Rome’s Three Heirs, 500-900

B.C.

Byzantium, Islam and the western European territories of Christendom

Illuminated Aachen Gospels, c. 820 C.E.

Muhammad’s entry into Mecca

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Medieval or Middle Ages

17th century intellectuals wanted to distinguish their own “modern” age from the period following the “age of antiquity” (ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome in particular).

In the “Middle Ages” Foundations of modern political institutions were laid Relationships between Judaism, Christianity and

Islam were first articulated Between 500 and 1100 C.E. Western Civilizations are

dominated by the interactions and conflicts of these three civilizations

The Byzantine Empire

A successor to the Roman state Emperor Justinian (R. 527-565) General Heraclius the Elder and the “Re-conquest” of

Rome Early Threats and challenges

The Sassanid Persian Empire Conflicts with Rome since 220’s War broke out again in 526-27 through 532 Theft of the relic of the original cross when Sassanids

took it from the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem in 614.

Heraclius routed the Persians (627) and took it back

Byzantium

Justinian’s Reign: Codification of Roman law into 4 volumes, the

Corpus Juris Civilis Political philosophy; “What pleases the prince has

the force of law” A sovereign’s powers are delegated to him by the

people The state is a corporate body not the extension of

an individual’s private property Orthodox Christianity is only legal religion in the

Empire

Justinian’s Reconquest

535: Theodoric the Ostrogoth’s Kingdom in Rome overthrown by Justinian. Justinian’s Army overextended Drastically strained imperial resources in

Byzantium Oppressive taxes resulted Distraction from enemies closer to home

(Persians) Conflict with Church in Western Roman Empire

The Mediterranean World under Justinian, 527–565

Consequences

Constantinople threatened; armies withdrawn from Italy and North Africa;

Vital supply lines for the aqueducts to Rome were cut (Rome was without water);

In 568 the Lombards conquered Northern Italy and some territories in the South East

Conflict between Visigoths and Latins in Hispania (Spain) weakened each other.

Visigoths conquered and absorbed by Islam.

Byzantium Conflicts

Heraclius at war with the Persians to take back Jerusalem (627)

Muslim-Arab armies occupied territories of the Middle East and Persia in the name of Islam 629-1050’s Besieged Constantinople 676-678 Umayyad Navy defeated by Greek fire

Among the dead: Eyup, Muhammad’s standard bearer and the last of his companions

Leo II & Greek Fire

Leo III used Greek Fire to defeat the Arab (Umayyad) siege of Constantinople (717-718) Greek Fire: exact recipe unknown

Byzantium conquered much of Turkey from the Arabs

Leo III (717-741)

Leo II & Iconoclast Controversy

8th century, most Christians insisted that images were an aid to worship not objects of worship. Iconoclasts argued that honoring images was blasphemy and

Christ’s divinity could not be represented visually. 726, Leo III issued a decree against icons and ordered

destruction of a statue of Christ near the Hagia Sophia. Constantine V (his son) convened church council in 754 to condemned worship of any images.

Created discord with Church in Rome over power to decide church policies implication that Pope was an idolater.

Pitted Emperor against monasteries Leo confiscated much Church property and wealth helping him

to pay for wars

Byzantium: Tradition vs. Innovation

Religion Fear of heresy impeded freedom of thought Reinforced unity of Constantinople’s Christian culture in a

cosmopolitan urban center Hagia Sophia architecture emphasized the mysteries of holy

knowledge imparted to Christ and to the soul of the Believer Links with Hellenistic past: Byzantine schools based instruction

on Greek literature Studied Plato and historical prose of Thucydides Aristotle and logic were less respected (ultimately banned in 1118)

Tradition prized more highly than originality Preservation more important than innovation Byzantine education open to laity and to women

Interior of Hagia Sophia

Imperial Gate

Mosaic above Imperial Gate in the Hagia Sophia depicts Emperor Leo VI adoring Jesus.

Islam

Muhammad: Prophet and Founder

Born 570 C.E. on the Arabian Peninsula (Saudi Arabia)

Orphaned at 6 Caravan travels with uncle brought

Muhammad into contact with Jews and Christians.

Arabian Peninsula peoples were polytheistic Married Khadija at 25; ran her caravans

Revelations To Muhammad

Age 41 (611 C.E.) Receives revelations from Angel Gabriel.

Allah is the same deity as the Jewish and Christian God.

God is one. Islam (submission to God’s will) is the final

revelation of God to humanity.

Islam

Emphasizes the centrality of the bond between Allah and his followers “There is no God but God and Mohammed is the

messenger of God” 5 Pillars of Muslim Religious Practice

Confession of faith Recitation of prayers 5 times daily Giving alms (charity) Fasting (from dawn to dusk during Ramadan) The Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) at least once

The HiJira

622 C.E. Muhammad moved to Medina with his family and followers (year 1 on the Muslim calendar)

630 C.E. Muhammad conquered Mecca and destroyed the idols of the Kaaba

The Qur’an

Literally translated: Recitation Muhammad did not write down his revelations His followers memorized them and wrote them down after he

died Written in Arabic Divided into 114 surah (chapters)

Human beings born in the purity of God & free of original sin Righteous are promised paradise Wicked and unbelievers are promised hell Men and women equal but men are a degree higher than women Women must veil their bodies

Influenced both art and architecture in the Islamic world

Text from 1st century (HiJira) 7th century C.E.David Collection, Copenhagen

9th century C.E. manuscript of Qur’an one of the oldest manuscriptsOf the Qur’an in existence, Telyashayakh Mosque, Tashkent, Uzbekistan

The Spread of Islam

Islam offered rules of conduct that were easy to understand and follow: Less ritualistic than Judaism or Christianity Less complex theology

Islam welcomed everyone regardless of birth, ethnicity or socio-economic class;

Did not condemn material possessions.

Age of the Caliphs  Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632/A.H. 1-11  Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661/A.H. 11-40  Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750/A.H. 40-129

Mosque of Uqba, in Tunisia Built in 670 C.E.The mosque is over 29,000 sq. ft.

Early Schism

Muhammad never designated a successor Abu Bakir claimed to be Muhammad’s successor

Abu Bakir chosen as 1st Caliph following Muhammad’s death

Ruled from 632 to 634 Sunni Islam

 Ali ibn Abi Talib Muhammad’s son-in-law and nephew claimed that he was Muhammad’s successor Led Muslim’s who claimed that leadership of Islam should

fall to Muhammad’s kin Assassinated in 661 C.E. while praying Founder of Shia Islam

Islamic Law

Core Islamic texts Qur’an and Hadith (sayings and deeds of the Prophet Muhammad) constitute the sharia (path to follow)

Leadership Imams (prayer leaders) Mullahs (scholars trained in Muslim law to

interpret the sharia)

Muslim Theocracies

Qur’an is the eternal and absolute word of God There is no separation between sacred and

secular society In Islamic countries, the Qur’an is both secular

and religious authority

Muslim Caliphates

Caliphate = dominion of a successor (to Muhammad) The Head of State and his officials are

representatives of the people of Islam They must rule according to constitutional

(Constitution of Medina) and Sharia law. Sunni Islam: the Caliph should be elected by the

Shura male representatives of the people of Islam Shia Islam: the Caliph should be an Imam

(religious leader) chosen by God from among Muhammad’s progeny

Four Caliphates Succeeded Muhammad

Rashidun Caliphate 632-661 Umayyad Caliphate 661-750 Abbasid Caliphate 750-1258 Ottoman Dynasty 1299-1922

Rashidun Caliphate

640: Syria, Palestine and Mesopotamia 642: Egypt 643: Persia Abu Bakir – Oldest companion of Muhammad Umar (634)

Diwan – Government bureaucracy Military paid and controlled by Caliph Conquered peoples do not have to convert to Islam Imposed an Amir (governor) and an Amil (Financial

Officer) Customs, language, religion untouched

Rashidun Caliphate: 632 - 661

Umayyad Caliphate (661-750)

Family from Mecca Created capital at Damascus Covered more than 5 million square miles at

its greatest extent Favored Old Arab Families over converts who

were forced to pay the tax for non-believers

Ruins of Umayyad Palace near Constantinople

Umayyad Caliphate

Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem built in 691 under the Umayyad Caliphate

Alleged Foundation Stone Claimed to be the site of the Holy of Holies by RabbinicSources dating to 833. Some Talmudic Sources disagree.

The Rock on which Muhammad Ascended into heaven and was Accompanied by the Angel Gabriel toPray with Abraham, Moses and Jesus.

Western Wall (Wailing Wall) and Dome of the Rock

Abbasid Caliphate 751-1258

Moved Capital from Damascus to Baghdad in 762

Islamic Golden Age 762-1268 “The ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood

of a martyr.” Qu’ran hadith House of Wisdom in Baghdad—goal to gather all

the wisdom of the known world Algebra Medicine (contagion) Astronomy Literature

Abbasid Caliphate

Emirates After 950

Islamic Art

Islamic Motifs: repeated in seemingly infinite, rhythmic pattern extension bounded only by the borders of the frame Reflects Allah’s infinite & uncentralized creation

Meander & Frame: expresses the universal theme of both variety and unity in nature

Complex surface designs in mosaics and tiles Qur’anic inscriptions

Great Mosque, Cordoba, Spain

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West Door, Great Mosque

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Great Mosque (784-987)

Arabesque Style

Photo by Yves Remedios. Detail Of design in Alhambra Palace In Granada, Spain

Detail of “Honeycomb” Vaulting in the Hall of the Abbencerajes, Photo by Vaughan Williams.

Mosques and Churches

Mosques designed as places of prayer not liturgical worship No images in Mosques Mosques oriented toward Mecca

Direction of Mecca is marked by a niche Niche may hold a lamp Minbar raised platform for reading Qur’an located to right of

the niche Church interiors designed to draw worshippers from secular

to sacred Sacred images are helpful to establish an atmosphere

conducive to worship Ritual of gathering, word, prayer, Holy Communion, sending

Layout of Saint Peter’s Basilica

Interior of Saint Paul’sOutside the Wall

Ceiling Fresco: Saint Paul’s Outside the Walls, Rome

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Mosque & Church

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