INTRODUCTION TO WATER POLLUTION PARAMETERS -CONCEPT, OBJECTIVES AND NEED OF WATER QUALITY MONITORING, SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS

INDRODUCTION TO WATER POLLUTION PARAMETERINDRODUCTION TO WATER POLLUTION PARAMETER

DR. I.D. MALLDepartment of Chemical Engg.

Indian Institute of Technology, RoorkeeRoorkee- 247667

INTRODUCTION TO WATER POLLUTION PARAMETERSINTRODUCTION TO WATER POLLUTION PARAMETERS-CONCEPT, OBJECTIVES AND NEED OF WATER -CONCEPT, OBJECTIVES AND NEED OF WATER

QUALITY MONITORING, SAMPLING AND ANALYSISQUALITY MONITORING, SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS



WATER IS LIFE IT STARTS WITH WATER AND ENDS WITH WATER.


WATER IN ANCIENT INDIAWATER IN ANCIENT INDIA

Water is not lost in undergoing various processes of hydrological cycle namely, evaporation, condensation, rainfall, stream-flow etc., but gets converted from one form to another was known during the Vedic period.

Water intake by plants, division of water into minute particles by sun rays and wind, different types of clouds, their heights, their rainfall capacities etc., along with the prediction of rain-fall quantity in advance by observation of natural phenomenon is illustrated Puranas, Vrahat Samhita (550 A.D), Meghmala (900 A.D.) and other literature.



• The reference of rain-gauges are available in Arthasastra of Kautilya (400 B.C), and Astadhyayi of Panini (700 B.C).

• The quantity of rain-fall in various parts of India was also known to Kautilya. Indians were acquainted with the cyclonic and orographic effects on rain-fall, radiation and convectional heating of earth.

• Various other phenomena of infiltration, interception, stream-flow, geomorphology, artesian wells and erosive action of water were well understood.



Ground-water development and quality consideration were getting sufficient attention as evidenced by Vrahat Samhita (550 A. D.)

Water management and conservation, well organized water pricing system in 400 B.C.

Construction methods and materials of dam, tanks etc., bank protection, spillways and other considerations mentioned in the ancient books reflect the high stage of development of water resources and hydrology in ancient India.


INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

• It is no accident that Earth is often referred to as `the water planet'. Earth is unique amongst planets of our solar system largely because of its abundant water - in oceans, in the atmosphere, in glaciers and as fresh water on land. Without water, life as we know it, could not exist.

• Even though water is abundant, the amount of potable fresh water available is a tiny fraction of the total amount of water in the world. The vast majority of the world's water is in the oceans, but because of the salts in ocean water it is largely unsuitable for use. The supply of fresh water is limited, vulnerable to human abuse and not evenly distributed in both time and space.


• World oceans cover about three fourth of earth’s surface. According to the UN estimates, the total amount of water on earth is about 1400 million cubic kilometre (m.cu.km.) which is enough to cover the earth with a layer of 3000 metres depth. However the fresh water constitutes a very small proportion of this enormous quantity.



• About 2.7 per cent of the total water available on the earth is fresh water of which about 75.2 per cent lies frozen in polar regions and another 22.6 per cent is present as ground water. The rest is available in lakes, rivers, atmosphere, moisture, soil and vegetation. What is effectively available for consumption and other uses is a small proportion of the quantity available in rivers, lakes and ground water.




GLOBAL WATER CRISISGLOBAL WATER CRISIS

• The dawning of the 21st Century brings with it a global water crisis. If we continue business as usual (increasing population, water usage, pollution and wastage) it is estimated that by the year 2030 the global water demand for freshwater will exceed the supply. Currently more than one-third of the world's population experiences serious water problems and polluted water sickens more than 1 billion people each year. (UNESCO Sources No 84, November 1996).


INDIAN WATER CRISISINDIAN WATER CRISIS

• India has 2.45 % of the world's land area, 16 % of the population and 4 % of its water resources - yet water is an increasingly scarce resource, unless we learn to manage it better.



WHAT IS WATER POLLUTIONWHAT IS WATER POLLUTION

Any physical, biological, or chemical change in water quality that adversely affects living organisms can be considered pollution.– Point Sources - Discharge pollution from specific

locations.• Factories, Power plants

– Non-Point Sources - Scattered or diffuse, having no specific location of discharge.

• Agricultural fields, Feedlots.

Atmospheric Deposition - Contaminants carried by air currents and precipitated into watersheds or directly onto surface waters.


IDENTIFYING SOURCES OF WATER IDENTIFYING SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTIONPOLLUTION

IDENTIFYING SOURCES OF WATER IDENTIFYING SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTIONPOLLUTION

Point SourcesSpecific discharge locations

Point SourcesSpecific discharge locations

Nonpoint sources not traceable to any specific location

Nonpoint sources not traceable to any specific location

Biological oxygen demand

amount of O2 needed to break down organic materials

Biological oxygen demand

amount of O2 needed to break down organic materials

WaterQuality

Good 8-9

Do (ppm) at 20˚C

Slightlypolluted

Moderatelypolluted

Heavilypolluted

Gravelypolluted

6.7-8

4.5-6.7

Below 4.5

Below 4Fig. 19.2, p. 478


POINT AND NON-POINT SOURCESPOINT AND NON-POINT SOURCES


• Poor water quality continues to pose a major threat to human health. Diarrhoeal disease alone amounts to an estimated 4.3 % (62.5 million Daily) of the total Daily global burden of disease (WHO, 2002). It was estimated that 88% of that burden is attributable to unsafe water supply, sanitation and hygiene and is mostly concentrated on children in developing countries.


Water Quality IssuesWater Quality Issues• Seasonal variations• Hydrogeological

processes• Discharge rate

affecting the quality• Pollution due to

Industrial, domestic and industrial activities

• Eutrophication in surface water

• Sea water intrusion

• Sand quarrying in river beds

• Corrosion and scale formation in distribution lines

• Inadequacies in Treatment processes

• Inadequate care in distribution practices

• Lack of good sanitation practices

• Inadequate laws and legislations



Point Sources

AgriculturalNonpoint Source

ForestNonpoint Source

UrbanNonpoint Source

Septic Systems

FECAL COLIFORM SOURCESFECAL COLIFORM SOURCES


Pollution of StreamsPollution of StreamsPollution of StreamsPollution of StreamsOxygen sag curveOxygen sag curve

Clean ZoneClean Zone DecompositionDecompositionZoneZone

Septic ZoneSeptic Zone Recovery ZoneRecovery Zone Clean ZoneClean Zone

Normal clean water organisms(Trout, perch, bass,

mayfly, stonefly)

Trash fish(carp, gar,Leeches)

Fish absent, fungi,Sludge worms,

bacteria(anaerobic)

Trash fish(carp, gar,Leeches)

Normal clean water organisms(Trout, perch, bass,

mayfly, stonefly)

8 ppm

Dissolved oxygen

Biological oxygendemand

Oxygen sag

2 ppm

8 ppm

Co

nce

ntr

ati

on

Co

nce

ntr

ati

on

Typ

es o

fT

ypes

of

org

anis

ms

org

anis

ms

Time or distance downstreamTime or distance downstream

Direction of flow

Point of waste orheat discharge

Fig. 19.3, p. 479


Pollution of LakesPollution of Lakes

EutrophicationEutrophication algal bloomsalgal blooms

EutrophicationEutrophication algal bloomsalgal blooms Slow Slow

turnoverturnover 1-100 yrs to flush1-100 yrs to flush

Slow Slow turnoverturnover

1-100 yrs to flush1-100 yrs to flush Thermal Thermal

stratificationstratification little/no mixinglittle/no mixing

Thermal Thermal stratificationstratification

little/no mixinglittle/no mixing

Discharge of untreatedmunicipal sewage

(nitrates and phosphates)Nitrogen compounds

produced by carsand factories

Discharge of treatedmunicipal sewage

(primary and secondarytreatment:

nitrates and phosphates)

Discharge of detergents

( phosphates)

Natural runoff(nitrates andphosphates

Manure runoffFrom feedlots(nitrates andPhosphates,

ammonia)

Dissolving of nitrogen oxides

(from internal combustionengines and furnaces)

Runoff and erosion(from from cultivation,mining, construction,

and poor land use)

Runoff from streets,lawns, and construction

lots (nitrates andphosphates)

Lake ecosystemnutrient overload

and breakdown of chemical cycling


SEASONAL STRATIFICATION OF SEASONAL STRATIFICATION OF A LAKEA LAKE


FOUR STAGES IN THE LIFE OF FOUR STAGES IN THE LIFE OF LAKESLAKES


Groundwater Pollution: SourcesGroundwater Pollution: SourcesGroundwater Pollution: SourcesGroundwater Pollution: Sources

Low flow ratesLow flow rates Low flow ratesLow flow rates

FewFewbacteriabacteria

FewFewbacteriabacteria

Cold temperatures: slow Cold temperatures: slow down reactionsdown reactions

Cold temperatures: slow Cold temperatures: slow down reactionsdown reactions

Waste lagoon,pond, or basin

Miningsite

Pumpingwell

Waterpumping

well

Sewer

Cesspoll,septictank

Hazardous wasteinjectionwell

Buried gasolineand solvent

tanksLandfill

Roadsalt

Unconfined freshwater aquifer

Confined freshwater aquifer

Confined aquifer Discharge

Leakagefrom faultycasingGroundwater

Groundwater flow


THE ZONES OF POLLUTION IN STREAMSTHE ZONES OF POLLUTION IN STREAMS


Oxygen-Demanding WastesOxygen-Demanding Wastes

• Water with an oxygen content > 6 ppm will support desirable aquatic life.

• Water with < 2 ppm oxygen will support mainly detritivores and decomposers.

• Oxygen is added to water by diffusion from wind and waves, and by photosynthesis from green plants, algae, and cyanobacteria.

• Oxygen is removed from water by respiration and oxygen-consuming processes.


Oxygen Sag CurveOxygen Sag Curve


Oxygen Sag Oxygen Sag


PLANT NUTRIENTS AND CULTURAL PLANT NUTRIENTS AND CULTURAL EUTROPHICATIONEUTROPHICATION

• Oligotrophic - Bodies of water that have clear water and low biological productivity.

• Eutrophic - Bodies of water that are rich in organisms and organic material.– Eutrophication - Process of increasing nutrient

levels and biological productivity.• Cultural Eutrophication - Increase in biological

productivity and ecosystem succession caused by human activities.


MAJOR CATEGORIES OF POLLUTIONMAJOR CATEGORIES OF POLLUTION


MAJOR CATEGORIES OF WATER POLLUTIONMAJOR CATEGORIES OF WATER POLLUTION

1) INFECTIOUS AGENTS: Bacteria, Viruses, Protozoans and Parasites.

• SOURCES: Human and animal excreta• HARMFUL EFFECTS: causes disease, health

problems2) ORGANIC CHEMICALS: Oil, Gasoline,

Pesticides, Plastics, Detergents• SOURCES: Industrial and household waste,

agricultural production, roads, golf courses, oil spills• HARMFUL EFFECTS: causes disease, health

problems


3) INORGANIC CHEMICALS: Acids, Bases, Metals (Pb, As, Se) and Salts

• SOURCES: Industrial effluents, processing fossil fuels / petroleum distillation, mining, household chemicals, farming / road salt, surface runoff

• HARMFUL EFFECTS: causes health problems such as cancer and nervous system damage, pollutes freshwater, harms aquatic life, lowers crop yields

4) RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS: U, Th, Ce, I, Ra• SOURCES: Mining and Processing Ores, Weapons

Production, Power Plants

• HARMFUL EFFECTS: causes health problems such as cancer, birth defects, miscarriages and mutations


5) SEDIMENT: Sand, silt, clay, soil• SOURCES: Deforestation, logging, mining mineral

resources, urban construction• HARMFUL EFFECTS: Harms aquatic organisms and

food webs, reduces biological production, carries pesticides/bacteria, clogs lakes/reservoirs/ streams/harbors

6) PLANT NUTRIENTS: Nitrates, Phosphates and Ammonia

• SOURCES: Agricultural and Urban runoff (fertilizers), Sewage, Manure.

• HARMFUL EFFECTS: algal blooms, ecosystem disruption, health problems


7) OXYGEN DEMANDING WASTES: Animal Manure, Sewage, Plant Residues

• SOURCES: Septic Tanks, Sewage, Agriculture Runoff, Food Processing, and Paper Mills

• HARMFUL EFFECTS: lowers dissolved oxygen content, harms aquatic life, ecosystem disruption

8) THERMAL: Heat• SOURCES: Power Plants / Industrial

Cooling, Loss of Riparian Flora • HARMFUL EFFECTS: lowers dissolved oxygen

content, harms aquatic life, ecosystem disruption, thermal shock


INORGANIC POLLUTANTSINORGANIC POLLUTANTS

• Metals – Many metals such as mercury, lead, cadmium, and nickel are

highly toxic.• Highly persistent and tend to bioaccumulate in food chains.

– Lead pipes are a serious source of drinking water pollution.– Mine drainage and leaching are serious sources of environmental

contamination.

• Nonmetallic Salts– Many salts that are non-toxic at low concentrations can be

mobilized by irrigation and concentrated by evaporation, reaching levels toxic to plants and animals.

• Leaching of road salts has had detrimental effect on many ecosystems.

• Acids and Bases– Often released as by-products of industrial processes.


ORGANIC CHEMICALSORGANIC CHEMICALS

• Thousands of natural and synthetic organic chemicals are used to make pesticides, plastics, pharmaceuticals, pigments, etc.

• Two most important sources of toxic organic chemicals in water are:– Improper disposal of industrial and household

wastes.– Runoff of pesticides from high-use areas.

• Fields, roadsides, golf courses


WATER QUALITY IMPACT ANALYSIS

Water Quality Criteria: The level of specific concentrations of Constituents which are expected, if not exceeded to assure the suitability of water for specific use.

Water Quality Standards: These are legal regulations established by the states limiting the concentration of various constituents in water.

Stream Quality Standards: Ambient water ways .Effluent Standards: Discharge of liquid effluents into those water ways


Water Quality StandardsWater Quality Standards

• Stream standards

• Effluent standards

• Drinking water standards


BENEFITS OF WATER QUALITY BENEFITS OF WATER QUALITY STANDARDS STANDARDS

• Water quality standards serve as the foundation for the water quality-based approach to pollution control and are a fundamental component of watershed management.


STREAM STANDARDSSTREAM STANDARDSSET LIMIT ON POLLUTANTS, SET LIMIT ON POLLUTANTS,

ON SURFACE WATERON SURFACE WATER

RIVER

EFFLUENT STANDARDS

TREATMENT SET LIMITATION RAW

EFFLUENT AMOUNT OF POLLUTION WATER

IN EFFLUENT

SEWAGE WATER

TREATMENT TREATMENT

RAW SEWAGE POTABLE WATER


INDIAN STANDARDS FOR QUALITY INDIAN STANDARDS FOR QUALITY MONITORINGMONITORING

• Water : General

• Indian standards for waste water effluent (YOP 1991) • Groundwater resource estimates as per norms:GWEC (1985 to 1992) • Fresh-water resources and withdrawals (1970 to 1980) • Global water quality:river pollution indicators (1991-92) • Housing,safe drinking water & toilets ament.:India (1991) • Liquid effluents from oil refineries : MINAS (YOP 1995) • Growth of water quality monitoring network (1977 to 1992) • Industries along Ganga : pollution control status (YOP 1995) • Excedences of BOD & total coliform refernce levels (1979 to 1989) • State-wise break-up of effluent treatment plants (YOP 1995) • Lower-bound estimates of annual toxic releases (1980 to 1988)

Water : Industry

• Emissions and liquid effluents from oil refineries (YOP 1991)


CLASSIFICATION OF CLASSIFICATION OF DRINKING WATER SOURCESDRINKING WATER SOURCES

1) Surface water

2) Ground water

3) Sub soil water in River Beds

• Surface Water (low TDS but high Turbidity, suspended matter and bacterial contamination)

• Ground water (Colorless, less bacterial contamination but has high TDS, Fluoride, nitrate, Hardness, Alkalinity etc.)

• Sub-Soil Water (Purest form of Drinking Water - Colorless and low TDS)


PRIMARY WATER QUALITY CRITERIAPRIMARY WATER QUALITY CRITERIA


PRIMARY WATER QUALITY CRITERIAPRIMARY WATER QUALITY CRITERIA


WATER QUALITY MONITORINGWATER QUALITY MONITORING

It is the foundation on which water quality management is based. Monitoring provides the information that permits rational decisions to be made on the following:

• Describing water resources and identifying actual and emerging problems of water pollution.

• Formulating plans and setting priorities for water quality management.

• Developing and implementing water quality management programme.

• Evaluating the effectiveness of management actions.


QUALITY OF THE AQUATIC QUALITY OF THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTENVIRONMENT

• Water quality

• The composition and state of the biological life present in the water body,

• The nature of the particulate matter present,

• The physical description of the water body (hydrology, dimensions, nature of lake bottom or river bed, etc.).


Complete assessment of the quality Complete assessment of the quality of the aquatic environmentof the aquatic environment

• Chemical analyses of water, particulate matter and aquatic organisms (such as planktonic algae and selected parts of organisms such as fish muscle), ·

• Biological tests, such as toxicity tests and measurements of enzyme activities,

• Descriptions of aquatic organisms, including their occurrence, density, biomass, physiology and diversity (from which, for example, a biotic index may be Developed or microbiological characteristics determined), and

• Physical measurements of water temperature, pH, conductivity, light penetration, particle size of suspended and deposited material, dimensions of the water body, flow velocity, hydrological balance, etc.


IMPORTANT PROCESSES IMPORTANT PROCESSES AFFECTING WATER QUALITYAFFECTING WATER QUALITY


IMPORTANT PROCESSES IMPORTANT PROCESSES AFFECTING WATER QUALITYAFFECTING WATER QUALITY


FRESHWATER QUALITY FRESHWATER QUALITY DETERIORATION AT THE GLOBAL LEVEL DETERIORATION AT THE GLOBAL LEVEL


THE PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS OF A WATER THE PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS OF A WATER QUALITY MONITORING PLANQUALITY MONITORING PLAN

• A clear statement of aims and objectives, · information expectations and intended uses,

• A description of the study area concerned,• A description of the sampling sites,• A listing of the water quality variables that will be

measured,• Proposed frequency and timing of sampling,• An estimate of the resources required to

implement the design, and a plan for quality control and quality assurance.


DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES OF WATER DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES OF WATER QUALITY MONITORING AND ASSESSMENTQUALITY MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT

• Uses of water. Does water meet user requirements for quantity and quality? (For example, with respect to meeting use-defined standards. In this context conservation of biodiversity may be considered a water use.)

• Influences on water quality from direct use or from other human activities or natural processes. What are these influences?

• Impacts on water quality (e.g. water as a medium for pollutant transport and exposure).

• Control and regulation of water quality. What is the capacity of water to assimilate pollutants? Are standards met? Are control strategies and management action appropriate and effective?


DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES OF WATER DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES OF WATER QUALITY MONITORING AND ASSESSMENTQUALITY MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT

• How does water quality differ geographically in relation to uses and quality influences?

• How have past trends in water quality, influences and policies led to the present status?

• What factors in present water quality and in the past, present and planned activities, give an insight into future trends? What will these be?

• How does water quality influence other parts of the environment, such as marine coastal waters, soils, biota, wetlands?


WATER SAMPLING, ANALYSIS, AND WATER SAMPLING, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATIONINTERPRETATION

• Step 1: Prepare sample containers for sampling. These containers mustn't contain any of the compounds that samples are to be analyzed for. Sampling bottle material must be suitable for sampling the water without affecting the compound.

• Step 2: The sampling procedure. This must be rigorous, ensuring that a representative sample is collected and at no time is the sample or sample bottle contaminated by the collector. This is no trivial task when it comes to collecting samples with low levels of compounds such as phosphorus. Depending on the compounds to be analyzed, a preservative may be necessary.

• Step 3: Transport to the laboratory for analysis. This needs to be done under appropriate conditions, often in a dark cooler with ice packs.


WATER SAMPLING, ANALYSIS, AND WATER SAMPLING, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATIONINTERPRETATION

• Step 4: Processing the water sample. Many samples need to be filtered before testing. In some cases, the filtering step must be done in the field as soon as the sample has been collected. The sample analysis needs to be carried out according to a protocol that doesn't introduce contaminants or otherwise compromise the sample. After suitable processing, the sample is ready to be analyzed.

• Step 5: Analysis. This fifth step can also introduce problems. The laboratory needs to have quality control/assurance procedures in place so analytical values aren't compromised.

• Step 6: Interpretation. An agency or individual submitting the sample needs to take a good look at the numbers and try to make sense of them. Because there may have been problems with one or two steps in the sequence, the numbers may make little sense.


OVERALL PLAN FOR WATER OVERALL PLAN FOR WATER QUALITY SURVEYQUALITY SURVEY

• The overall Plan for water quality survey– Detail plan of sample collection– Provision of laboratory analysis– Description of the methods to be used for data

• The Plan must address– Location of sampling point– Parameters to be analysed– Time Schedule including time of Day, time of year and frequency

• CONSERVATIVE SAMPLES: Concentration of conservative material changes with time.e.g Chlorides, Total solids, heavy metals etc.

• NONCONSERVATIVE SAMPLES: Concentration of non conservative material do not change with time BOD,COD,Temp.etc.


PLANNING FOR SAMPLINGPLANNING FOR SAMPLING

Objective of water quality monitoring System:• To assess the impact of activities by man

upon the quality of water and its suitability for require uses.

• To determine the quality of water in its natural state which might be available to meet the future needs

• To keep under observations the sources & path way of specified hazardous substances


TYPE OF SAMPLESTYPE OF SAMPLES GRAB SAMPLES: Grab Samples are samples

collected at a particular time and space. They represent the composition at that time and place. When a source is known to vary in time, as in the case of waste effluents, grab samples collected at suitable time intervals and analysed separately can be of greater value.

COMPOSITE SAMPLES: Composite samples are a mixture of grab samples collected at one sampling point at different times. The composite samples are useful for observing values. Individual samples are collected in wide mouth bottles every hour and mixed in volume proportional to the flow.

INTEGRATED SAMPLES: Integrated samples are a mixture of grab samples collected from different points simultaneously and mixed in equal volumes.


SAMPLING FREQUENCY FOR WATER SAMPLING FREQUENCY FOR WATER STATIONS STATIONS

• Baseline stations (Headwater lakes or undisturbed upstream river stretches)

• StreamsMinimum: 4 per year, including high- and low-water stages

Optimum: 24 per year (every second week); weekly for total suspended solids

• Headwater lakes• Minimum: 1 per year at turnover; sampling at lake outlet

Optimum: 1 per year at turnover, plus 1 vertical profile at end of stratification season

•


SAMPLING FREQUENCY FOR SAMPLING FREQUENCY FOR WATER STATIONSWATER STATIONS

• Trend stations (Major river basins, large lakes or major aquifers)

• RiversMinimum: 12 per year for large drainage areas, approximately 100,000 km2

Maximum: 24 per year for small drainage areas, approximately 10,000 km2

• Lakes/reservoirsFor issues other than eutrophication:

Minimum: 1 per year at turnover

Maximum: 2 per year at turnover, 1 at maximum thermal stratification

For eutrophication:

12 per year, including twice monthly during the summer

• GroundwatersMinimum: 1 per year for large, stable aquifers

Maximum: 4 per year for small, alluvial aquifers


SITE SELECTIONSITE SELECTION

The selection of sampling site is decided by various uses of the water and by their location, relative magnitude and importance

SITE SELECTION FOR RIVERS:• Immediately down stream of an international boundary• At a place of abstraction for public supply of larger town• In an important fishing, recreation and amenity zone• At a place of abstraction for large scale agricultural irrigation• At afresh water tidal limit of major river• Art a place of abstraction of large industrial supply• Down stream of industrial effluent discharges and important

tributatory influencing main river• Base line station where water is available in natural in natural

state


LOCATION OF SAMPLING POINTSLOCATION OF SAMPLING POINTS

• Sampling point to be located to provide an accurate description of existing water Quality

• Sampling point to be selected to maximize the ease of sampling

• Location of sampling point primarily dependent on the Physical situation

• For rapidly moving ,narrow shallow stream : complete mixed, both laterally and vertically-one sample point at each location

• For wide rivers canals,, Lakes or estuaries it may be necessary to collect multiple samples at each cross sections along the stream


• If water bodies stratified at least two samples must be taken, one at the mid point of the epilimnion ( above the thermocline or Chemocline) and one at mid point of the hypolimnion( below the thermocline or Chemocline)

• For stream less than 1000ft wide but more than 100 ft wide three equally spaced sampling points are prescribed across the cross section

• For wide rivers or lakes ( wider greater than 1000ft at lest five equally spaced sampling points are suggested


LOCATION OF SAMPLING POINTS IN LOCATION OF SAMPLING POINTS IN FLOWING WATERS FLOWING WATERS


SITE LOCATION FOR LAKESITE LOCATION FOR LAKE

• At a place where principle feeder tributary meets the lake

• At a central place of lake

• At a place from where water is pumped for water supply for major city

• At a place from where water is discharged from lake


Watershed Probabilistic SamplingWatershed Probabilistic Sampling

• Objectives:– Sample randomly selected

sites throughout major river basins to assess and characterize overall water quality through the integration of chemical, physical, and biological parameters.


LOCATION OF SAMPLING POINTS LOCATION OF SAMPLING POINTS IN LAKESIN LAKES

For lakes or reservoirs of 10 m depth or more it is essential, therefore, that the position of the thermocline is first investigated by means of regularly-spaced temperature readings through the water column (e.g. metre intervals).

• 1 m below the water surface, • just above the determined depth of the thermocline,• just below the determined depth of the thermocline,

and• 1 m above the bottom sediment (or closer if this can

be achieved without disturbing the sediment).


ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR WATER QUALITY MONITORINGWATER QUALITY MONITORING

Test Principle Colour Platinum–cobalt method, spectrophotometer, Total, Suspended Dissolved and Fixed Solids

Gravity Method

Turbidity Turbidity meter, Nephlo meter (NTU), Jackson turbidity meter (JTU)

Alkalinity, Acidity Titration method using Methyl Orange Hardness EDTA method Choride Titration method using silver nitrate solution and potassium

chromate indicator Oil and grease Partition gravimeteric method by extracting with trichloro tri

fluoro ethane, petroleum ether or hexane.



Test Principle Dissolved oxugen Wrikler method using MnSO4

BOD Mercury free BOD analyzer COD Reflux method with potassium dichromate and silver sulphate

catalyst in strong sulphuric acid. HACK COD analyzer TOC TOC analyzer based on methane, CO2

Coliforms Membrane filter method (coliform per 100 ml), multiple tube fermentor method (MPN)

AOX/TOX, EOX and POX

AOX analyzer

Sulphate Titrimetric method (Barium ions) Sodium Flame photometry, Zinc uranyl acetate method Fluoride Selective ion electrode method, SPADNS method, Fluoride

distillation



Test Principle Phosphorus wet oxidation with potassium peroxydisulphate Nitrogen, ammonia titration or colorimetrically using Nessler’s reagent Nitrogen, Kjeldahl sulphuric acid and a catalyst, alcohol coupled with Photometry Nitrogen, nitrite Spectrophotometric method using sulphanilamide, N-(1-naphthyl)-

ethylenediamine dihydrochloride to form an intensely red-coloured azo-compound

Nitrogen, nitrate Phenol di sulphnoic method, UV spectrophtometer Sulphite Precipitation cadmium acetate method, iodometeric method Heavy metals Spectrophotometeric method, AAS, ICP-MS etc. Selenium Fluorometric Method, photometric diaminobenzidine method Mercury Mercury analyzer by converting all forms of mercury to metallic

mercury, ICP-MS Phenols Colurimeteric method using 4-amino antipyrine, spectrophotometer

in UV range, chloform extraction method. Pesticides Chromotographic method (FID), HPLC


ANALYSISANALYSIS

• Analysis– Analytical Technology– Sample Preparation – Monitoring (Air, Water, and Waste)– Quality Assurance & Method Development– Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals– Dioxin & PCBs– Pesticides– Future Trend on Monitoring Technique


ANALYTICAL TECHNOLOGY FOR ANALYTICAL TECHNOLOGY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORINGENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING

• Electrochemical analysis• Absorption spectroscopy• Atomic absorption spectroscopy• ICP emission spectroscopy• Ion chromatography• Liquid chromatography.• Gas chromatography.• Mass Spectrometry• Immunoassay• Biological Monitoring of pollutants.


TYPES OF INSTRUMENTAL METHODSTYPES OF INSTRUMENTAL METHODS

CHARECTERSTIC INSTRUMENTAL

PROPERTIES METHODS Emission radiation Emission spectroscopy(x-

ray,uv, visible,

electron, Auger), fluorescence,

phosphorescence and luminescence

(x-ray,uv,and visible),

Absorption of radiation spectrophotometry and phoometry

( X-ray, uv, visible, IR),

photoacoustic,

spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic

resonance and electron spin

resonance spectrscopy.



CHARECTERSTIC INSTRUMENTAL

PROPERTIES METHODS Scattering of radiation Turbidimetry, nephelometry,

Raman spectroscopy.

Refraction of radiation Refractometry, interferometry.

Diffraction of radiation X-ray and electron diffraction methods.

Rotation of radiation Polarimetry, optical rotary

dispersion, circular dichroism.



CHARECTERSTIC INSTRUMENTALPROPERTIES METHODS Electrical potential Ppotentiometry, chronpotentiometry. Electrical charge coulometry . Electrical current Amperometry,polarography

Electrical resistance conductometry.

Mass gravimetry.

Mass to charge ratio Mass spectrometry.

Rate of reaction kinetic methods.

Thermal chracteristics thermal gravimetry

Radioactivity Activation and isotope dilution methods.


UV/VISIBLE MOLECULAR UV/VISIBLE MOLECULAR ABSORPTION SPECTROMETRYABSORPTION SPECTROMETRY

• Absorption spectroscopy based upon electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength 170-780 nm.

• Measurement of Transmittance T or Absorbance A.• Used for the analysis of wide variety of pollutants

organic, inorganic, etc.


POTENTIOMETRYPOTENTIOMETRY• Based on the measurement of the potential

of electro chemical cells in the absence of appreciable current.– Reference electrode– Indicator electrode.– Potential measuring devices.

• Electrodes- Silver/silver chloride, membrane Indicators.

• Ion selective membranes– Permits the rapid and selective determination of

numerous cations and anions by direct potentiometric measurement.


Gas chromatography Liquid chromatography

Mobile phase :

- gas vaporization of sample

- m.w. < 500

- heat stability

Separation : chemical affinity

and diff. In b.p. of mixtures on

stationary phase

Mobile phase :

- liquid solubility of sample

- wide range of mol. wt.

- near to room temp.

Separation : affinity diff. of

mixtures between stationary

phase and mobile phase

CHROMATOGRAPHYCHROMATOGRAPHY


- GAS CHROMATOGRAPH

Flow Control

SampleIntro-DuctionSystem

OVEN

COLUMN

DETECTOR

CarrierGas

Gas Filters

SampleInjected

Here

Qualitative &Quantitative

Data

Integrator/Data System

GAS CHROMATOGRAPHYGAS CHROMATOGRAPHY• What Does the Basic Gas Chromatographic

System Look Like?


•Carrier Gas•Injection (split, splitless, direct, On-column)•Column•Oven•Detector

•Electron Capture Detector (ECD)•Flame Ionisation Detector (FID) •Photo Ionisation Detector (PID)•Thermal conductivity detectors (TCD•Flame photometric detector (FPD)


HIGH PRESSURE LIQUID HIGH PRESSURE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY (HPLC)CHROMATOGRAPHY (HPLC)

• HPLC is widely used because of sensitivity, ready adaptability, suitability for separating nonvolatile species or thermally fragile ones.

• Mobile phase is Liquid.

• Partition chromatography- Liquid-Liquid bonded phase

• Adsorption chromatography- best suited for non-polar compounds. MW < 500

• Ion exchange (IC) chromatography – Anion/cation exchangers.


HPLC HPLC

• Mobil phase

• Injector

• Column (separation mode, RT., Capacity factor, Selectivity, Resolution)

• Detector : RI, UV/VIS, FL., EC, Conductivity


Mobile Phase Reservoir

Gradient Device

Pump

PressureGauge

PulseDamper Injector Column Detector Fraction

Collector

DataSystem

HPLC SystemHPLC System


MOLECULAR MASS SPECTROMETRYMOLECULAR MASS SPECTROMETRY

Provide information about• The elemental composition of sample of matter.• The structure of inorganic, organic and biological

molecules.• The quantitative/qualitative composition of

complex mixtures.• The structure and composition of solid surfaces.• Isotopic ratio of atoms.


MASS SPECTROMETRYMASS SPECTROMETRY

• Ionization process– Ionization– Fragmentation– Electron ionization– Chemical ionization


• Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry

(ICPMS)

• Magnetic Sector Mass Spectrometry (MSMS)

• Quadrupole Mass Spectrometry (QTMS)

• Ion Trap Quadrupole Mass Spectrometry (ITMS)

• Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry (ToFMS)

• Ion Cyclotron Resonance Mass

Spectrometry(ICRMS)

• Ion Mobility Mass Spectrometry(IMMS)

• Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry(IRMS)


Chromatography Spectroscopy High Sensitive Analytical Instrumen(hypernated analytical instrument)

+

GC

GC

ICP-MS(AED)

IR

GC/MS

GC/ICP-MS(AED)

GC/IR

HPLC(IC)

MS(APCI, ESI)

ICP-MS

IR

HPLC(IC)/MS

HPLC(IC)/ICP-MS

HPLC(IC)/IR

NMR HPLC(IC)/NMRHPLC(IC)/NMRResearch Stage

HYPERNATED TECHNOLOGY BETWEEN GC, HYPERNATED TECHNOLOGY BETWEEN GC, HPLC HPLC && SPECTROSCOPY SPECTROSCOPY


Water Quality Monitoring Instruments Developed and/or Water Quality Monitoring Instruments Developed and/or Manufactured in IndiaManufactured in India

Instrument Pollutants/ parameters

Principles of operation, range and accuracy

Water-quality monitor/water analysis kit

pH, dissolved oxygen, ORP, temperature, conductivity

Electrochemical analyzer, sensor using glass, AG/age polarographic, thermistor plantized or induction or potentiometric

Digital pH meter pH Glass electrode 0-14 pH 0.02 pH units

Water sampler Sample effluent collection

Automatic collection of 20 hours water samples of desired volume, primary source

Direct recording spectrophotometer/colorimeter

Particulate and dissolved impurities

Absorption spectroscopy 350-700 nm

Direct recording polarograph

Various elements and diverse types organic substances

Polarography sensitivity 0.003-1.5a/g in 20 steps

Specific ion electrode (water)

Specific elements for spot check

Specific ion reference and measuring electrode 0.5 ppm

Turbidity meter Suspended solids Detection of scattered lights Gas chromatography equipment

Elements/compounds

Gas chromatography with various detectors, electron capture, flame, thermal conductivity sensitivity 10-12 g


WATER QUALITY MONITORING INSTRUMENTS WATER QUALITY MONITORING INSTRUMENTS DEVELOPED AND/OR MANUFACTURED IN INDIADEVELOPED AND/OR MANUFACTURED IN INDIA

Instrument Pollutants/ parameters

Principles of operation, range and accuracy

Mercury analyser Conversion and absorption

UV absorption

Water surface follower

For slowly varying water levels

Charge or resistance monitored, servo principle used to keeping the sensor at 0.2 mm in water

Minicurrent meter for water flow rate

Water flow rate Propeller in jewel bearings

Water level recorder

Water level Change of resistance between rods, set value of water level indicated

Wave height recorder

Wave height and wave level

Using variable capacitance sensors, range 20 cms., Accuracy 5%

20-channel data logger

(a) Simultaneous temperature measurement (b) Water speeds at various locations

Thermistor probes Automatic printer Five vane, 15-mm diameter propeller, signal conditioner and loggers


CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION• Water is often regarded as an essentially free

resource. However, it is not free, each drop of the water costs to society, nation, and world in totality. Global water consumption increased 6 times in the past century.

• The wars of the next century will be over water – not oil or politics and it is feared that the growing water scarcity is causing interstate tension which may explode into violent conflicts over the earth’s fundamental water resources.

• With increasing demand and depleting water resources it is our prime duty to control pollution of water and save each drop of water.

Education

INTRODUCTION TO WATER POLLUTION PARAMETERS -CONCEPT, OBJECTIVES AND NEED OF WATER QUALITY MONITORING, SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS