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Greek HistoryHow important were the gods to the Greeks?

“A polytheistic world of gods is potentially chaotic, and not only for the outsider” W. Burkert, Greek Religion, (Oxford 1985).

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Greek HistoryThe gods are not loving gods!

Key messages for today: 1. There are many Greek gods and goddesses2. They are not particularly benevolent, and they

need to be placated and feared3. But they might talk to you if you ask nicely…

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Greek HistoryOlympian gods and goddesses

1. Zeus 2. Hera 3. Poseidon

4. Demeter 5. Ares 6. Hermes

7. Hephaestus 8. Aphrodite 9. Athena

10. Apollo 11. Artemis 12. Dionysus

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Greek HistoryZeus

“Zeus is aether, Zeus is earth, Zeus is sky, Zeus is everything” (Aeschylus frag. 70)

Zeus is the king of the gods, and a sky god

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Greek HistoryZeus the Protector

The Greek gods and goddesses have many guises, e.g.•Zeus Soter – the Saviour •Zeus Polieus – protector of the city•Zeus Xenios – protector of foreigners•Zeus Boulaios – protector of the Council•Zeus Horkios – guarantor of oaths

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Greek HistoryZeus and Metis – Zeus the god of intellect

• Zeus ‘marries’ Metis the goddess of intelligence

• It is foretold that a son born to Metis will overthrow his father

• Zeus swallows Metis, (thus neutralising the problem)

• Later (after Zeus has a headache!) Athena is born via Zeus’ head

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Greek HistoryZeus and Danae

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Greek HistoryZeus and Europa

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Greek HistoryZeus and Leda

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Greek HistoryZeus and Ganymede

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Greek HistoryZeus’ Mortal Children

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Greek HistoryHera

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Greek HistoryPoseidon

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Greek HistoryPoseidon - Tempe

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Greek HistoryAthena

Hesiod calls Athena: “dread rouser of battle strife, unwearied leader of the host, a mistress who delights in the clamorous cry of war, and battle and slaughter”.

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Greek HistoryApollo

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Greek HistoryArtemis

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Greek HistoryAphrodite

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Greek HistoryDemeter

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Greek HistoryPersephone and Hades

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Greek HistoryThe Underworld

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Greek HistoryHermes

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Greek HistoryDionysus

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Greek HistoryHephaestus

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Greek HistoryAres

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Greek HistorySacrifices to the gods

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Greek HistoryTemples and altars

I’m now going to talk to you about one of the most important places for sacrifices in Classical Athens

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Greek HistoryAltar of the ‘Twelve gods’ at Athens

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Greek HistorySacrifices to the gods

“Then the old man, Nestor, the driver of chariots, gave gold, and the smith prepared it, and overlaid therewith the horns of the heifer, that the goddess might rejoice when she beheld the offering. And Stratius and goodly Echephron led the heifer by the horns, [440] and Aretus came from the chamber, bringing them water for the hands in a basin embossed with flowers, and in the other hand he held barley grains in a basket; and Thrasymedes, steadfast in fight, stood by, holding in his hands a sharp axe, to fell the heifer; and Perseus held the bowl for the blood. Then the old man, Nestor, driver of chariots, [445] began the opening rite of hand-washing and sprinkling with barley grains, and earnestly he prayed to Athena, cutting off as first offering the hair from the head, and casting it into the fire. Now when they had prayed, and had strewn the barley grains, straightway the son of Nestor, Thrasymedes, high of heart, came near and dealt the blow; and the axe cut through the sinews [450] of the neck, and loosened the strength of the heifer. Then the women raised the sacred cry, the daughters and the sons' wives and the revered wife of Nestor, Eurydice, the eldest of the daughters of Clymenus, and the men raised the heifer's head from the broad-wayed earth and held it, and Peisistratus, leader of men, cut the throat. [455] And when the black blood had flowed from her and the life had left the bones, at once they cut up the body and straightway cut out the thigh-pieces all in due order, and covered them with a double layer of fat, and laid raw flesh upon them. Then the old man burned them on billets of wood, and poured over them sparkling wine, [460] and beside him the young men held in their hands the five-pronged forks. But when the thigh-pieces were wholly burned, and they had tasted the inner parts, they cut up the rest and spitted and roasted it, holding the pointed spits in their hands” (Homer, Odyssey 3.346-363)

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Greek HistoryPrometheus

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Greek HistoryHephaestus makes Pandora

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Greek HistoryCommunicating with the gods

Inspired DivinationInductive Divination

Techniques include:

•ornithomancy•cledonomancy•cleromancy•hieroscopy•empyromancy

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Greek HistoryOracle of Apollo at Delphi

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Greek HistoryTemple of Apollo

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Greek History

• The Classical temple of Pythian Apollo measured approximately 128 x 183m.

• On the front porch was situation a colossal silver krater (mixing bowl for wine) with a capacity of 21,730 litres (!) dedicated by Croesus (see below)

• In the cella were statues of the Fates (Morae), and Zeus and Apollo (both surnamed ‘Moeragetes’ the Leader of the Fates)

• Further inside the cella was a small room known as the adyton (“the place that could not be entered”) which contained a small altar, statues of Apollo and Dionysus, a tripod, and the omphalus (the navel of the earth)

Apollo’s Temple

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Greek HistoryConsulting the Pythia

• The Pythia was a priestess who served for life.• She is generally portrayed as young, but

Diodorus claims that she was in fact an older woman who dressed as if she were a young woman.

• Before prophesising she purified herself in water from the sacred Castillian spring.

• Afterwards the Pythia sat on a tripod in the adyton (“the place that could not be entered”) after burning barley meal and laurel leaves.

• She was then ‘inspired’ by Apollo to prophesise.• The Pythia spoke Apollo’s words. When she says

‘I’ she really means Apollo!• Whether she spoke in gibberish or plain Greek is

a matter of scholarly debate.

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Greek History

• There has been much scholarly debate about what inspired the Pythia.• Some have suggested she was affected by the laurel leaves (which contain

prussic acid).• Some suggest that she worked herself into a hypnotic trance.• Scientists have recently detected ethylene (CH2) a colourless, flammable

gas which produces a “sweet and musty” odour.• Funnily enough, Plutarch (a Delphic priest) wrote that intermittent

“exhalations” from the earth at the adyton, whereby “the room in which they seat those who would consult the god is filled, not frequently or with any regularity, but as it may chance from time to time, with a delightful fragrance coming on a current of air which bears it towards the worshippers, as if its source were in the holy of holies; and it is like the odour which the most exquisite and costly perfumes send forth”.

• But these scientific findings have been doubted by some modern experts...

Inspiring the Pythia?

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Greek HistoryInspiring the Pythia (de Boer 2001)

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Greek History

• More than 600 oracles from Delphi have been preserved in a variety of different sources.

• Scholars consider 75 of these to be “genuine”, and the majority of this group concern religious matters.

• A further 268 are considered “quasi-historical” because they are recorded out of chronological context, but still appear to be relatively trustworthy

• 40% of the “quasi-historical” oracles relate to plagues, famines, and war.

• The remainder of the oracles can be dismissed as “legendary”.

Actual Oracles from Delphi

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Greek HistoryWhat do you ask the god? (from Dodona)

God. Gerioton asks Zeus about a wife. Is it better for him to take one?

Lysanias asks Zeus Naios and Dione whether or not the baby with whom Annula is pregnant is from him.

Nicocrateia asks to which god she should sacrifice in order to fare better and to stop her disease.

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Greek HistoryBut if you think big…

• Croesus King of Lydia (ca. 560-546 BC) was fabulously wealthy.• According to Herodotus (1.50), when Croesus wanted to ‘test’ the

oracle at Delphi, he “set about propitiating the Delphic god with the generosity of his sacrifices.

• Croesus then melted down an enormous amount of gold and beat it out into 117 ingots. He also had made out of pure gold a statue of a lion, which weighed ten talents.

• On top of these gifts Croesus offered every kind of animal; he heaped a huge pyre out of couches overlaid with gold and silver, golden cups, and purple cloaks and tunics, and burnt them to ashes”, thinking that “he stood a better chance of winning over the god by doing this”.

• Croesus then asked Apollo a fateful question…

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Greek History…they might answer a big question…

“The oracle told Croesus that if he made war on the Persians, he would destroy a great empire…” (Herodotus 1.53)

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Greek HistoryCroesus and the Oracle

• When Croesus went to war against Cyrus the new king of Persia he did indeed destroy a great empire.

• The problem was, the empire he destroyed was his own!

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Greek HistoryNext Week – The Persian Wars

* Balcer, J.M. 1989. ‘The Persian Wars against Greece: A Reassessment’, Historia 38, 127-143. [available via JSTOR]Briant, P. 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander. Indiana. (Chapter 13)Brunt, P. 1953. ‘The Hellenic League against Persia’, Historia 2, 135-63.Evans, J.A.S. 1993. ‘Herodotus and the Battle of Marathon’, Historia.42, 279-307. [available via JSTOR]* Graf, D.F. 1984. ‘Medism: The Origin and Significance of the Term’, Journal of Hellenic Studies 104, 15-30. [available via JSTOR]Green, P. 1996. The Greco-Persian Wars. Berkeley.Hornblower, S. 2002. The Greek World 479-323 B.C. London. (read pp.9-18)Kuhrt, A. 2007. The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period. London. (Excellent source book with brief commentaries. See Chapters 6 and 7)Murray, O. 1988. ‘The Ionian Revolt’, CAH IV: 461-490.* Osborne, R. 2009. Greece in the Making: 1200-479, 2nd edn. London, 204-13 (read ‘Persia’, pp.300-30)