhealth-related fields such as has been students for careers in nursing, hygiene, medical occupational therapy. The text is also suitable for students majoring in other fields where it is important to have an understanding of chemistry and its relationship to living things. Students need have no previous background in chemistry, but should possess basic math skills. For those whose math is a bit rusty, the text provides reviews of the important material. While designed for use in one-semester or two-quarter General, Organic, and Biochemistry (GOB) courses, instructors have found that it also works well for one-year courses, especially when combined with the supplement Chemistry Case Studies For Allied Health Students by Colleen Kelley and Wendy Weeks. In a GOB course it is essential to show how the subject matter relates to the students future careers. For this reason, this text makes extensive use of real-life examples from the health sciences.O R G A N I Z A T I O N In most GOB texts, a group of chapters on general chemistry is followed by a series of organic chemistry chapters, which is followed by chapters devoted to biochemistry. Years of experience in teaching health science courses have shown the author that there is a drawback to this approach: in many cases there is a long time interval between when a topic is first presented and when it is used againenough of a break that students familiarity with the subject matter has often lapsed. In introducing GOB material, this text uses an integrated approach in which related general chemistry, organic chemistry, and biochemistry topics are presented in adjacent chapters. This approach helps students see the strong connections that exist between these three branches of chemistry and allows instructors to discuss these interrelationships while the material is still fresh in students minds. This integration involves the following sets of chapters: Chapter 3 (Compounds) and Chapter 4 (An Introduction to Organic Compounds). An introduction to bonding and compounds is followed by a look at the members of a few key organic families. Chapters 3 and 4 and Chapter 6 (Reactions). A study of inorganic and organic compounds is followed (after a look at gases, liquids, and solids in Chapter 5) by an introduction to their reactions. Chapter 7 (Solutions) and Chapter 8 (Lipids and Membranes). A discussion of solubility is followed by a look at the importance of solubility in biochemistry. Some reactions from Chapter 6 are reintroduced. Chapter 9 (Acids and Bases) and Chapter 10 (Carboxylic Acids, Phenols, and Amines). Principles of acid/base chemistry from an inorganic perspective are followed by a chapter on the organic and biochemical aspects of this topic. 11. xPREFACE Chapter 11 (Alcohols, Aldehydes, and Ketones) and Chapter 12 (Carbohydrates). An introduction to the chemistry of alcohols, aldehydes and ketones is followed by a presentation of related biochemical applications. The many reviewers of this text have made helpful suggestions. The major changes to the second edition are:K E Y F E AT U R E S OF THE SECOND EDITION Newly introduced material: Molar mass (Chapter 2), step-by-step instructions for drawing molecules and polyatomic ions (Chapter 4), ionic equations and net ionic equations (Chapter 7), and naming esters and amides (Chapter 10). Revised material: Changed group naming from IA, IIA format to 1A, 2A format (Chapter 2), added details on naming binary molecules and introduced a table of prefixes used for naming them (Chapter 2), modified treatment of the combined gas law and the ideal gas law (Chapter 5), and updated discussion of waxes, fatty acids, phospholipids, and eicosanoids (Chapter 8). New Appendicies: Important families of organic compounds (Appendix B) and Naming ions, ionic compounds, binary molecules, and organic compounds (Appendix C). Addition of new chapter sections: Reaction types (Section 6.2), Maintaining the pH of blood serum (Section 9.10), and Oxidation of phenols (Section 10.5).P R O B L E MS O LV I N G Learning to do anything requires practice, and in chemistry this practice involves solving problems. This text offers students ample opportunities to do so.102CHAPTER 4 | AN INTRODUCTION FIGURE |TOORGANIC COMPOUNDSH H H H4.3 H(Continued)CCCCH3CH2CHCH3C HH H FFHF2-FluorobutaneO H HC CC C CO H C COO HO CC H HCHHCHHC C C HOH COO CCH3OOH OCHO Sample Problems and Practice Problems.AspirinIn skeletal structures (Figure 4.3), covalent bonds are represented by lines, carbon atoms are not shown, and hydrogen atoms are drawn only when attached to atoms other than carbon. To read a skeletal structure, you assume that a carbon atom appears where lines (bonds) meet and at the end of each line. To simplify matters, nonbonding electrons (Section 3.5) are sometimes omitted from skeletal and other structural formulas. S AMPLE P ROBLEM4.4Drawing condensed and skeletal structures Draw condensed and skeletal structures of diethyl ether, a compound once used as a general anesthetic. H H H H H C C O C C H H HH HStrategyTo write the condensed formula, begin by thinking of the molecule as a chain of five atoms (CCOCC) and then add in the atoms attached to these five (CH3, etc.). The skeletal structure of diethyl ether is drawn by leaving out all of the carbon and hydrogen atoms, showing only the oxygen atom and the CC and CO bonds. SolutionOCH3CH2OCH2CH3 Condensed structureP RACTICE P ROBLEMSkeletal structure4.4Research suggests that drinking green tea may help boost the immune system. Ethylamine (below), produced when one of the compounds in green tea is broken down in the liver, may be responsible for this immune response. Draw condensed and skeletal structures for the molecule. H H H C C N H H H HEach major topic is followed by a sample problem and a related practice problem. The solution to each sample problem is accompanied by a strategy to use when solving the problem. The answers to practice problems are given at the end of the chapter. 12. PREFACEENDCHAPTER PROBLEMSOF1318 Define the term functional group and describe the featuresthat distinguish hydrocarbons, alcohols, carboxylic acids, and esters from one another. Functional groups are atoms, groups of atoms, or bonds that give a molecule a particular set of chemical properties. The functional groups represented in hydrocarbons are the carboncarbon double bond (in alkenes), the carboncarbon triple bond (in alkynes), and alternating double and single bonds in a ring (in aromatic compounds). Alcohols contain the hydroxyl ( OH) functional group attached to an alkane-like carbon atom. Carboxylic acids contain the hydroxyl group attached to a carbonyl (C O) group, and esters contain a C O C linkage, with one of the carbon atoms belonging to a carbonyl group. End of Chapter Problems. A large number of ENDOFCHAPTERproblems can be found and the end of each chapter, and Appendix D provides answers for the odd-numbered ones. Many of the end of chapter problems are paired and some, marked with an asterisk, are more challenging than others. Each chapter includes a set of Thinking It Through problems that ask students to go a bit further with one or more of the concepts presented in the chapter. Over two hundred and fifty new problems have been added to the second edition. Of these, more than half are multi-part questions and many are challenging.PROBLEMSAnswers to problems whose numbers are printed in color are given in Appendix D. More challenging questions are marked with an asterisk. Problems within colored rules are paired. ILW = Interactive Learning Ware solution is available at www.wiley.com/college/raymond. |4.1 S T R U C T U R A L F O R M U L A SANDFORMAL CHARGES 4.1 Draw the line-bond structure of each molecule.CH3 a.HCC C H a. H H SCCH3CH2CHCH2CH3HCfollowing molecules or ions?following molecules or ions? +H H a. D H C NH T4.2 Draw the line-bond structure of each molecule.CH3 S OCHl C 24.10 What is the formal charge on each atom in theCHa. CH3CCH2CH3l l c. C N C b. O C O CH2CH2NH2 b.4.9 What is the formal charge on each atom in theb. CH3CHCHCHCH2CH3 l 4 c. 3O C OH H O b. H C H 4.11 Draw each polyatomic ion and assign formal charges.4.3 What is the shape around the nitrogen and sulfur atomsin the ions shown in Figure 4.2? 4.4 What is the shape around each of the carbon atoms inEach atom, except for hydrogen, should have an octet of valence electrons. a. OH b. NH4 c. CN 4.12 Draw each polyatomic ion and assign formal charges.aspirin (Figure 4.3)? 4.5 Draw each molecule. a. C2H6 b. C2H4c. C2H24.6 Draw each molecule. a. C3H8 b. C3H6c. C3H44.7 Draw each diatomic element. a. F2 b. O2 c. N2* 4.8 Draw two different molecules that have the formula C2H6O.Each atom, except for hydrogen, should have an octet of valence electrons. a. PO43 b. HPO42 c. H2PO4 4.13 Draw each of the following and assign formal charges.Each atom should have an octet of valence electrons. a. SO3 b. SO32 4.14 Draw each molecule and assign formal charges. Eachatom should have an octet of valence electrons. a. CO b. SO2SOLUTIONSH E A LT H L i n k | CT and MRI Imaging2.71 A nurse is assisting a patient who has just undergonecancer treatment that involved exposure to gamma radiation from cobalt-60. Should the nurse be concerned that he will be exposed to gamma radiation given off by the patient? 2.72 In late 2006, a former Russian spy was poisoned when a small amount of polonium-210 was put in his food. He died a few weeks later. a. Polonium-210 emits alpha particles. Write a balanced nuclear equation for this process. b. This radioisotope has a half-life of 138 days. Of a 2 mg sample, how much would remain after 5 half-lives? c. If alpha particles can be blocked by a sheet of paper (Figure 2.13), why is polonium-210 so poisonous?2.69 a. One of the two techniques described in this HealthLink is considered invasive. What do you suppose is meant by this term? b. To which technique does this term apply? c. In some cases, the images produced by CT and MRIare quite similar. If given a choice, which would you rather have run?ILWINTERACTIVELEARNING2.73 How many atoms are contained in: a. 1.0 mol of calcium? b. 7.88 106 mol of calcium? c. 7.88 g of calcium? d. 5.2 mg of calcium?SOLUTIONSa. 20Mg ? + 0+ 12 1 b. 152Ho 148Tb + ? 67 65 0 c. 31Si ? + 1 14TOPRACTICE2.2 a. atomic number = 8, mass number = 18; b. atomic number = 17, mass number = 37 31 15Pand 28P 152.4 10.8 amu 2.5 S 2.6 a. 3.7 1023 atoms; b. 4.8 1012 mol 2.7 a. 2.53 g; b. 0.860 g 2.8209 81Tl2.9192 77Ir2.10 132 days192 76Os+ 0+ 1PROBLEMS2.74 Identify the missing product in each nuclear equation. ILW2.1 a. protons and neutrons; b. protons and electrons; c. protons and neutrons2.359term) of using radiation to treat cancer?for arterial plaque. Why is the presence of plaque in arteries a concern? b. What role does the particle similar to HDL play in the technique that is described?ILWPRACTICE PROBLEMS2.70 What are the pros and cons (both long-term and short-2.68 a. Cholesterol Marker describes using MRI to look Interactive Learning Ware Problems. The texts website (http://www.wiley.com/college/raymond) features Interactive Learning Ware (ILW), a step-by-step problem solving tutorial program that guides students through selected problems from the book. The ILW problems are representative of those that students frequently find most difficult and they reinforce students critical thinking and problem solving skills. An ILW icon identifies each ILW problem in the end-of-chapter question section.TOTHINKING IT THROUGHPROBLEMSxi 13. xiiPREFACEH E A LT H L I N K S A N D B I O C H E M I S T R Y CHAPTER 4 | AN INTRODUCTION118TOL I N K STo emphasize the importance of chemistry to the health sciences and to living things, each chapter includes Health Links and Biochemistry Links. In the second edition, eight new Health Links have been added: Body Mass Index (Chapter 1), Dental Fillings (Chapter 3), Making Weight (Chapter 5), Saliva (Chapter 7), Omega-3 fatty acids (Chapter 8), Biofilms (Chapter 10), Drugs in the environment (Chapter 11), and RNA Interference (Chapter 14). In addition, six Health Links from the first edition have been updated: Body Temperature (Chapter 1), Dietary Reference Intakes (formerly Recommended Daily Allowances) (Chapter 2), CT and MRI (formerly CT and PET) (Chapter 2), Sunscreens (Chapter 4), Trans fats (Chapter 8), and Proteins in Medicine (formerly Enzymes in Medicine) (Chapter 13).ORGANIC COMPOUNDSPrion DiseasesThe conformation, or shape, that a molecule takes can greatly influence its biological action. This point is well illus-trated by a particular class of proteins, called prions, that have been identified as the cause of mad cow disease (in cattle), scrapie (in sheep), chronic wasting disease (in deer and elk), and new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, or vCJD (in humans). Proteins are very large molecules formed from amino acid building blocks. Each protein has a favored conformation some with the protein chain twisted into spirals and bends and some with the chain zigzagged back and forth in a compact form. Prions, short for proteinaceous infection particles, are a type of protein found in the membranes of nerve cells. The prion diseases C mentioned above are caused 128 the H A P T E R 4 | A N I N T R O D U C T I O N T O O R G A N I C C O M P O U N D S when normal prion conformation (PrPc) is twisted into an abnormal shape (PrPsc) (Figure 4.14). When PrPsc comes into contact with PrPc, the PrPc proteins change conformation and become PrPsc. As PrPsc accumulates in affecNormal Prion Protein (PrPc) Disease-Causing Prion (PrPsc) ted animals or humans, sponge-like holes form in the brain, causing dizziness, seizuOdor and Flavor res, and death. FIGURE | 4.14 Prion diseases can be transferred from one he senses of smell and taste depend on specific receptors located in the nose and in the mouth, respectively. We detect an odor or species to another. Cattle are known to get Prions flavor when a compound attaches to these receptors and triggers nerve responses. How the compound interacts with a given recepmad cow disease when fed parts of scrapie(a) The prion protein (PrPc) in its normal conformation. (b) The prion in its tor determines the particular odor or flavor that it has. In 2004, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to two infected sheep, and vCJD in humans has been incorrectly folded (PrPsc) form. researchers who study the biochemistry of the sense of smell. linked to eating mad cowinfected beef. Source: Fred E. Cohen, M.D., D. Phil and Cedric Govaerts, Ph.D., Department of The odor and flavor of fruits is often due to a mixture of esters. The structure of a particular ester determines how it fits a given Cellular & Molecular Pharmacology, University of California San Francisco (UCSF). receptor, so esters containing a different number of carbon atoms are associated with different odors and flavors. For example, the pineapple and apricot esters differ by three CH2 groups (Figure 4.24). Constitutional isomers can also have different odors and flavors, as is the case for the apple-like and banana esters, each of which has the molecular formula C7H14O2.T4.7CYCLOALKANESO In some alkanes, called cycloalkanes, carbon atoms are joined into rings (Figure 4.15). Like CH3CH2CH2C OCH2CH3 their noncyclic counterparts, cycloalkanes are nonpolar molecules that are attracted to one Pineapple another by London forces. To simplify matters, cycloalkanes are usually drawn using skeletal structures, although side views can be useful when considering the orientation of O substituents attached to a ring. When naming cycloalkanes, the ring is usually designated as the parent, which CH3CH2CH2C OCH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 is named by combining cyclo with the appropriate numbering prefix (Table 4.5) and Apricot ane. When only one alkyl group is attached to a cycloalkane parent, the carbon atom O that holds that group is carbon 1 (Figure 4.16a), but the number is not included in the name. When a ring holds more than one alkyl group, the ring is numbered from the position and in the direction that gives the lowest numbers. Figure 4.16b shows how this CH3CH2CH2CH2C OCH2CH3 Apple-likeworks for the three dimethylcyclopentane constitutional isomers.The limited rotation of the carboncarbon single bonds in cycloalkanes has an interesting side effect in that it allows for the existence of stereoisomers, molecules that have the same molecular formula have the same atomic connections have different three-dimensional shapes are interchanged only by breaking bondsOrangeOCH3CH2CH2CCH3COOCH2CH2CHCH3PeachCH3OBananaCH2C OCH2CH3O CH3CH2CHoneyOCH2CHCH3 CH3ORumC OCH3O HOCH2RoseCH3C OCH2OGeometric IsomersOCH3C OCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3CH2N OCH2CHCH3 CH3 Raspberry FIGURE |O N - L I N E 124CHAPTER 4 | AN INTRODUCTIONP RACTICE P ROBLEMTOORGANIC COMPOUNDSDesignate each of the carboncarbon double bonds in bombykol, a moth pheromone, as cis or trans. HH CCH C CHCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2OH BombykolSunscreensICH3On addition to the visible light that is present in sunlight, a higher energy form of electromagnetic radiation called ultraviolet (UV) is also found. It is this UV radiation that makes spending too much time in the sun hazardous to your health. UV radiation is divided into three categories (arranged in order of increasing energy) UV-A, UV-B, and UV-C. Although all forms of UV radiation can be harmful, UV-C is the most damaging. We do not usually worry about exposure to UV-C from sunlight, however, because most is screened out by atmospheric ozone. The UV-A and UV-B in sunlight are not blocked by the atmosphere and it is exposure to UV-B that causes sunburns. This form of radiation has also been identified as one of the causes of skin cancer. While UV-A was once thought to be relatively harmless, there is now strong evidence that links wrinkles, other skin damage, and skin cancer to UV-A exposure. To some extent, your skin can protect itself from UV radiation. When sunlight hits the skin, a particular type of cells produce melanin, a black pigment that absorbs UV radiation. A suntan is the result of melanin production. Sunscreens can also provide some degree of protection from the sun. These contain aromatic compounds that block UV-A and UV-B light (Figure 4.22). Not all aromatic compounds are suitable for use as sunscreensmany do not absorb UV, and many are toxic. The SPF (sun protection factor) H O listed on the label of a sunscreen indicates how effective it is at C C Octyl blocking UV radiation. An SPF of C OCH2CHCH2CH2CH2CH3 methoxycinnamate 25 means that it takes 25 times H CH2CH3 longer to get sunburned with the sunscreen applied than without.OOCCH2CAvobenzoneCH2SO3H H3CHOCCOCH3 EcamsuleH3CHCH3 CH2SO3H FIGURE |4.22UV-B and UV-A absorbing compounds in sunscreensC(CH3)3CH3OGrape EstersMany esters have pleasing odors and flavors.V I D E O S4.11CH3CH2CH24.24Octyl methoxycinnamate is the UV-B blocker most commonly used in sunscreens. Avobenzone and Ecamsule are UV-A blockers. Ecamsule, which was recently approved for use in the United States, has been a sunscreen ingredient in Canada and Europe since 1993.For one topic in each chapter, a special icon is used to indicate that an on-line ScienCentral article and video clip are available for viewing. These articles and video clips are of interest because they show how the chemistry being presented pertains to current events. Each set of end of chapter problems includes some related to the video content. The video titles include: Pork on the Run (Chapter 1), Cholesterol Marker (Chapter 2), Glowing Fish (Chapter 3), Tanning & Health (Chapter 4), Breath Of Life (Chapter 5), Hydrogen Cars (Chapter 6), Kidney Bones (Chapter 7), Teen Steroids (Chapter 8), Cystic Fibrosis Mucus (Chapter 9), Meth and the Brain (Chapter 10), Toxin Eaters (Chapter 11), Sweet Spot (Chapter 12), Young Hearts (Chapter 13), Cancer Screening (Chapter 14), Exercise Gene (Chapter 15). 14. PREFACEO T H E RT E X TxiiiF E A T U R E S Chapter Opening Vignettes Each chapter begins with a story that focuses on the connection between chemistry and high-interest, everyday topics that students can relate to.Macular degeneration is a disease of the eye with symptoms that include loss of color vision and distortion, blurring, or complete loss of central vision. Peripheral vision is usually unaffected. People with this disease usually have4ANI N T R O D U C T I O N T O O R G A N I C C O M P O U N D SObjectives Each chapter begins with a list of goals for the student to achieve. These objectives identify key concepts within each chapter. A summary of how these objectives were met appears at the end of each chapter.trouble when it comes to reading or recognizing faces. There are a number of factorsthatincreasetheriskofgettingmaculardegeneration,includingadvanced age, a history of smoking, and diabetes. Stargardts disease, an inherited form of macular degeneration that usuallyNow that we have seen the basics of how atoms (Chapter 2) and compounds (Chapter 3) are put together, it is time to set the stage for the organic and biochem-appears before age 30, results from damage to the retina caused by a mal-istry topics that we will encounter as we move through the text. This chapter willfunction in the recycling of an organic molecule essential to the visual process.begin with an introduction to a range of diverse topics, all of which relate to how bonding patterns, the distribution of electrons, and the shape of a molecule influence the way that it interacts with others. In later sections of the chapter we will apply our knowledge of these interactions to understand the properties of a number of different families of organic compounds (contain carbon atoms). The shape that a molecule has and its interactions with others are important in determining its biological effects. Diseases ranging from Stargardts disease (mentioned on the facing page) to mad cow disease (Health Link: Prion Diseases) are directly related to these properties.Photo source:92Science VU/NIH/Visual Unlimited.objectives After completing this chapter, you should be able to: 1 Draw molecules and polyatomic ions using electron dot and line-bond structures.Assign formal charges. 2 Describe how condensed structural formulas and skeletal structures differ fromelectron dot and line-bond structures. 3 Define electronegativity and explain its relationship to polar covalent bonds. Give asimple rule that can be used to predict whether or not a covalent bond is polar. 4 List the five basic shapes about an atom in a molecule and describe the rules usedto predict shape. Explain how shape plays a role in determining overall polarity. 5 Describe the noncovalent interactions that attract one compound to another. 6 Describe the four families of hydrocarbons. 7 Explain the difference between constitutional isomers, conformations, and thestereoisomers known as geometric isomers. Give examples of two different families of hydrocarbons that can exist as geometric isomers. 8 Define the term functional group and describe the features that distinguishhydrocarbons, alcohols, carboxylic acids, and esters from one another. 93Student Web Site Within each chapter you will find an icon a indicating that there is a ScienCentral news video at the website with a news story related to chapter content. The web site also features practice quizzes and Interactive Learningware problems. Student Solutions Manual and Study Guide Written by Byron Howell, Tyler Junior College and Adeliza Flores, of Las Positas College, this supplement contains worked out solutions to the odd-numbered text problems; chapter summaries; sample problems, and practice problems. Laboratory Manual Written by David Macaulay, Joseph Bauer, and Molly Bloomfield. This lab manual is written for the one or two-term chemistry lab course for students in the allied health sciences and related fields. These experiments are presented in an integrated table of contents and contain chapter references from General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry: An Integrated Approach, Second Edition. Chemistry Case Studies For Allied Health Students Written by Colleen Kelley and Wendy Weeks. This manual was designed to bring relevance and critical thinking skills to the allied health chemistry course. Students are encouraged to become diagnosticians and apply their newly-acquired chemistry knowledge to solving real life health and environmental cases. The case manual also encourages a holistic approach by asking students to synthesize information across topics.SUPPORT PACKAGE FOR STUDENTS 15. xivPREFACESUPPORT PA C K A G E F O R INSTRUCTORSPowerPoint Lecture Slides Created by Colleen Kelley, Pima Community College, these slides contain lecture outlines and key topics from each chapter of the text, along with supporting artwork and figures from the text. The slides also contain assessment questions and questions for in-class discussion. WileyPlus Homework Management System WileyPlus is a powerful on-line tool that provides a completely integrated suite of teaching and learning resources in one easyto-use web site. WileyPlus integrates Wileys world-renowned content with media, including a multimedia version of the text, PowerPoint slides, on-line assessment, and more. Digital Image Archive The text web site includes downloadable files of text images in JPEG format. Test Bank Written by John Singer, Jackson Community College, the test bank includes multiple choice, true/false, and short answer questions. Computerized Test Bank The IBM and Macintosh compatible version of the entire Test Bank has full editing features to help the instructor customize tests. Instructors Manual Written by Colleen Kelley, Pima Community College, this supplement provides Chapter Summaries and lecture outlines. Instructors Solutions Manual Written by Adeliza Flores, of Las Positas College, this supplement contains worked-out solutions to all of the end-of-chapter problems. 16. A C K N O W L E D G M E N T SI wish to thank my wife Susan and my son William for their encouragement, support, and patience. It is with great appreciation that I acknowledge the important contributions made by Jennifer Yee, Catherine Donovan, Suzanne Ingrao, Janet Foxman, Lisa Gee, Hope Miller, Thomas Kulesa, Gabriel Dillon, Amanda Wygal, and all of the others at Wiley who were involved in helping to prepare this second edition. Finally, I wish to acknowledge the important contributions made by the following reviewers of this text: Jeannie Collins University of Southern IndianaShaun Schmidt Washburn UniversityLynette Rushton South Puget Sound Community CollegeMyriam Cotton Pacific Lutheran UniversityJohn Singer Jackson Community CollegeSean Schmidt Washburn UniversityStephen Dunham Moravian CollegeCarnetta Skipworth Bowling Green Community CollegeSara Selfe Edmonds Community CollegeJoseph Fassler Santa Rosa Junior CollegeSteven Stefanides Wenatchee Valley CollegeAnna Sequeira Forsyth Tech Community CollegeLouis Giacinti Milwaukee Area Technical CollegeMaria Vogt Bloomfield CollegeSonja Siewert West Shore Community CollegeChristina Goode California State University, FullertonWilliam Wagener West Liberty State CollegeCarnetta Skipworth Western Kentucky UniversitySaifunnissa B. Hassam Santa Rosa Junior CollegeWendy Weeks Pima Community CollegeRobert St. Amand Union County CollegeColleen Kelley Pima Community CollegeLynda Peebles Texas Womans UniversityRichard Tarkka University of Central ArkansasIra Krull Northeastern UniversityJennifer Powers Kennesaw State UniversityThottumkara Vinod Western Illinois UniversityPaul Moggach Georgian CollegeParris Powers Volunteer State Community CollegeTracy Whitehead Henderson State UniversityMichael Myers California State University, Long BeachRita Rhodes University of TulsaTodd Wimpfheimer Salem State CollegeLynette Rushton South Puget Sound Community CollegeLenore Rodicio Miami-Dade Collegexv 17. This page intentionally left blank 18. A B O U T T H E A U T H O RKen Raymond received a B.S. in Chemistry from Central WashingtonUniversity in 1975 and a Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from the University of Washington in 1981. Since joining the faculty of Eastern Washington University in 1982, his primary teaching responsibilities have been in the general, organic, and biochemistry series for the health sciences and in the upper-division organic chemistry lecture and laboratory series. In 1990 he received EWUs annual award for excellence in teaching. He has been chair of the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry since 2000. When not grading papers, he plays mandolin and button accordion in a local folk band.xvii 19. B R I E F C O N T E N T SThe asterisks are color coded to indicate which chapters are integrated.CHAPTER 1SCIENCECHAPTER 2AT O M SCHAPTER 3C O M P O U N D S 60CHAPTER 4AN INTRODUCTION C O M P O U N D S 92CHAPTER 5GASES, LIQUIDS,* *CHAPTER 6R E A C T I O N S 176CHAPTER 7SOLUTIONS, COLLOIDS, S U S P E N S I O N S 212* *CHAPTER 8LIPIDSCHAPTER 9ACIDS, BASES, E Q U I L I B R I U M 286*CHAPTER 10CARBOXYLIC ACIDS, PHENOLS, A M I N E S 320*CHAPTER 11ALCOHOLS, ETHERS, ALDEHYDES, A N D K E T O N E S 360*CHAPTER 12C A R B O H Y D R AT E S 396CHAPTER 13PEPTIDES, PROTEINS, E N Z Y M E S 432CHAPTER 14N U C L E I C A C I D S 468CHAPTER 15M E TA B O L I S M 504* *xviiiANDANDANDMEASUREMENTS 1E L E M E N T S 26TOANDORGANICS O L I D S 138ANDM E M B R A N E S 252 ANDANDAND 20. C O N T E N T SCHAPTER1.11SCIENCEThe Scientific MethodANDMEASUREMENTS12H EALTH Link Science and Medicine41.2Matter and Energy1.3Units of Measurement1.4Scientific Notation and Metric Prefixes91.5Measurements and Significant Figures114 6H EALTH Link Body Mass Index 1.613Conversion Factors and the Factor Label MethodH EALTH Link Body Temperature CHAPTER22.1Atoms2.2ElementsATOMS16ELEMENTSAND292.3Atomic Number and Mass Number2.4Periodic Table2.5The Mole2.6Radioactive Isotopes2.7Radioisotopes in Medicine31323437 40 43H EALTH Link CT and MRI Imaging Fission and FusionCHAPTER2628H EALTH Link Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs)2.81534950COMPOUNDS3.1Ions3.2The Arrangement of Electrons65B IOCHEMISTRY Link Bioluminescence60703.362The Octet Rule71B IOCHEMISTRY Link Ionophores and Biological Ion Transport 3.4Ionic Compounds3.5Covalent Bonds3.6Molecules74 7778H EALTH Link Dental Fillings 3.77380Formula Weight, Molecular Weight, and Molar MassB IOCHEMISTRY Link Ethylene, a Plant Hormone8481 xix 21. xxCONTENTS4CHAPTERAN INTRODUCTION COMPOUNDS 924.1Structural Formulas and Formal Charges4.2Polar Covalent Bonds, Shape, and Polarity4.3Noncovalent Interactions4.4Alkanes4.5Constitutional Isomers4.6Conformations94 103108110 115117H EALTH Link Prion Diseases1184.7Cycloalkanes4.8Alkenes, Alkynes, and Aromatic Compounds118H EALTH Link Sunscreens 4.9B IOCHEMISTRY Link Odor and Flavor 5125128GASES, LIQUIDS,5.1States of Matter and Energy5.2Gases and Pressure The Gas Laws5.4Partial Pressure5.5LiquidsANDSOLIDS140146H EALTH Link Blood Pressure 5.3120124Alcohols, Carboxylic Acids, and EstersCHAPTERORGANICTO150150 158161H EALTH Link Making Weight 164 H EALTH Link Breathing 166 5.6SolidsCHAPTER1676REACTIONS6.1Chemical Equations6.2Reaction Types6.3Oxidation and Reduction176178182 183H EALTH Link Antiseptics and Oxidation1876.4Reactions Involving Water6.5Mole and Mass Relationships in Reactions6.6Calculating the Yield of a Reaction6.7Free Energy and Reaction RateH EALTH Link Carbonic Anhydrase CHAPTER7189198201SOLUTIONS, COLLOIDS, SUSPENSIONS 2127.1Solutions7.2Reactions of Ions in Aqueous SolutionsHard Water191195214 2207.3Solubility of Gases in Water7.4Organic Compounds221222H EALTH Link Hyperbaric Medicine222216AND138 22. CONTENTS7.5Biochemical Compounds224H EALTH Link Prodrugs227 2287.6Concentration7.7Dilution7.8Colloids and Suspensions236H EALTH Link Saliva 7.9237239Diffusion and Osmosis240H EALTH Link Diffusion and the Kidneys CHAPTER8.18LIPIDSFatty Acids242MEMBRANESAND252254H EALTH Link Omega-3 fatty acids 8.2Waxes8.3Triglycerides257258 259H EALTH Link Trans Fats 265 H EALTH Link Olestra 266 8.4Phospholipids and Glycolipids8.5Steroids8.6Eicosanoids270 272H EALTH Link Anabolic Steroids 8.7MembranesCHAPTER2662752759ACIDS, BASES, AND EQUILIBRIUM9.1Acids and Bases9.2BrnstedLowry Acids and Bases9.3Equilibrium9.4Le Chteliers Principle286288 289290 293B IOCHEMISTRY Link Diving Mammals, Oxygen, and Myoglobin 9.5Ionization of Water9.6The pH Scale295296297Math SupportLogs and Antilogs 300 B IOCHEMISTRY Link Plants as pH Indicators3019.7Acid and Base Strength9.8Neutralizing Acids and Bases9.9Effect of pH On Acid and Conjugate Base Concentrations9.10 Buffers301 3039.11 Maintaining the pH of Blood Serum CHAPTER10308CARBOXYLIC ACIDS, PHENOLS, AND AMINES 32010.1 Carboxylic Acids 10.2 Phenols305306323324H EALTH Link A Chili Pepper Painkiller32510.3 Carboxylic Acids and Phenols As Weak Organic Acids 10.4 Other Reactions of Carboxylic Acids329326xxi 23. xxiiCONTENTS10.5 Oxidation of Phenols 10.6 Amines33233310.7 Amines As Weak Organic Bases 10.8 Amides336337H EALTH Link Biofilms 339 B IOCHEMISTRY Link A Cure for Fleas 10.9 Stereoisomers340341H EALTH Link Adrenaline and Related Compounds CHAPTER11346ALCOHOLS, ETHERS, ALDEHYDES, AND KETONES 36011.1 Alcohols, Ethers, and Related Compounds 11.2 Preparation36336711.3 Reactions37011.4 Aldehydes and Ketones 11.5 Oxidation of Aldehydes373 374H EALTH Link Aldehyde Dehydrogenase37611.6 Reduction of Aldehydes and KetonesH EALTH Link Protective Enzymes37637811.7 Reactions of Alcohols with Aldehydes and KetonesH EALTH Link Drugs in the Environment CHAPTER12382C A R B O H Y D R AT E S12.1 Monosaccharides40412.3 Monosaccharides in Their Cyclic Form 12.4 Oligosaccharides417418H EALTH Link Blood Type 13406410H EALTH Link Relative Sweetness 415 H EALTH Link Indigestible OligosaccharidesCHAPTER39639812.2 Reactions of Monosaccharides12.5 Polysaccharides422PEPTIDES, PROTEINS, ENZYMES 43213.1 Amino Acids379AND43413.2 The Peptide Bond43713.3 Peptides, Proteins, and pH 13.4 Protein Structure440441B IOCHEMISTRY Link Collagen and a-Keratin, Two Fibrous Proteins B IOCHEMISTRY Link Hemoglobin, a Globular Protein 448 13.5 Denaturation 13.6 Enzymes44944913.7 Control of Enzyme-Catalyzed ReactionsH EALTH Link Proteins in Medicine459453447 24. CONTENTS14CHAPTERNUCLEIC ACIDS46814.1Nucleic Acid Building Blocks14.2Nucleoside di-and Triphosphates, Cyclic Nucleotides14.3Polynucleotides47614.4DNA Structure47714.5Denaturation14.6Nucleic Acids and Information Flow14.7DNA Replication14.8RNA14.9Translation470 475480 481482484 487H EALTH Link Viruses489 14.10 Control of Gene Expression489H EALTH Link RNA Interference 14.11 Mutation491491H EALTH Link Breast Cancer Genes 14.12 Recombinant DNA492492B IOCHEMISTRY Link DNA Fingerprinting CHAPTER15M E TA B O L I S M494 50415.1Metabolic Pathways, Energy, and Coupled Reactions15.2Overview of Metabolism506507B IOCHEMISTRY Link The Origin of Mitochondria51215.3Digestion51215.4Glycolysis51415.5Gluconeogenesis15.6Glycogen Metabolism15.7Citric Acid Cycle15.8Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative PhosphorylationH EALTH Link Brown Fat 15.9Lipid Metabolism519 522 524527 52815.10 Amino Acid MetabolismAppendix A521Scientific Calculators532A-1Appendix BImportant Families of Organic CompoundsAppendix CNaming Ions, Ionic Compounds, Binary Molecules, and Organic Compound A-8Appendix DAnswers to Odd-Numbered ProblemsAppendix EGlossaryIndexI-1A-51A-5A-23xxiii 25. This page intentionally left blank 26. GENERAL, ORGANIC, AND BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRYAn Integrated Approach SECONDEDITION 27. After their first chemistry lecturea group of students walksacross campus together. One student says, I want to be a nurse. I can see how we might need to study chemistry, but why does the textbook have to start with a chapter on math? What does math have to do with the health sciences? The rest of the group voices their agreement. A nursing student walking past the group in the other direction overhears this comment and smiles. They have no idea how much math they will use, she thinks to herself.Photo source:Rick Madonik/Toronto Star/Zuma Press. 28. 1SC I E N C E A N D M E A S U R E M E N T SIn this first chapter of the text we will take a look at science, chemistry, and mathematics, and will see the important role that each plays in the health sciences.objectives After completing this chapter, you should be able to: 1 Explain the terms scientific method, law, theory, hypothesis, and experiment. 2 Define the terms matter and energy. Describe the three states of matter and the twoforms of energy. 3 Describe and give examples of physical properties and physical change. 4 Convert from one unit of measurement into another. 5 Express values using scientific notation and metric prefixes. 6 Explain the difference between the terms accurate and precise. 7 Use the correct number of significant figures to report the results of calculationsinvolving measured quantities.1 29. CHAPTER 1 | SCIENCE AND MEASUREMENTS21.1 THESCIENTIFICExperiments test hypotheses.(a)(b) FIGURE |1.1Medical imaging(a) The first x ray of the human body was taken in 1895 by Wilhelm Roentgen, the discoverer of x rays. In this x ray, you can see the bones of his wifes hand and her wedding ring. (b) With the improvements that have been made to x-ray equipment, clinicians can now obtain sharper and more detailed images, as in this scan of a patients vertebrae. (a) SPL/Photoresearchers; (b) Gondelon/Photo Researchers, Inc.Source:METHODScience is an approach that is used to try to make sense out of how the universe operates, ranging in scale from the very large (understanding how stars form) to the very small (understanding the behavior of the tiny particles from which everything is made). The knowledge gained from scientific studies has impacted our lives in many positive ways, including our ever-improving ability to treat diseases. For example, the medical scanners (including CT and MRI) and many of the therapeutic drugs (including antibiotics and anti-cancer drugs) used today are available as a result of the careful work of scientists (Figure 1.1). In doing science, the scientific method is the process used to gather and interpret information. Observation is part of this process. One well-known story regarding the importance of observation involves the English scientist Isaac Newton (16421727). Reportedly, seeing an apple fall out of a tree led him to formulate the law of gravity, which states that there is an attractive force between any two objects (in this case, between the earth and an apple). This and other scientific laws are statements that describe things that are consistently and reproducibly observed. While a law does not explain why things happen, it can be used to predict what might happen in the future. For example, the law of gravity does not explain why things fall, but it does allow you to predict what will happen if you jump off of a ladder. Explaining observations is a key component of the scientific method. The process begins with the construction of a hypothesis, a tentative explanation (educated guess) that is based on presently known facts. Clinicians, for example, make educated guesses when treating patients. If a patient complains of stomach pains, the clinician will ask a few questions and make a few observations before coming up with a hypothesis (diagnosis) as to the nature of the problem. This hypothesis is based on knowledge of symptoms and diseases. The most important part of the scientific method is what happens once a hypothesis has been constructedit must be tested by doing careful experiments. To test a hypothesis, a clinician might call for a series of medical tests (experiments) to be run. If the test results support the diagnosis, treatment can begin. If they invalidate the diagnosis, the clinician must revise the hypothesis and look for another cause of the illness. Experiments must be designed so that the observations made are directly related to the question at hand. For example, if a patient has stomach pains, taking an x ray of his or her big toe will probably not help find the cause of the illness. Once a hypothesis has survived repeated testing, it may become a theoryan experimentally tested explanation of an observed behavior. For a theory to survive, it must be consistent with existing experimental evidence, must accurately predict the results of future experiments, and must explain future observations. Figure 1.2 shows the interconnections of the various parts of the scientific method making an observation, forming a hypothesis, performing experiments, and creating a theory. Scientists do not necessarily follow these steps in order, nor do they always use all of the steps. It may be that an existing law suggests a new experiment or that a set of published experiments suggests a radically new hypothesis. Creativity is an important part of science; sometimes new theories arise when someone discovers an entirely new way of interpreting experimental results that hundreds of others had looked at before, but could not explain. In addition to creativity, a scientist must have sufficient knowledge of the field to be able to interpret experimental results and to evaluate hypotheses and experiments. The fact that theories are based on experimental observations means that they sometimes change. In Section 2.1 two theories of the atom, the fundamental particle from which matter is created, are discussed. One of these theories dates back to the early 1800s, when technology was not very advanced and experiments provided much less information than is obtainable today (Figure 1.3). While the earliest theory of the atom accounted for the observations made up until the early 1800s, once better experimental results were obtained, errors were revealed. Whether scientists study atoms or inherited diseases, theories must be continually reevaluated and, if necessary, revised as new experiments provide additional information. This change is an expected part of science. 30. 1.1 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD FIGURE |Observations1.2The scientific methodIn the scientific method, experiments provide the information used to discard, revise, or accept hypotheses.Form new hypothesisFrom Biochemistry: A Foundation 1st edition by Ritter. 1996. Reprinted with permission of Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning: www.thomsonrights.com. Fax 800 730 2215.Source:ExperimentsFailsDiscard hypothesisDoes fairly well PassesRevise hypothesisAccept hypothesis Repeated testingTheory(a) FIGURE |(b)1.3Modifying theoriesTheories are sometimes revised when improved scientific equipment allows better experimental results to be obtained. Source: (a) Hulton-Deutsch Collection/Corbis; (b) James Holmes/ Thomson Laboratories/Photo Researchers Inc.3 31. 4CHAPTER 1 | SCIENCE AND MEASUREMENTSScience and MedicineThe level of glucose (blood sugar) in the body is controlled by a hormone called insulin. Diabetes is the disease that occurs when insulin is not produced in sufficient amounts or when the body is not sensitive to its effects. As science has progressed over the years, so has our understanding of this disease and our ability to treat it. In the mid 1800s, before it was known that high levels of glucose cause the symptoms of diabetes, some physicians recommended that their diabetic patients eat lots of sugar. Others recommended starvation. Scientific studies in the late 1800s and early 1900s led to an understanding of the role that the pancreas plays in glucose metabolism and to the discovery of insulin, which is produced by the pancreas. Insulin was first used in 1922 to treat diabetes in humans. Because the insulin used then was not very pure, patients were given injectionsoften painfulof up to 2 teaspoons (10 milliliters) at a time. As the science of isolating and purifying insulin improved, dosages dropped to less than one-tenth of that size. Other advances in the treatment of diabetes included the use of oral drugs to control insulin levels (introduced in 1955), the use of genetically engineered human insulin (introduced in (a) 1982) in place of that isolated from cattle and pigs, FIGURE | 1.4 (b) and the development of Glucose testing new methods to test blood It is important for diabetics to monitor their blood glucose levels. (a) When these test strips are glucose levels (Figure 1.4).dipped in a urine sample, the array of colors produced indicates the amount of glucose present. (b) Blood glucose monitors that require just a small drop of blood are alternatives to test strips. Source:1.2(a) Saturn Stills/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) Yoav Levy/Phototake.MATTERANDENERGYNow that we have been introduced to some of the basic aspects of science, let us see how chemistry fits into the picture. Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Matter is defined as anything that has mass and occupies space. In everyday terms, this definition includes your body, the air that you breathe, this book, and all of the other material around you. We can describe matter in terms of physical properties, those characteristics that can be determined without changing the chemical composition of matter (what it is made of). For example, a cube of sugar is white, tastes sweet, and is odorless. The act of measuring these and other physical properties, including melting point (melting temperature), does not change the sugar into anything elseit is still sugar. Matter is typically found in one of three different physical states or phasesas a solid, a liquid, or a gas. From our direct experience we know that Solids have fixed shapes and volumes. Liquids have variable shapes and fixed volumes. Gases have variable shapes and volumes. 32. 1.2 MATTER AND ENERGY FIGURE |51.5Gas, liquid, and solidA paint can (a solid), paint (a liquid), and paint fumes (a gas) illustrate the three physical states of matter.Think about what happens if an opened can of paint gets spilled (Figure 1.5). Whether it is standing upright or lying on its side, the can (a solid) has the same shape and occupies the same volume of space. The paint (a liquid) keeps its original 1 gallon volume but changes its shape as it spreads out across the floor. The paint fumes (a gas) quickly change their shape and volume as they spread through the air in the room. Converting matter between each of these states is an example of physical change, change in which the chemical composition of matter is not altered (Figure 1.6). Crushing a cube of sugar, boiling water to make steam, and melting an iron rod are examples of physical change. Any time that matter is changed in any way, work has been done. This includes the physical changes just mentioned, as well as walking, running, or turning the pages of this book. All of these activities involve energy, which is defined as the ability to do work and to transfer heat. Energy can be found in two forms, as potential energy (stored energy) or as kinetic energy (the energy of motion). The water sitting behind a dam has potential energy. When the floodgates are opened and the water begins to pour through, potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. All matter contains energy, so changes in matter (work) and changes in energy (potential or kinetic) are connected to one another. For example, if you drive a car, some of the potential energy of gasoline is converted into the kinetic energy used to move the pistons in the engine (doing work) and some is converted into heat, a form of kinetic energy related to the motion of the particles from which things are made.Matter can exist in the solid, liquid, and gas states.Potential energy is stored energy. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. FIGURE |1.6Physical changeWhen snow melts in the spring, rivers fill with water. The conversion of snow into water is a physical change. Source:Peter Van Rijn/Superstock. 33. 6CHAPTER 1 | SCIENCE AND MEASUREMENTSS AMPLE P ROBLEM1.1Potential versus kinetic energy Which are mainly examples of potential energy and which are mainly examples of kinetic energy? a. A mountain climber sits at the top of a peak. b. A mountain climber rappels down a cliff. c. A hamburger sits on a plate. d. A nurse inflates a blood pressure cuff. StrategyRecall that potential energy is stored energy and that kinetic energy is the energy of motion. Solution a. potential energy b. kinetic energyP RACTICE P ROBLEMc. potential energy d. kinetic energy1.1a. Describe changes in the kinetic energy and the potential energy of a barbell when aweightlifter picks it up. b. Describe changes in the kinetic energy and the potential energy of a weightlifter whena barbell is picked up.1.3UNITSOFMEASUREMENTMaking measurements is part of our everyday lives. Every time that you look at your watch to see how many minutes of class remain, tell a friend about your 5 mile run this morning, or save money by buying products with the lowest unit price, you are using measurements. Measurements are also a key part of the job of health professionals. A nurse might measure your pulse, blood pressure, and temperature, a dental hygienist might measure the depth of your gum pockets, or an occupational therapist might measure your hand strength to gauge the degree of recovery from an injury (Figure 1.7). Measurements consist of two parts: a number and a unit. Saying that you swam for 3 is not very informativewas it 3 minutes, 3 hours, or 3 miles? The number must be accompanied by a unit, a quantity that is used as a standard of measurement (of time, of length, of volume, etc.). The metric system is the measurement system used most often worldwide. In this text we will use metric units and the common units used in the United States (Table 1.1). Occasionally, SI units (an international system of units related to the metric system) will be introduced. Table 1.2 lists some of the additional units that are commonly used in medical applications. FIGURE |1.7Measuring hand strengthA dynamometer is used to measure a patients hand strength. Keith Brofsky/Photodisc Green/Getty Images.Source:Mass Mass is related to the amount of matter in a materialthe more matter that it contains, the greater its mass. Units commonly used to measure mass are the gram (g), kilogram (kg), and pound (lb). A mass of 454 g is equivalent to 1 lb and 2.205 lb is equivalent to 1 kg (Figure 1.8). 34. 1.3 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT(a) FIGURE |(b) Comparing units1.8(a) One kilogram weighs a little more than two pounds. (b) One meter (bottom) is slightly longer than one yard (top). (c) One quart is slightly smaller than one liter. Source: TABLE |1.1(c)(a), (b) Andy Washnik/Wiley Archive; (c) Michael Dalton/Fundamental Photographs.MEASUREMENT UNITSQuantityCommon UnitMetric UnitSI UnitRelationshipsMassPound (lb)Gram (g)Kilogram (kg)1 kg = 2.205 lb 1 kg = 1000 gLengthFoot (ft)Meter (m)Meter (m)1 m = 3.281 ftVolumeQuart (qt)Liter (L)Cubic meter (m )0.946 L = 1 qt 1 m3 = 1000 LEnergycalorie (cal)calorie (cal)Joule (J)4.184 J = 1 calTemperatureDegree Fahrenheit (F)Degree Celsius (C)Kelvin (K)F = (1.8 C) + 32 F 32 C = 1.8 K = C + 273.15 TABLE |1.2SOME MEASUREMENT UNITS USED3INQuantityRelationshipMass1 milligram (mg) = 1000 micrograms (mcg or g)a 1 grain (gr) = 65 milligrams (mg)Volume1 cubic centimeter (cc or cm3) = 1 milliliter (mL) 15 drops (gtt) = 1 milliliter (mL) 1 teaspoon (tsp) = 5 milliliters (mL) 1 tablespoon (T or tbsp) = 15 milliliters (mL) 2 tablespoons (T or tbsp) = 1 ounce (oz)aThe prefixes micro and milli are explained in Section 1.4.MEDICINE7 35. 8CHAPTER 1 | SCIENCE AND MEASUREMENTSLength 454 g = 1 lb; 2.205 lb = 1 kg 1 m = 3.281 ft = 39.37 in 0.946 L = 1 qt 32F = 0C = 273.15 K 1 cal = 4.184 JThe meter (m), which is slightly longer than a yard, is the metric unit of length. One meter is equal to 3.281 ft and 39.37 in.Volume The liter (L) and the quart (qt) are two units commonly used to measure volume (the amount of space occupied by a material). One quart is a bit smaller than a liter (1 qt = 0.946 L).Temperature The metric system uses the Celsius (C) scale to measure temperature. On this scale, water freezes at 0C and boils at 100C. On the Fahrenheit (F) scale, still used in the United States, water freezes at 32F and boils at 212F (Figure 1.9). Besides having different numerical values for the freezing and boiling points of water, these two temperature scales have degrees of different sizes. On the Fahrenheit scale there are 180 degrees between the temperatures where water boils and freezes (212F 32F = 180F). On the Celsius scale, however, there are only 100 degrees over this same range (100C 0C = 100C). This means that the boiling to freezing range for water has almost twice as many Fahrenheit degrees as Celsius degrees (180/100 = 1.8). Scientists often measure temperature using the SI unit called the kelvin (K). A temperature of 0 K, known as absolute zero, is the temperature at which all heat energy has been removed from a sample. On the Kelvin temperature scale, the difference between the freezing point (273.15 K) and the boiling point (373.15 K) of water is 100 degrees, the same as that for the Celsius scale, so a kelvin is the same size as a Celsius degree.Energy The metric unit for energy, the calorie (cal), is defined as the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5C to 15.5C. The SI energy unit, the joule (J), which is approximately equal to the energy expended by a human heart each time that it beats, is about one-fourth as large as a calorie (1 cal = 4.184 J). When you hear the word calorie, it might bring food to mind. One food Calorie (Cal) is equal to 1000 cal, which means that an 80 Cal cookie contains 80,000 cal of potential energy. FIGURE |1.9212 F100 C373.15 K100water boils370200 90Temperature units3608035070190340180Water freezes and boils at different temperature values in the Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin scales.170 160 150 14060330130 12018050100320100110 40310303002010029090 80 70 60 50102804032 F300 C0273.15 K27020 10 010260water freezes 36. 1.4 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION AND METRIC PREFIXESS AMPLE P ROBLEM1.2Comparing units Which is larger? a. 1 g or 1 lbb. 1 lb or 1 kgc. 1 L or 1 qtd. 1 cal or 1 JStrategyRefer to the Relationships column in Table 1.1 to get a feel for the relative sizes of these units. Solution a. 1 lbb. 1 kgP RACTICE P ROBLEMc. 1 Ld. 1 cal1.2Which is a warmer temperature? a. 273C or 273 K?1.4b. 32F or 32C?c. 0F or 0 K?SCIENTIFIC NOTATION AND METRIC PREFIXESScientific Notation When making measurements, particularly in the sciences, there are many times when you must deal with very large or very small numbers. For example, a typical red blood cell has a diameter of about 0.0000075 m. In scientific notation (exponential notation) this diameter is written 7.5 106 m. Values expressed in scientific notation are written as a number between 1 and 10 multiplied by a power of ten. The superscripted number to the right of the ten is called an exponent. 7.5 106 A number between 1 and 10ExponentAn exponent with a positive value tells you how many times to multiply a number by 10, 3.5 104 = 3.5 10 10 10 10 = 35000 6.22 102 = 6.22 10 10 = 622 while an exponent with a negative value tells you how many times to divide a number by 10. 3.5 = 0.00035 10 10 10 10 6.22 102 = 6.22 = 0.0622 10 10 An easy way to convert a number into scientific notation is to shift the decimal point. For a number that is equal to or greater than 10, shift the decimal point to the left until you get a number between 1 and 10. The number of spaces that you moved the decimal place is the new exponent (see Table 1.3). 3.5 104 =35000 = 3.5 104 285.2 = 2.852 102 8300000 = 8.3 1069 37. 10CHAPTER 1 | SCIENCE AND MEASUREMENTS TABLE |Number1.3S C I E N T I F I C N O TAT I O NScientific NotationExponent1 1044332210.00011 100.0011 100.01 0.11 10111 100101 1011001 10210001 103100001 1040 1 2 3 4For a number less than 1, shift the decimal point to the right until you get a number between 1 and 10. Put a negative sign in front of the number of spaces that you moved the decimal place and make this the new exponent. 0.00035 = 3.5 104 0.0445 = 4.45 102 0.00000003554 = 3.554 108Metric Prefixes Units larger and smaller than the metric units introduced in Section 1.3 can be created by attaching a prefix that indicates how the new unit relates to the original (see Table 1.4). For example, drugs are often administered in milliliter (mL) volumes. The prefix milli indicates that the original unit, in this case the liter, has been multiplied by 103. 1 milliliter (mL) = 1 103 L Similarly, distance can be measured in kilometers. The prefix kilo indicates that the meter unit of length has been multiplied by 103. 1 kilometer (km) = 1 103 m TABLE |Prefix1.4SIANDMETRIC PREFIXESSymbolMultipliergigaG1,000,000,000= 109megaM1,000,000= 106kilok1000= 103hectoh100= 102dekada10= 1011= 100decid0.1= 101centic0.01= 102millim0.001= 103micro0.000001= 106nanon0.000000001 = 109 38. 1.5 MEASUREMENTS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURESS AMPLE P ROBLEM111.3Using scientific notation Convert each number into scientific notation. a. 0.0144 b. 144 c. 36.32d. 0.0000098StrategyThe decimal point is shifted to the left for numbers equal to or greater than 10 and shifted to the right for numbers less than 1. Solution a. 1.44 102b. 1.44 102P RACTICE P ROBLEMd. 9.8 1061.3c. 3.632 101One-millionth of a liter of blood contains about 5 million red blood cells. Express this volume of blood using a metric prefix and this number of cells using scientific notation.1.5MEASUREMENTS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURESWe have just examined some of the units used to report the measured properties of a material. In this section we will address three of the important factors to consider when making measurements: accuracy, precision, and significant figures. Accuracy is related to how close a measured value is to a true value. Suppose that a patients temperature is taken twice and values of 98F and 102F are obtained. If the patients actual temperature is 103F, the second measurement is more accurate because it is closer to the true value. Precision is a measure of reproducibility. The closer that separate measurements come to one another, the more precise they are. Suppose that a patients temperature is taken three times and values of 98F, 99F, and 97F are obtained. Another set of temperature measurements gives 90F, 100F, and 96F. The first three measurements are more in agreement with one another, so they are more precise than the second set. A set of precise measurements is not necessarily accurate and a set of accurate measurements is not necessarily precise. This is illustrated in Figure 1.10, using the game of darts as an example. Figure 1.10a shows the results of three shots that are precise, but not accuratethe shots fall close together, but they not are centered on the bulls-eye. In Figure 1.10b, the shots are accurate, but not precise, because the shots fall near the bulls-eye but not close together. Figure 1.10c shows three shots that are both accurate and precise.(a) FIGURE |(b)1.10(c)Accuracy and precision(a) The darts were thrown precisely (they are all close to one another) but not accurately. (b) The darts were thrown accurately (they fall near the bulls-eye) but not precisely. (c) The darts were thrown precisely and accurately.Accurate measurements fall near the true value.Precise measurements are grouped together. 39. 12CHAPTER 1 | SCIENCE AND MEASUREMENTSSignificant Figures FIGURE |1.11BalancesTop-loading balances give a digital readout of the mass of an object. Source:BSIP/Photo Researchers, Inc. TABLE |1.5The quality of the equipment used to make a measurement is one factor in obtaining accurate and precise results. For example, balances similar to the one shown in Figure 1.11 come in different models. A lower priced model might report masses to within 0.1 g, and a higher priced one to within 0.001 g. Suppose that the precision of a balance is such that repeated measurements always agree to within 0.1 g. On this balance, a U.S. quarter (25 cent coin) might have a reported mass of 5.6 g. This number, 5.6, has two significant figures (those digits in a measurement that are reproducible when the measurement is repeated, plus the first doubtful digit). Here the 6 in 5.6 is doubtful, because the balance reports mass with an error of 0.1 g. Assuming that the balance is accurate, the actual mass of the quarter may be a little bit more or a little bit less than 5.6 grams. On a different balance that reports masses with a precision of 0.001 g, the reported mass of the same quarter might be 5.563 g. Using this measuring device, the mass of the quarter is reported with four significant figures. For the numbers above (5.6 and 5.563), determining significant figures is straightforward: all of the digits written are significant. Things get a bit trickier when zeros are involved, because zeros that are part of the measurement are significant, while those that only specify the position of the decimal point are not. Table 1.5 summarizes the rules for determining when a digit is significant. It is important to note that significant figures apply only to measurements, because measurements always contain some degree of error. Numbers have no error when they are obtained by an exact count (there are seven patients sitting in the waiting room) or are defined (12 eggs = 1 dozen, 1 km = 1000 m). These exact numbers have an unlimited number of significant figures.SIGNIFICANT FIGURESExamplesNumber of Significant Figures3.4 25.852 4b. Zeros between nonzero digits308 97.00023 6c. Zeros at the end of a number when a decimal point is written5.010 200.4 3Numbers are significant if they are: a. Nonzero digitsd. Digits in a number written in scientific notation (not including the power of ten)7.0 105 6.02 10232 30.543 0.00063 1Numbers are not significant if they are: a. Zeros at the beginning of a number b. Zeros at the end of a number when no decimal point is written200 1,500,0001 2 40. 1.5 MEASUREMENTS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURESS AMPLE P ROBLEM131.4Determining significant figures Specify the number of significant figures in each measured value. a. 30.1C b. 0.00730 m c. 7.30 103 md. 44.50 mLStrategyAll nonzero digits are significant. Zeros, however, are significant only under certain conditions (see Table 1.5). Solution a. 3b. 3P RACTICE P ROBLEMc. 3d. 41.4Write each measured value in exponential notation, being sure to give the correct number of significant figures. a. 7032 calb. 88.0 Lc. 0.00005 gd. 0.06430 lbBody Mass IndexIn early 2006, the Harris Poll released a report titled, Obesity Epidemic Continues to Worsen in the United States. According to this report, the percentage of Americans who are overweight or obese continues to rise. Based on Body Mass Index (discussed below), 66% of U.S. adults are overweight, and 27% are also obese. These numbers, which echo those given in other reports, are of concern to health professionals because being overweight or obese increases a persons risk of developing health problems. Among the identified overweight- and obesity-related diseases are type II diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels, stroke, cancer (colon, breast, and endometrial), and asthma. For years, determining whether someone was overweight involved using height and weight charts. These charts were of limited usefulness because, when it comes to assessing the risk of overweight- and obesity-related disease, body weight is not the main the issue. The primary factor to consider is the percentage of body weight that is due to fat. What body fat percentage is considered healthy? There is no single answer to this question because recommended body fat levels depend on a variety of factors. Table 1.6 lists the gender- and age-based recommendations for adults. Health professionals can determine percentage body fat using a variety of techniques. One of these is the skinfold measurement, in which calipers are used to test the thickness of folds of skin at various places on the body TABLE |1.6R E C O M M E N D E D P E R C E N T B O D Y F ATAgeOverweightObese203938396079412039264059276079MaleRecommended weight4059FemaleUnderweight29Values also depend upon ethnicity. The values reported here are averages for the ethnic groups studied in Gallagher et al., American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2000; 72:694701. 41. 14CHAPTER 1 | SCIENCE AND MEASUREMENTS(Figure 1.12). A calculation using the measured values gives body fat percentage. Underwater weighing is another method used to determine body fat levels. Because fat has a lower density than muscle and bone, the more fat that a person has, the less the person will weigh underwater. Once measurements have been made, a set of equations is used to calculate percent body fat. In a different technique called bioelectrical impedance, electrodes are placed on different parts of the body and a low electrical current is applied. Fat is a poorer conductor of electricity than muscle and bone, so the higher the percent body fat, the greater the resistance or impedance to the current. Although it is not based on direct measurements of percent body fat, Body Mass Index (BMI) is a good predictor of an individuals risk for overweight- or obesity-related disease. BMI is calculated from a persons weight and height, using the equation BMI = 703 weight (lb) height (in)2A 5 foot 1 inch (61.0 inch) tall person weighing 145 lbs is calculated to have a BMI of 27.4. BMI = 703 weight (lb) height (in)2= 703 1452 = 27.4 61.0According to adult BMI standards (Table 1.7), a person with a BMI of 27.4 is overweight. BMI is calculated in the same way for children and teens, but the interpretation of BMI differs. TABLE |1.7A D U LT B O D Y M A S S I N D E XBMI FIGURE |Below 18.5Source:Overweight30.0 or higherSkinfold measurements can be used to determine percent body fat.Recommended weight25.029.9Skin fold calipersUnderweight18.524.91.12ConditionObeseCourtesy of Accu-Measure, LLC.Calculations Involving Significant Figures Reporting answers with too many or too few significant figures is a problem commonly encountered with calculations involving measured values. The important thing to remember is that calculations should not change the degree of uncertainty in a value. When doing multiplication or division with measured values, the answer should have the same number of significant figures as the quantity with the fewest. Suppose that you are asked to determine the area of a rectangle. According to your measurements, its width is 5.3 cm and its length is 6.1 cm. Since area = width length, you use your calculator to multiply the two, and obtain 5.3 6.1 32.33 (32cm cm cm2 cm2)Two significant figures Two significant figures Calculator answer (four significant figures) Correct answer (two significant figures)The result given by your calculator has too many significant figures. Each of the original numbers (5.3 and 6.1) has just two significant figures, but the calculator has given an answer with four. Rewriting a number with the proper number of significant figures means that we have to drop the digits that are not significant (in this case, the two to the right of the decimal point) and round off the last digit of the number. We will use the following rules when rounding numbers: 42. 1.6 CONVERSION FACTORS AND THE FACTOR LABEL METHOD15 If the first digit to be removed is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4, leave the last reported digit unchanged. (57.42 rounds off to 57.4 if three significant figures are needed and to 57 if two significant figures are needed.) If the first digit to be removed is 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9, increase the last reported digit by 1. (57.69 rounds off to 57.7 if three significant figures are needed and to 58 if two significant figures are needed.) When doing addition or subtraction with measured values, the answer should have the same number of decimal places as the quantity with the fewest decimal places. Suppose that you are given three mass measurements and are asked to calculate the total mass: 13.5 g One decimal place 2.335 g Three decimal places +653 g Zero decimal places 668.835 g Calculator answer (three decimal places) (669 g) Correct answer (Zero decimal places) S AMPLE P ROBLEM1.5Calculations involving significant figures Each of the numbers below is measured. Solve the calculations and give the answer with the correct number of significant figures. a. 0.12 1.77 c. 5.444 0.44 b. 690.4 12 d. 16.5 + 0.114 + 3.55 StrategyYou must apply a different rule to carry significant figures through multiplication or division than to carry them through addition or subtraction. Solution a. 0.21b. 58P RACTICE P ROBLEMc. 5.00d. 20.21.5Each of the numbers below is measured. Solve the calculations and give the answer with the correct number of significant figures. a. 53.4 489.6 b. 6.333 104 5.77 1031.6c. (5 989.5) 16.3 d. (0.45 6) + 3.14CONVERSION FACTORS AND THE FACTOR LABEL METHODWhat is your height in inches and in centimeters? What is the volume of a cup of coffee in milliliters? Answering these questions requires that you convert from one unit into another. Some unit conversions are simple enough that you can probably do them in your headsix eggs are half a dozen and twenty-four inches are two feet. Solving other conversions may require a systematic approach called the factor label method, which uses conversion factors to transform one unit into another. Conversion factors are derived from the numerical relationship between two units. Suppose that a 185 lb patient is prescribed a drug whose recommended dosage is listed in terms of kilograms of body weight. To administer the correct dose, you must convertAlthough the terms mass and weight are often used interchangeably, they do not mean the same thing. Mass is related to the amount of matter in an object, while weight depends on gravity. An astronaut weighs much less in space than on the surface of the earth, but his or her mass does not change. 43. 16CHAPTER 1 | SCIENCE AND MEASUREMENTSBody TemperatureWhen you go in for a medical checkup, a health professional will almost always begin by taking your temperature. This is done because running a fever is a sign of illness. What should your temperature be? A temperature of 98.6F (37.0C), measured orally, is considered normal. This normal temperature is actually an average of the typical range of oral body temperatures (97.2 99.9F) recorded for healthy people. The human body is divided into two different temperature zones, the core and the shell, so temperature readings will vary depending on which part of your body is measured. The bodys internal core, which holds the organs of the abdomen, chest, and head, is held at a constant temperature. The outer shell, that part of the body nearest the skin, is used to insulate the core. Shell temperatures fluctuate, depending on the whether the body is trying to keep or to lose heat, and typically shell temperatures run about 1F lower than core temperatures. Rectal temperature measurements are a good way to determine the core body temperature. While oral measurements can indicate core temperature, readings may be incorrect if the thermometer is not placed correctly in the mouth. Hot or cold drinks can also affect the results of oral temperature measurements. Tympanic membrane (eardrum) measurements give an indication of the core temperature of the brain, while axillary (armpit) and temporal artery (an artery in the head that runs near the temple) give the shell temperature. Like oral measurements, these three methods are prone to error. FIGURE |1.13Temporal artery thermometerA temporal artery thermometer measures temperature by detecting infrared (IR) energy released at the temporal artery. Source: Courtesy Exergen Corporation.How are temperatures measured? A variety of methods can be used to take someones temperature. The low tech method used by countless parents is touchdoes your childs forehead feel hot? As you might expect, this is not the most reliable technique. For centuries the mercury thermometer has been used to measure temperature. Its operation is based on the fact that mercury expands as it gets warmerthe higher the temperature, the longer the column of mercury in a thermometer. These thermometers, used for rectal, oral, and axillary temperature measurements, have fallen out of favor because they can be difficult to read, can transmit infection when not cleaned properly, and, if broken, can expose people to toxic mercury. The digital thermometer is one alternative to the mercury thermometer. The operation of this thermometer is based on a thermistor, a device that conducts electricity better the higher the temperature. Digital thermometers, like mercury thermometers, are used to measure rectal, oral, and axillary temperatures. A digital thermometer pacifier has been developed for infant use. A third type of thermometer measures temperature by detecting infrared (IR) energy (Section 2.6), a form of energy that is associated with heat. Tympanic membrane and temporal artery thermometers (Figure 1.13), which operate using IR energy, are quick to use but, in the case of the tympanic thermometers, can give false readings. FIGURE | 1.14 In an interesting application of IR-based temperature measurement, some airports have installed automated Remote temperature sensing In an attempt to slow the spread of SARS (severe acute respiratory remote temperature sensors to scan people for fever syndrome), some airports have installed automated IR sensors to (Figure 1.14). These devices, originally installed to help identify travelers who are running a fever. control the spread of SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome), may be used to help fight avian flu. Source: Courtesy of Infrared Solutions Inc. www.infraredsolutions.com 44. 1.6 CONVERSION FACTORS AND THE FACTOR LABEL METHOD17the patients pound weight into kilograms. Converting from pounds to kilograms makes use of the equality 2.205 lb = 1 kg (Table 1.1). Two different conversion factors can be created from this relationship, the first of which is produced by dividing both sides of the equality by 1 kg. This and all other conversion factors are equal to 1. 2.205 lb = 1 kg2.205 lb 1 kg = =1 1 kg 1 kgconversion factor:2.205 lb 1 kgThe second conversion factor is created by dividing both sides of the equality by 2.205 lb 1 kg = 2.205 lb1 kg 2.205 lb = =1 2.205 lb 2.205 lbconversion factor:1 kg 2.205 lbWhat is the kilogram weight of a 185 lb patient? To answer this question using the factor label method, we multiply 185 lb by the appropriate conversion factor (equal to 1). In this case the conversion factor to use is the one that has the desired new unit in the numerator. This allows the original units to cancel one another (Figure 1.15). 185 lb 1 kg = 83.9 kg 2.205 lbLooking at this answer, you might wonder why it is reported with three significant figures. In the equality 1 kg = 2.205 lb, the 1 is an exact number and has an unlimited number of significant figures. The value with the fewest significant figures is 185 lb. Let us try another one. A vial contains 15 mL of blood serum. Convert this volume into liters. Converting from mL into L uses the equality 1 mL = 1 103 L (Table 1.4). The two conversion factors derived from this relationship are 1 mL 1 103 Land1 103 L 1 mLand the conversion factor to use is the one with the new unit (L) in the numerator. 3 15 mL 1 10 L = 1.5 102 L 1 mL FIGURE |1.15A problem with unit conversionsIn September of 1999, the Mars Climate Orbiter (a $168 million weather satellite) fired its main engine to drop into orbit around Mars. Unfortunately, due to a mix-up in unitsthe computer on the orbiter used SI units, but NASA scientists sent it information in common unitsthe orbiter crashed into the planet. Source:NASA. 45. 18CHAPTER 1 | SCIENCE AND MEASUREMENTSIf you do not have access to a direct relationship between two different units, making a unit conversion may require more than one step. Suppose that you are asked to convert the average volume of blood pumped by one beat of your heart (0.070 L) from liters into cups. What is this volume in cups? You may not know the direct relationship between liters and cups, but 0.946 L = 1 qt (Table 1.1). This gives the conversion factors 1 qt 0.946 Land0.946 L 1 qtwhich means that 0.070 L 1 qt = 0.074 qt 0.946 LKnowing that there are 4 cups in one quart gives the equation 0.074 qt 4 cups = 0.30 cup 1 qtso 0.070 L is the same volume as 0.30 cup. The two steps of this conversion can be taken care of at once by incorporating both conversion factors into one equation. 0.070 L S AMPLE P ROBLEM1 qt 4 cups = 0.30 cup 1 qt 0.946 L1.6Unit conversions a. A bottle of cough syrup lists the recommended adult dosage as 1.5 tablespoons.Convert this dosage into milliliters. b. An aspirin tablet contains 5.0 grains of aspirin. Convert this mass into grams. StrategyTo solve each part of this problem you must find the appropriate conversion factor. In part a, the conversion factor is built on the relationship between tablespoons and milliliters (see Table 1.2). Solution a. 1.5 T 15 mL = 23 mL 1Tb. 5.0 gr 65 mg 1 103 g = 0.33 g 1 gr 1 mgP RACTICE P ROBLEM1.6a. Naloxone is a drug used in emergency rooms to treat narcotic overdoses. For children,the recommended dosage of naloxone is 0.010 mg/kg of body weight. What dosage (in mg) should be prescribed for a 12 kg child? b. Naloxone is sold in quantities of 0.40 mg/mL. How many milliliters of the drug should be administered to a 12 kg child? 46. 1.6 CONVERSION FACTORS AND THE FACTOR LABEL METHOD19Temperature Conversions To convert between degrees Fahrenheit and degrees Celsius, one of the two equations below is used. F = 11.8 C2 + 32 C = F 32 1.8 Between the freezing point (32F, 0C) and boiling point (212F, 100C) of water there are 180F and 100C. The ratio 180/100 equals 1.8, which is the source of this term in the equationsa degree Fahrenheit is 1.8 times smaller than a degree Celsius. The 32 comes from the different freezing point for water on the two temperature scales. The relationship between degrees Celsius and kelvins is K = C + 273.15C = K - 273.15These equations are simpler than the ones used to relate F and C because kelvins and Celsius degrees are the same size. Let us see how a temperature conversion would be carried out. On a warm summer day, the temperature reaches 85F. What is this temperature in C? 85 32 = 29C C = F - 32 = 1.8 1.8 S AMPLE P ROBLEM1.7Temperature conversions Liquid nitrogen (N2), which has a freezing point of 210C, is often used to remove warts and to treat precancerous skin lesions. Convert this temperature into kelvins. StrategyTo solve this problem you must use an equation that relates C and K. SolutionK = C + 273.15 = 210 + 273.15 = 63 KP RACTICE P ROBLEM1.7The liquid helium used in magnetic resonance imagers (MRIs) has a temperature of 4.1 K. Convert this temperature into C and F.Why does the first chapterof a chemistry textbook forthe health sciences include a discussion of math? Because math is an essential tool for those who plan a career in the health care field. Nurses, for example, might be called upon to calculate drug dosages (if 30 mg is the prescribed dose, how many milliliters should be drawn from a vial containing 50 mg/mL?) or IV drip rates (how many gtt/min to administer 50 cc over a 1 hr period?). Understanding how to do calculations of this sort is vital: the well-being of patients depends on getting the correct answer every time. 47. 20CHAPTER 1 | SCIENCE AND MEASUREMENTSsummary of objectives 1 Explain the terms scientific method, law, theory, hypothesis,and experiment. Scientists use the scientific method to collect and interpret information. Scientific laws describe observations but do not attempt to explain them. A scientific theory is a hypothesis (tentative explanation) that has survived repeated testing by experimentation. 2 Define the terms matter and energy. Describe the threestates of matter and the two forms of energy. Matter has mass and occupies space, while energy is the capacity to do work and transfer heat. The three physical states of matter are solid (has a fixed shape and volume), liquid (has a variable shape and a fixed volume), and gas (has a variable shape and volume). Energy is found in two forms, as potential energy (stored energy) or kinetic energy (energy of motion). 3 Describe and give examples of physical properties andphysical change. The physical properties of matter, including odor and melting point, are those that can be determined without affecting the chemical composition of matter. Physical changes, including boiling, melting, and crushing, are those that do not affect chemical composition. 4 Convert from one unit of measurement into another.Converting between units may require the use of a conversion factor, which is based on the relationship between two units. For example, the two conversion factors that may be formed from the equality 2.205 lb = 1 kg are 2.205 lb 1 kgand1 kg 2.205 lbIn the factor label method, converting 95 lb into kilograms involves multiplying by the conversion factor that cancels the original (lb) unit. 95 lb 1 kg = 43 kg 2.205 lb5 Express values using scientific notation and metric prefixes.In scientific notation, values are expressed as a number between 1 and 10, multiplied by a power of ten. For example, in scientific notation 0.025 is written 2.5 102 and 6401 is written 6.401 103. Metric prefixes (kilo, centi, milli, etc.) can be used to create units of different sizes. For example, 2503 meters (m) can be expressed as 2.503 kilometers (km) and 4 102 m as 4 centimeters (cm). 6 Explain the difference between the terms accurate andprecise. Accurate measurements are close to the true value. Precise measurements are grouped closely together. 48. END OF CHAPTER PROBLEMS217 Use the correct number of significant figures to report theresults of calculations involving measured quantities. When reporting the results of measurements, values should be given with the correct number of