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Memory: Part IBrian J. Piper, Ph.D.

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Goals

• Overview (26)• Encoding (27)• Storage (28)• Retrieval (29)• Forgetting (30)

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Memory

Memory is the basis for knowing your friends, your neighbors, the English language, the national anthem, and

yourself.

If memory was nonexistent, everyone would be a stranger to you; every

language foreign; every task new; and even you yourself would be a stranger.

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Definition

Memory is learning that has persisted over time. It is our ability to store and

retrieve information.

Cognitive Psychology & Cognitive Neuroscience

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Which one is the real penny?A B C D E

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2

3

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Impact of Lack of Memory

• Clive Wearing (0:10-7:00)http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WmzU47i2xgw&feature=related

Damage to the temporal cortex (herpes simplex encephalitus)

Antereograde Amnesia

Some functions spared. Why?

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Information Processing Models of Memory (Simple)

Keyboard(Encoding)

Disk(Storage)

Monitor(Retrieval)

Sequential Process

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Information Processing Model (Moderate)

• Atkinson-Schiffrin Model (1968)

Duration Size

Sensory Memory <1 second Infinite?

Short-Term Memory 1/2 minute ≈7

Long-Term Memory 1 lifetime Large

1929-1943-

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Modifications to the Three-Stage Model

1. Some information skips the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically.

2. Since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we select information that is important to us and actively process it into our working memory.

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Information Processing (Complex)

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Working Memory

Our ability to store and manipulate information for a brief time

Corsi Block Tapping Test Tower of London

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Working Memory Across the Lifespan

• Spatial working memory shows an inverted-U shaped relationship with age.

Piper et al. (2011) Physiology & Behavior, 103, 513-522.

Part II: Encoding: Getting Information In How We Encode What We Encode

Encoding: Getting Information In

How We Encode

1. Some information (route to your school) is automatically processed.

2. However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell-phone number) requires attention and effort.

Automatic Processing

We process an enormous amount of information effortlessly, such as the

following:

1. Space: While reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page.

2. Time: We unintentionally note the events that take place in a day.

3. Autobiographical: You effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you.

Effortful Processing

Committing novel information to memory requires effort just like learning a concept from a textbook. Such processing leads to durable and accessible memories.

Rehearsal

Effortful learning usually requires

rehearsal or conscious

repetition.

Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ

Hermann Ebbinghaus(1850-1909)

Rehearsal

The more times the nonsense syllables

were practiced on Day 1,

the fewer repetitions were required to

remember them on Day 2.

Encoding Effects

1. Spacing Effect: We retain information better when we rehearse over time.

2. Serial Position Effect: When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items.

What We Encode

1. Encoding by meaning2. Encoding by images3. Encoding by organization

Encoding Meaning

Processing the meaning of verbal information by associating it with what we already know or imagine.

Encoding meaning (semantic encoding) results in better

recognition later than visual or acoustic encoding.

Visual EncodingMental pictures (imagery) are a powerful

aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.

Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it.

Mnemonics

Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids. Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and organizational devices in

aiding memory.

Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide

them into categories and subcategories.

Organizing Information for Encoding

1. Hierarchies2. Chunking

Hierarchy

Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided

into categories and subcategories.

Chunking I

Organizing items into a familiar, manageable unit. Try to remember the

numbers below.1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1

If you are well versed with American history, chunk the numbers together

and see if you can recall them better. 1776 1492 1812 1941.

Chunking II

Acronyms are another way of chunking information to remember it.

King Phillup Came Over From Germany Singing: K P C O G S

Oh, Oh, Oh, To Touch And Feel Very Good' Velvet Aah Hah: O O O T T A F V G V S H

Encoding Summarized in a Hierarchy

Part III: Storage: Retaining Information

Sensory Memory Working (Short-Term) Memory Long-Term Memory Storing Memories in the Brain

Storage: Retaining Information

Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown

below:SensoryMemory

WorkingMemory

Long-termMemory

Encoding

RetrievalEncoding

Events

Retrieval

Sensory Memory

SensoryMemory

WorkingMemory

Long-termMemory

Encoding

RetrievalEncoding

Events

Retrieval

Whole Report

The exposure time for the stimulus is so smallthat items cannot be rehearsed.

R G TF M QL Z S

50 ms

“Recall”R T M Z

(44% recall)

Sperling (1960) Psychological Monographs, 74 (498), 336.

Partial Report

Low Tone

Medium Tone

High Tone

“Recall”J R S

(100% recall)

Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacity was larger than what was originally

thought.

50 ms

S X TJ R SP K Y

Time Delay

“Recall”N _ _

(33% recall)

TimeDelay

50 ms

A D IN L VO G H

Low Tone

Medium Tone

High Tone

Sensory Memory

The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss.

20

40

60

80

Perc

en

t R

ecog

niz

ed

0.15 0.30 0.50 1.00Time (Seconds)

Sensory Memories

Iconic0.5 sec. long

Echoic3-4 sec. long

Hepatic< 1 sec. long

The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.

Working Memory

SensoryMemory

WorkingMemory

Long-termMemory

Encoding

RetrievalEncoding

Events

Retrieval

Projector Off!!

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Mini-Experiment

Size Stimuli

3 P X R

4 H G P A

5 Z C M I L

6 K H K S D E

7 V U J A Z I W

8 G O K Y R X D N

91011

S K J E Z F X Y TU N K M I H C Q P FR U J A Z I W T K D C

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Working Memory Capacity

• Address to the Eastern Psychological Association, April 15, 1955 by George A Miller & published in Psychological Review, 101, 343-352.

My problem is that I have been persecuted by an integer. For seven years this number has followed mearound, has intruded in my most private data, and has assaulted me from the pages of our most publicjournals. This number assumes a variety of disguises, being sometimes a little larger and sometimes alittle smaller than usual, but never changing so much as to be unrecognizable. The persistence with whichthis number plagues me is far more than a random accident. There is, to quote a famous senator, a designbehind it, some pattern governing its appearances. Either there really is something unusual about thenumber or else I am suffering from delusions of persecution.

Working Memory Capacity

You should be able to

recall 7±2 letters.

The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for

Processing Information (1956).

George A. Miller1920 -

M U T G I K T L R S Y P

Ready?

http://www.psych.utoronto.ca/users/peterson/psy430s2001/Miller%20GA%20Magical%20Seven%20Psych%20Review%201955.pdf

Chunking

F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M

The capacity of the working memory may be increased by “chunking.”

FBI TWA CIA IBM

4 chunks

Duration

Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the duration of working memory by

manipulating rehearsal.

CH??

The duration of the working memory is about 20 sec.

CHJMKTHIJ547

547544541…

Working Memory Duration

Peterson & Peterson (1959). Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 193-198.

Long-Term Memory

SensoryMemory

WorkingMemory

Long-termMemory

Encoding

RetrievalEncoding

Events

Retrieval

Memory Feats!!

• Digits of : 67,890• Spoken #s (1 per 2 sec): 400• 1 Pack of Cards: 21.2 sec• Playing cards in 10 min: 364

http://www.recordholders.org/en/list/memory.html#pi

Summary: Memory Stores

FeatureSensoryMemory

Working Memory

LTM

Encoding Copy Phonemic Semantic

Capacity Unlimited7±2

ChunksVery Large

Duration 0.25 sec. 20 sec. Years