Key Terms in Second Language Acquisition

1

In The Name of Allah

Key Terms in Second Language Acquisition

Masoud Dolatshahi

M.Dolatshahi EFLT

M.Dolatshahi EFLT 2

One important issue in SLA acquisition research is to establish how L2 learners acquire certain linguistic features.Another well-researched area of studies has attempted to establish a universal order of acquisition of relative clause structure. The Accessibility Hierarchy attempts to characterize the various types of relative clause construction .different languages

Accessibility Hierarchy/Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy

In SLA, the Acculturation Model is a theory proposed by John Schumann 1 to describe the acquisition process of a second language (L2) by members of ethnic minorities.The acculturation model claims that the process of acculturation (adapting to a new culture) is directly linked to acquisition.

Acculturation model

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second-language_acquisition

https://prezi.com/jz70ctec4gun/schumanns-acculturation-model-cortes-contextual-interaction-model/

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Two major factors are identified in

acculturation: social distance and psychological distance :anxiety,

motivation, and self-confidence


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Stephen Krashen www.sdkrashen.com

Acquisition involves processes by which learners internalize language from exposure to input (basically, samples of language they hear or read in communicative contexts). competence mental representation of language

Acquisition/acquisition versus learningAccording to Chomsky,

competence is the 'ideal' language system that makes it

possible for speakers to produce and understand an infinite

number of sentences in their language, and to distinguish grammatical sentences from

ungrammatical sentences

Mental representation refers to the underlying, abstract, and implicit (unconscious) linguistic system that exists in a speaker’s head . It is a synonym for competence.

http://www.sdkrashen.com/


M.Dolatshahi EFLT 6

learners from different language backgrounds ►morpheme studies ↓

Acquisition orders

1. -ing2. regular past tense3. irregular past tense4. third-person present tense –s.


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For instance, the learner is aware that the verb plays consists of play and -s, but the learner is still not able to produce plays correctly. The second stage is called the associative stage. At this point, the learner might be able to associate the fact that if the goal is to produce a third-person singular verb, then -s needs to be added to the verb. In the final stage, called the autonomous stage, the learner is able to increasingly produce the language more automatically. According to this model, it is through context specific and appropriate practice that learners move from declarative knowledge to the associative stage and finally to the autonomous stage.

Adaptive Control of Thought model


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* Second language acquisition as “skill learning”* Learning starts with declarative knowledge* Becomes procedural knowledge through practice* Processes become proceduralized /automized like other skills* Parallel to development from controlled to automatic processing

Robert DeKeyser:


M.Dolatshahi EFLT 9

Affective Filter is the term Stephen Krashen has used to refer to the complex of negative emotional and motivational factors that may interfere with the reception and processing of comprehensible input. Such factors include: anxiety, self-consciousness, boredom, annoyance, alienation, and so forth.

Affective (filter, activities, and so on)

(1) The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis. Krashen postulates that adults have two distinct ways of developing competence in a second language: acquisition, whereby language is learned by simply using it for communication, much as children learn their native language; and learning, or conscious study of the language. Krashen maintains that learning cannot lead to acquisition, implying that language proficiency is a result of natural acquisition rather than conscious study of grammar and vocabulary.

(2) The Natural Order Hypothesis. This hypothesis maintains that grammatical structures, particularly morphemes, are acquired (not learned) in a predictable order.

(3) The Monitor Hypothesis. This hypothesis states that utterances in the second language are initiated by the acquired system, not by rules that are consciously studied. The only function of conscious learning is for speakers to monitor the accuracy of their performance, when they are focusing on correctness, and they know the rules involved and have time to think about them.

(4) The Input Hypothesis. This hypothesis claims that individuals acquire language by understanding input that is slightly beyond their current level of competence. This input is generally in the form of listening or reading. Krashen represents this hypothesis with the formula I + 1, where I represents the person's current level of language competence.

(5) The Affective Filter Hypothesis. This hypothesis affirms that learners' attitudes and emotions can facilitate or impede language acquisition. When students experience anxiety, their "affective filter" prevents them from receiving input that could further their acquisition of the language.


M.Dolatshahi EFLT 10

Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of linguistics that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems. Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are education, psychology, computer science, communication research, anthropology, and sociology.

Applied linguistics



Language aptitude can be defined as a learner’s propensity to learn an L2, and is one of the many factors researched in the field of individual differences• working memory , mental

representation of language• Peter Robinson 1, Peter

Skehan, Richard Sparks, and Leonore Ganschow

Aptitude

http://www.cl.aoyama.ac.jp/~peterr/robinson.html



Aspect is a linguistic term referring to how people view and report events, regardless of tense.Aspect, however, crosses tense boundaries. A person can report any event as one that is in progress (e.g., “John is eating”) or not (e.g., “John eats three meals a day”).

Aspect



Attention is a cognitive process involving the ability to select and focus on particular stimuli from the environment while ignoring others. For example, while driving, a person selects and focuses on traffic, stoplights, crosswalks, and so on, while tending to ignore the sky, birds chirping in a tree, and the license plates on most other cars.

Attention

(1) learners must actively attend to linguistic stimuli in order to learn; and (2) attention may affect what learners can detect in the input at any given time.



Awareness refers to consciousness, that is, the degree to which people are conscious of what they are doing or learning.1) show that a change (cognitive or behavioral) has taken place as a result of that experience, (2) report that they are aware of what they are experiencing (e.g., they report noticing linguistic features in the input), and (3) describe their experience (e.g., verbalize an underlying rule of the L2).

Awareness



Avoidance behavior occurs when L2 learners attempt to avoid using structures in their production that are difficult as a result of (perceived) differences or similarities between their L1 and the target L2.*structure of the target language is complex*It is difficult to use in a particular context*They don’t like say it.Eric Kellerman and Jacquelyn Schachter.

Avoidance



Behaviorismhttp://study.com/academy/lesson/behaviorism-overview-practical-teaching-examples.html

Behaviorism B.F. Skinner

Play the video 1

Play video 2

http://study.com/academy/lesson/behaviorism-overview-practical-teaching-examples.html



http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/bf-skinner-the-man-who-taught-pigeons-to-play-ping-pong-and-rats-to-pull-levers-5363946/?no-ist




https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vGazyH6fQQ4



Bilingualism refers to the knowledge and use of two or more languages by an individual or a community: 1-early( b4 age 4) 2-late (after L1)

Bilingual/bilingualism

http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01401/full

http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01401/full


http://www.sciencemag.org/content/312/5779/1537.figures-only


Caretaker speech/modified input

Caretaker speech refers to the language adults use to talk to children. Baby talk

(1 )Slower rate, (2) increased use of high frequency vocabulary, (3) simplified syntax

(e.g., short sentences, repetition, fewer clauses( ,)4 )discourse

adjustments(e.g., clearer connections

between pronouns and their antecedents ,)and

(5) alterations in prosody (e.g., increased acoustic stress on content words)


Jean Piaget 1-Schemas(building blocks of knowledge).2-Adaptation processes that enable the transition from one stage to another (equilibrium,assimilation and accommodation).3-Stages of Development: sensorimotor,preoperational,concrete operational,formal operational.

Cognitive theory-Cognitive psychology

Robert DeKeyser,Peter Robinson, Peter Skehan, Jan Hulstijn, Rod Ellis, Nick Ellis, RichardSchmidt, Zoltán Dörnyei

In general learning, cognitive theory is one in which

psychologists attempt tounderstand how humans create

and use knowledge. Under the umbrella of cognitive theory, then, would fall individualdifferences such as aptitude, motivation, memory, and others. A relatedarea of interest would be restructuring, that is, how the learning of newinformation causes changes in already existing knowledge. Skill theory (seeskill/s), with its concern for how people develop fluency and accuracy withanything (typing, chess playing, speaking), is a particular branch within cognitive theory.

http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html


Communicative competenceCommunicative competence is a term in linguistics which refers to a language user's grammatical knowledge of

syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge

about how and when to use utterances appropriately.

subcompetences

*Grammatical Competence: knowledge of the linguistic forms andstructure of language (i.e., the formal properties of language including

the lexicon;)*Discourse Competence: knowledge of cohesion and

coherence; that is,knowledge about how sentences combine in either written form orspoken form to create meaning beyond the sentence level (see discourse);

*Pragmatic Competence: knowledge of how language is used to expressparticular kinds of meaning as well as the ability to make and understandjokes, irony, and other aspects of communication (see pragmatics);

*Sociolinguistic Competence: knowledge of appropriate use of language

(e.g., what to say in what context as well as what not to say, how tospeak in one context as opposed to another (see sociolinguistics);

*Strategic Competence: knowledge of how to express meaning whenyour resources don’t provide the means (e.g., what to say in a situationyou haven’t encountered before, what to do when you don’t understanda word or don’t know which word to use.


http://www.humanmetrics.com/personality/communication-strategies-for-different-typessome examples of communication strategies include paraphrasing (i.e., using a word for another related word, such as “horse” for “stallion”), avoidance, circumlocution,direct translation from the L1, switching to the L1 (such as inserting an L1 word hoping the other person might understand), and simply asking theinterlocutor for help.

Communication strategiesare strategies that learners use to overcome these problems in order to convey their intended meaning. Strategies used may

include paraphrasing, substitution, coining new words, switching to

the first language, and asking for clarification.

Competence

The learner's describing the

characteristics or elements of an object or action

instead of using theappropriate TL

structure (e. g. "She is, uh, smoking

something. I don't know what's its

name.

http://www.humanmetrics.com/personality/communication-strategies-for-different-types




Brian MacWhinneyElizabeth Bates

Competition ModelThe Competition Model is a psycholinguistic theory of language acquisition and

sentence processing developed by Elizabeth Bates and Brian

MacWhinney.

According to the model , languages possess cues that listeners may attend to in order to comprehend sentences. For example, if a listener wants to know what the subject of a sentence is, there might be the following cues he or she could attend to:word order, subject-verb agreement, animacy (e.g., does the verb require an animate being to perform the action), case marking, and others.This Model claims that L2 learners will transfer the cue strengths of their L1 to the L2 in the initial stages of acquisition.

http://psyling.psy.cmu.edu/

http://psyling.psy.cmu.edu/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Bates


Connectionism—and related concepts such as Constructionism, Emergentism , and Associationism , among others—forms an important nonlinguistic approach to studying language acquisition that has important ties with psychology and general learning.Connectionism is an exemplar-based approach, meaning that learning occurs due to the examples we are exposed to in the input. From these numerous examples, patterns and regularities emerge to form what looks on the surface to be knowledge—or in the case of language, rules. But the actual claim of the theory is that such patterns and rules are illusory, that what really exists in the mind/brain of the learner is a system of weighted connections, with weight referring to the relative strength of the connections.

Connectionism (also emergentism)Language acquisition is a cognitive process that emerges from the interaction of biological pressures .and the environment

Associationism is the idea that

mental processes operate by the

association of one mental state with

its successor states.

Constructionist learning is inspired by the constructivist

theory that individual learners construct mental models in order to understand the world around them. Constructivism advocates

student-centered, discovery learning where students use

information they already know to .acquire more knowledge

For example, if a speaker of English hears the soundsequence /wi/ as an isolated word, the first thing that pops

into that speaker’smind is the word “we.” But there is also “wee,” and many

English speakersknow French and thus also know oui. Why does “we” come

to mind first?The connectionist would say that it is much more frequent

than “wee” inEnglish. Thus, frequency of exemplars in the input plays a

major role in learning(strength building )under connectionism. Oui is not

normally thought ofbecause it is not an English word, and any internal

connections to /wi/ inthe “English part of the brain” would be tenuous at best.


The weak position and the strong position 1

Contrastive Analysis HypothesisContrastive analysis is the systematic study of a pair of languages with

a view to identifying their structural differences and

similarities.


Under creative construction , SLA is considered to be very much like L1 acquisition in that SLA is a process in which learners make unconscious hypotheses on the basis of the input they get from the environment.Morpheme studiesDevelopmental sequences studies

Creative Construction Hypothesis“L1 = L2 Hypothesis”

Heidi Dulay and Marina Burt + Stephen Krashen

The CCH emerged in the 1970s. It was based on a critical appraisal of the role of interference in second language acquisition. According to the CCH, the native language of a learner does not have much influence on the acquisition of another language. Moreover, the CCH held that there is not much difference between first and second language acquisition. According to Heidi C. Dulay and Marina K. Burt, both processes are guided by creative construction, i.e. every learner constantly creates hypotheses about the patterns of the language which s/he is learning. These hypotheses are based on input from the target language. A study conducted by Dulay and Burt showed that only three per cent of learner errors could be explained in terms of interference. However, the study itself was discussed controversially after its publication


Critical Period Hypothesis

Scholars have made a distinction between two critical periods for language.From birth to about age 2, children need exposure to language in order to develop the brain structures necessary for language acquisition. Until aboutthe age of 16, children can still acquire a language, but without native-likecompetence


= informationDeclarative knowledge involves knowing THAT something is the case - that J is the tenth letter of the alphabet, that Paris is the capital of France. Declarative knowledge is conscious; it can often be verbalized. Metalinguistic knowledge, or knowledge about a linguistic form, is declarative knowledge.

Procedural knowledge involves knowing HOW to do something - ride a bike, for example. We may not be able to explain how we do it. Procedural knowledge involves implicit learning, which a learner may not be aware of, and may involve being able to use a particular form to understand or produce language without necessarily being able to explain it

Declarative/procedural knowledge


Detection is one of the three components of attention and refers to the cognitive registration of stimuli in working memory. Detection is required for processing and learning of new information. The scholars most associated with the model of attention that posits detection are Richard Tomlin and Victor Villa.

Detection

http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=2552288&fileId=S0272263100012870




For L2 learners’ mental representations at any given time during acquisition. That is, a learner’s developing system is that learner’s internal and unconscious representation of the language (including , for example, components related to syntax , morphology , phonology , lexicon, pragmatics, and so on).

Developing system/ approximative system

The idea that language learners' linguistic systems were different from both their first

language and the second language was developed independently at around the

same time by several different researchers. William Nemser called it an approximative system and Pit Corder called it transitional

competence.

http://www.degruyter.com/dg/viewarticle/j$002firal.1971.9.issue-2$002firal.1971.9.2.115$002firal.1971.9.2.115.xml




Developmental sequences are stages or steps that learners traverse as they acquire a particular structure. They are different from acquisition orders. Whereas acquisition orders reflect the relative order of different structures over time (e.g., various verb and noun inflections, articles), developmental sequences reflect the acquisition of a single structure.

Developmental sequences/stages of

development


Discourse/discourse analysisDiscourse analysis (DA), or discourse studies, is a general term for a number of approaches to analyze written, vocal, or sign language use, or any significant semiotic event.Discourse refers to units of language that go

beyond the sentence. Thus, a discourse can be a short interaction, an entire conversation, a written paragraph,a speech, and so on. Interactions and conversations are referred to as unplanned or spontaneous discourse, whereas such things as speeches ,paragraphs, book chapters, and so on are called planned discourse. The idea behind discourse is coherence; that is, within a discourse, multiple sentences or propositions logically follow each other. Scholars engaged in discourse analysis focus on how this coherence is achieved as well as what the differences are between planned and unplanned discourse. (See also the KeyTerms pragmatics and communicative competence.)


Error analysis is a research tool characterized by a set of procedures for identifying, describing, and explaining L2 learners’ errors.

Error/error analysisIn second language acquisition, error analysis studies the types and causes of language errors. Errors are classified[1] according to:

* modality (i.e., level of proficiency in speaking, writing, reading, listening)

* linguistic levels (i.e., pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, style)

* form (e.g., omission, insertion, substitution)* type (systematic errors/errors in competence

vs. occasional *errors/errors in performance)* cause (e.g., interference, interlanguage)

* norm vs. system


Explicit knowledge is generally referred to as conscious knowledge, or knowledge a person is aware of and normally can articulate. For example, a native speaker might have explicit knowledge of spelling as in the mnemonic device “I before E except after C,and except like EIGH as in ‘neighbor’ and ‘weigh.’”Implicit knowledge is unconscious in nature. It exists outside of awareness and most people may not know they have implicit knowledge except under reflection and introspection . For example, a native speaker may have implicit knowledge that want to cannot contract to wanna when a noun has been removed from between the two as in Who do you want to tell John he’s fired? which cannot be Who do you wanna tell John he’s fired? (The who originates as the object of want and head of the to phrase, that is, You want who to tell John he’s fired?).

Explicit knowledge/implicit knowledge


Feedback refers to the response that learners receive regarding the language they produce.Bob: So where’s Dave?Tom: He vacation.Bob: He’s on vacation? [confirmation check]Tom: Yes, on vacation.Does providing feedback help?In a recast situation, a learner produces something non-native-like during a conversation, and the interlocutor responds by recasting what the learner says in a native-like way as part of that interlocutor’s indication that he or she understood the learner.

FeedbackChildren require "negative evidence" (i.e., information about which strings

of words are not grammatical sentences) to eliminate their

ungrammatical utterances is a central question in language

acquisition because, lacking negative evidence, a child would require internal mechanisms to unlearn

grammatical errors.


Focus on forms - is generally defined as an explicit or overt focus on the formal properties with either little or no attention to meaning. Teachers who drill students repetitively engage in focus on forms.Focus on form + generally refers to any intervention in which simultaneous attention is brought to both meaning and how that meaning is encoded.

Focus on form/sFocus on form generally refers

to anyintervention in which

simultaneous attention is brought to both meaning andhow that meaning is encoded. Normally, this would happen in

a communicative.context as in the case of

recasts


Formal instruction is a term that refers to any activity or curriculum in which a language learner engages in focused work on the properties of language itself.grammatical form : morphology, syntax, phonology,

Formal instruction


A form-meaning connection refers to the correspondence between the formal properties of language and the meaning they encode. For example, the word cat (phonologically symbolized by /kæt/) is a lexical form. It corresponds to the meaning of ‘feline’ (with the various connotations associated with it: animate, four-legged, paws, claws, fur, whiskers, carnivore, and so on).A form-function connection refers to the grammatical function that a form plays in sentence interpretation or sentence meaning. For example, the form that functions as either a determiner (demonstrative) as in Hand me that pair of scissors, will you? or as a clause marker/clause head as in The book that I read wasn’t good. Thus, as in the case of meanings, forms can have multiple functions.

Form-meaning/function connection


Formulaic sequences or chunks are phrases or whole utterances that learners internalize as a whole, without analysis of the individual parts. For example, we know that don’t consists of do + not.Note that native speakers, too, can work with chunks and formulaic sequences. Children often show evidence of this, especially when they learncertain social routines.

Formulaic sequences/chunks


Some researchers prefer the term stabilization, which suggests a plateau in learning but not necessarily a complete cessation in development.

Fossilization


Frequency in the input—sometimes referred to simply as frequency—refers to the relative frequency of formal features in the language that people hear or read. For example, the is a highly frequent grammatical form in English.Studies showing a relationship between the relative frequency of forms in the input and children's errors, including morphological errors, optional infinitive errors and accusative-for-nominative errors in English are discussed. The final section of the paper deals more briefly with some counter-arguments to the importance of frequency effects in the learning of grammar.

Frequency in the input

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0024384110001658


The functional approaches view language as a means to communicate.Functional approach to SLA research can be found in much of the literature on the acquisition of tense and aspect.

Functional approaches


1-Children always achieve complete grammatical knowledge of theirnative language, whereas adult L2 learners seem to rarely achieve full target language competence.2-adult L2 learners show con siderable variation in their language learning success.3- Innate mechanisms(e.g., Universal Grammar) vs SLA, especially with adults, seems to be influenced by (1) L1 transfer, (2) individual differences, and (3) social-communicative contexts of learning, among factors.

Fundamental Difference Hypothesis

The Fundamental Difference Hypothesis (FDH) claims that

first languageacquisition and adult second

language acquisition are fundamentally different

in a number of ways


Grammar / Descriptive~


In a typical grammaticality judgment test, a person is asked to read or listen to a sentence and then indicate whether thesentence is grammatical or not. In terms of actual design, researchers usea variety of terms to ask their participants to determine if a sentence isgrammatical or not, such as good/bad, acceptable/unacceptable, possible/impossible, among others. In some cases, researchers use a Likert scale, onwhich the participant indicates the degree of grammaticality or acceptabilityof a sentence:Acceptable unacceptable1 2 3 4 5

Grammaticality judgments

According to Chomsky, a speaker's grammaticality judgement is based on

two factors: A speaker's linguistic competence, which is the knowledge

that they have of their language, allows them to easily judge whether a

sentence is grammatical or ungrammatical based on intuitive

introspection.


Incidental learning is not the same thing as implicit learning; however, intentional learning can be equated with explicit learning. Implicit learning suggests the learner is not consciously aware of learning something, whereas with incidental learning the person may or may not be aware of picking up something new. :reading and vocabulary learning, a person may consciously focus on a new word in a passage and deduce its meaning while reading. Such an action would suggest some kind of awareness.

Incidental learningIncidental learning is some

form of indirect / additional / unplanned learning within an informal or formal learning

situation.

James Coady- Jan Hulstijn



http://gen.lib.rus.ec/book/index.php?md5=799b2fb7cf00a6d36b2a5d0226a96ea6

http://gen.lib.rus.ec/book/index.php?md5=799b2fb7cf00a6d36b2a5d0226a96ea6


Every learner brings a set of personality and psycho-emotive characteristics to the task of learning something. Those characteristics have the potential to influence learning, specifically how learners explicitly go about learning as how quickly they learn and how far they get in their learning. What are these characteristics?

Individual differences

* aptitude or particular talents or abilities related to the learning inquestion (e.g., an aptitude for music, an aptitude for math, an aptitudefor language);* motivation (e.g., willingness to do something and the source of thatwillingness);* learning styles (e.g., some people like to see things written down,some people are fine with abstraction while others need things to be concretely presented, some people tolerate ambiguity more than others,some people like interaction in order to learn while others less so);* learning strategies (e.g., repeating things over and over in one’s headto memorize them).


Input consists of language that L2 learners are exposed to in a communicative context. That is, it is language that learners hear or read that they process for its message or meaning.

Input


Input enhancement is a term that refers to directing learners’ attention to formal features of language while at the same time maintaining a focus on meaning. As such, input enhancement is a pedagogical tool meant to assist learners’ development regarding formal properties of language. Input enhancement is an externally conducted activity; that is, it is teachers and/ormaterials that enhance input. It is not an activity that originates from within the learner.

Input enhancement


The Input Hypothesis is a component of Monitor Theory.

Input Hypothesis


Prize 1 & 2The Innatist position refers to the view that children bring a biologically endowed abstract knowledge to the task of learning a first language, and this abstract knowledge constrains the shape of the target linguistic system they learn. This innate knowledge allows them to discover the underlying rules of a language system and minimizes guessing and hypothesis formation.

Innatist position

Nick Ellis and William O’Grady are scholars who reject innate linguistic knowledge as a component of acquisition but accept other kinds of innate architecture that constrain or direct language learning.

https://prezi.com/tgfrwzkmzixb/innatist-theory

https://prezi.com/amikfb7_ikfg/the-innatist-view-chomsky-s-lad/


Input processing refers to how learners connect meaning and function with formal features of language in the input, and the strategies or mechanisms that guide and direct how learners do this. The idea behind input processing is this: Acquisition is input dependent.

Input processing

Michael Sharwood Smith

http://www.ed.ac.uk/education/about-us/people/academic-staff/publications.php?person_id=414


For Corder, the term meant what the learner actually processes and acquires, that is, becomes part of his or her competence. In other models, intake refers only to linguistic data that is processed from the input and held in working memory, but not yet acquired.

Intake S. Pit Corderintake is defined as the process of assimilating linguistic data or the mental activity that mediates between the input “out there” and the competence

“inside the learner’s head”.


It states that the development of language proficiency is promoted by face-to-face interaction and communicationInput modifications: the other speaker adjusts his or her speech due to perceived difficulties in learner comprehension Feedback : the other speaker indicates in some way that the learner has produced something non-native-like.Bob: So where’s Dave?Tom: He vacation.Bob: He’s on vacation?Tom: Yes, on vacation.

Interaction/Interaction Hypothesis


Interlanguage is the term for a dynamic, rule-based linguistic system that has been developed by a learner of a second language (or L2) who has not yet reached proficiency.three basic concepts: (1) L1 transfer + - ;(2) overgeneralization from L2 patterns; and (3) fossilization.www.slideshare.net/ahmedhussein192/4-learner-language-interlanguage

InterlanguageInterlanguage is a term coined in 1972 by Larry

Selinker


According to Chomsky, children cannot possibly acquire a first language by mimicking, hypothesis testing, or generalizing from input data because such strategies would lead them down the wrong paths (e.g., wrong hypotheses) and cause delays in acquisition. What is more, Chomsky noted that the language to which children are exposed does not contain all the data they need to wind up with native-like competence

Language Acquisition Device The LAD is a hypothetical tool hardwired into the brain that helps children rapidly learn and

understand language.


*Strategies or Efforts involve choice on the part of the learner; *they involve conscious selection; that is, the learner is aware of deciding to use a strategy;*they are goal directed (i.e., they are purposeful in nature and geared toward task completion);*they are effortful.

Learning strategies(1 )metacognitive strategies for organizing,

focusing, and evaluating one’s own learning;( 2 )affective strategies for handling emotions

or attitudes ;(3 )social strategies for cooperating with

others in the learning process ;(4 )cognitive strategies for linking new

information with existing schemata and for analyzing and classifying it; and

( 5 )memory strategies for entering new information into memory storage and for retrieving it when needed .


Learning styles refer to the different ways in which learners perceive, absorb, process, and recall new information and skills

Learning styles

Andrew Cohen, Rebecca Oxford, Madeline Ehrman, Betty Lou Leaver, and Peter Skehan


Lexicon is the word linguists use to refer to the mental dictionary we all carry around in our heads/it/: [–N, +V], [required thematic roles: agent], [optional thematic roles : theme], (plus the semantic notions that make up eat)Eat is linked to eater, to eaten, to ate, to food, to edible, and so on—and all of these are linked to each other. These links are what are sometimes responsible for slips of the tongue, such as when someone says, “Pass me the knife—I mean, the fork.”

LexiconGenerative Lexicon (GL) is a theory

of linguistic semantics which focuses on the distributed nature

of compositionality in natural language. The first major work

outlining the framework is James Pustejovsky 's "Generative

Lexicon" (1991)


something that is more common or ubiquitous is considered less marked or unmarked, while something less common or less natural is considered marked or more marked.In linguistics, markedness can apply to, among others, phonological, grammatical, and semantic oppositions, defining them in terms of marked and unmarked oppositions, such as honest (unmarked) vs. dishonest (marked).Markedness has been shown to be relevant to both L1 and L2 acquisition. In general, learners have more difficulty with more marked elements of language in an L2 .

Markedness Susan Gass, Fred Eckman, Eric Kellerman, and Helmut Zobl


Meaning can refer to “basic meaning” such as catreferring to a four-legged feline.In terms of grammatical inflections meaning may be more or less transparent and/or more or less concrete depending on the inflection. For example, the -s on the end of dogs is .Meaning is also wrapped up in what is called pragmatics pretty clear . prag-matics refers to what a speaker intends to mean, not what the words themselves represent

Meaning


Metalinguistics can be classified as the ability to consciously reflect on the nature of language, by using the following skills:

1- an awareness that language has a potential greater than that of simple symbols (it goes beyond the meaning) 2- an awareness that words are separable from their referents (meaning resides in the mind, not in the name, i.e. Sonia is Sonia, and I will be the same person even if somebody calls me another name) 3- an awareness that language has a structure that can be manipulated (realizing that language is malleable: you can change and write things in many different ways (for example, if something is written in a grammatically incorrect way, you can change it)).

Metalinguistic knowledge


*the acquisition/learning distinction; *the Input Hypothesis; *i + 1;*the monitor; *the affective filter

Monitor/monitoring/Monitor Theory


acquisition ordersResearchers found that children, regardless of the homes they were raised in, acquired these morphemes in the same order.http://www.tesolclass.com/applying-sla-theories/morpheme-order-studies/Acquisition of language involves acquisition of the morphological properties of the language, and, as such, morphology is an important area within L2 research. Acquisition of tense-aspect systems, for example, may include the acquisition of morphological features as well as the meanings /functions they express.

Morphemes/morpheme studies


Morphology is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are formed,

Morphology/morphological inflection


Motivation is one of a number of what researchers call individual differences.

Motivation


Being a native speaker of a language, though, should not be confused with having the same ability or knowledge as every other native speaker of that language. The term native-like refers to whether or not L2 learners either behave in a qualitatively similar manner to native speakers or possess qualitatively similar underlying mental representations of language

Native language/native-like


In linguistics, nativism is a term associated with Noam Chomsky, who developed the theory that all humans are born with an innate capacity and a knowledge system specifically designed for language and language acquisition.

≠ skill theory -- behaviorism

Nativism/Nativist Theoryin contrast with general nativism

but are born with something like processing constraints that are tied to structural distance among elements. Syntactic structure emerges because of these processing constraints.


Learn the language “on the streets” or “on the job” are referred to as naturalistic learners. Naturalistic learners have been compared to classroom learners in order to address the issue of the effects of instruction.

Naturalistic

’ , Schumann s research subject Alberto


In English, for example, progressive -ing is acquired before regular past tense -ed, which is acquired before third-person -s. Although Monitor Theory itself has fallen out of favor, the idea that learners follow predictable paths and sequences is an accepted fact of SLA.

Natural Order Hypothesis


Direct negative evidence refers to feedback in which the learner is explicitly told his or her utterance is incorrect in some way.:“No. We don’t say it that way. We say . . .” and “You mean talked. You forgot to put the past tense marker on.” Direct negative evidence happens largely in classrooms but not exclusively.Indirect negative evidence refers to conversational interactions :*Confirmation check*Clarification request*Recast

Susan Gass, Michael Long, Roy Lyster, and Alison Mackey

Negative evidence : feed back


Negotiation of meaning is a term related to conversations and interactions. Asking for clarification, rephrasing, and confirming what you think you have understood are all strategies for the negotiation of meaning.

Negotiation of meaning


Neurolinguists have studied brain activity in L2 learners and bilinguals. Overall, this research shows that highly proficient L2 learners with extensive communicative exposure to the L2 demonstrate increasing overlap of the areas of the brain that also serve L1 processing. Similar findings have been obtained in the neurocognitive research on SLA. However, some research in Neurolinguistics suggests that age may play a factor in terms of the extent to which both the L1 and L2 involve the same parts of the brain.http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0911604415000354

NeurolinguisticsNeurolinguistics is a field of study that involves the role of brain functioning in language comprehension, production, and storage.


The noticing hypothesis is a concept in second-language acquisition proposed by Richard Schmidt in 1990. He stated that learners cannot learn the grammatical features of a language unless they notice them.

Noticing/Noticing Hypothesis



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Schmidt_(linguist)


Off-line : paper ,-and-pencil-type tests : grammaticality judgment- cloze tests -fill in the gaps

on-line : moment-by-moment measuresClassic examples of on-line tasks include (1) the moving-window technique, in which learners read bits and pieces of a sentence on a computer screen, advancing through the sentence as they push a button, (2) eye-tracking, in which the movement of people’s pupils is tracked while they read a sentence on a computer screen.

On-line/off-line tasks

http://psychologydictionary.org/moving-window-technique/


Output, of course, refers to the language that learners produce during communicative interactions or for the purpose of expressing a message.She expressed concern that the field placed too much emphasis on the role of input in SLA, claiming that learners in Canadian immersion programs still demonstrated significant divergence from natives after years of study. She claimed that what was missing was output, and in direct contrast to Krashen’s concept of comprehensible input, she argued that learners need to be pushed to make comprehensible output during acquisition. According to her, pushed output moves learners to greater reliance on syntax and less reliance on semantics; that is, they will pay more attention to how something is supposed to be said and not just to the message.

Output/Output Hypothesis : Merrill Swain

http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/ctl/Faculty_Staff/Faculty_Profiles/1438/Merrill_Swain.html


Overgeneralization, a concept related to regularization, is the extension of a rule or linguistic form to domains where it is not appropriate.

Overgeneralization


Principles and parameters is a framework within generative linguistics in which the syntax of a natural language is described in accordance with general principles (i.e. abstract rules or grammars) and specific parameters (i.e. markers, switches) that for particular languages are either turned on or off. For example, the position of heads in phrases is determined by a parameter. A null subject refers to the fact that verbs can appear without an explicit or overt subject, and the sentence is grammatical. For example, in Spanish Hablo ‘I speak’ and Habla ‘he speaks’ are allowed.

Parameters/parameter setting


Parsing is a psycholinguistic term that refers to the real-time computation of syntactic structure during comprehension. For example, the moment a listener hears “The man . . .,” that listener immediately projects a determiner phrase (DP) while simultaneously tagging it as “subject of sentence.” For example, in Someone shot the maid of the actor who was on the balcony, if asked “Who was on the balcony, the maid or the actor?,” native speakers of English tend to say the actor (i.e., they “attach” the relative clause to “the actor”). But given the exact same sentence in Spanish, Spanish speakers tend to say the maid was on the balcony.

Parsing Parsing or syntactic analysis is the process of

analysing a string of symbols, either in natural language or in computer languages, conforming to the rules of a formal grammar. The term parsing

comes from Latin pars (orationis), meaning part(of speech)[.


Performance is a term that stands in direct contrast to competence or underlying mental representation of language. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_performance

Performance


Phonology is a branch of linguistics that studies sound systems.

Phonology


John Schumann applied the concept of pidginization to SLA in the mid-1970s. His famous research subject, Alberto, was an immigrant from Costa Rica who lived in Massachusetts but had limited contact with English speakers. During the course of Schumann’s research, Alberto had not advanced beyond the earliest stages of negation (e.g., no like beer, I no like beer, He don’t like beer) and, for example, showed evidence of non marking of past tense (e.g., Yesterday my country change the president). Schumann concluded that Alberto, compared to the other research subjects, showed little development over time and was speaking a pidgin-like version of English largely.

Pidginization refers to a process by which non-native speakers develop a linguistic system in contact language situations to effect communication. The result is a pidgin, a linguistic system with reduced vocabulary and reduced grammar when compared to the two languages that come into contact to form it

Mark Sebba 1

https://books.google.com/books?id=kci3AwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Mark+Sebba&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAGoVChMIzbiq1fqRyQIVQyYPCh0ZzAMk#v=onepage&q=Mark%20Sebba&f=false

https://books.google.com/books?id=kci3AwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Mark+Sebba&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAGoVChMIzbiq1fqRyQIVQyYPCh0ZzAMk#v=onepage&q=Mark%20Sebba&f=false


Positive evidence is a term that stands in contrast to negative evidence and explicit information

Positive evidence


Poverty of the stimulus (POS) is a situation in which people come to know more than what they could have gleaned from the data provided to them. The best example of this comes from knowledge about what is disallowed in a language. For example, speakers of English know that I’ve done it is a fine sentence but that the contraction of I’ve is disallowed in the question *Should I’ve done it? One can only say Should I have done it? How does a person come to know that I’ve (and contractions more generally) is allowed in some instances and disallowed in others?

Poverty of the stimulu s


Pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics and semiotics that studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning. Pragmatics encompasses speech act theory, conversational implicature, talk in interaction and other approaches to language behavior in philosophy, sociology, linguistics and anthropology.

Pragmatics

Kathleen -Bardovi Harlig

http://www.indiana.edu/~dsls/faculty/kathleen.shtml

http://www.indiana.edu/~dsls/faculty/kathleen.shtml


Included with in Universal Grammar are principles. Principles are constraints on language that are invariant and apply to all natural human languages. An example of a principle is that all languages have a basic structural feature called a phrase that consists of a head and its complement.variations are called parameters :head first (head + complement) or head final (complement + head)

Principles (of Universal Grammar)


is a term most closely associated with Manfred Pienemann as part of his Processability Theory. Processability refers here not to input processing but to output processing. According to Pienemann, L2 learners must learn certain output processing procedures in order to string words together to make L2-like utterances.

Procedures =

Processability*no procedure (e.g., producing a simple word such as no);*category procedure (e.g., adding endings to words that do not have to match anything else in an utterance, such as -ing onto verbs);*noun phrase procedure (e.g., adding endings to words that have to zmatch within a noun phrase such as plural –s , which has to match with two as in two dogs);*verb phrase procedure (e.g., moving an adverb out of the verb phrase to the front of a sentence as in I slept well last night/Last night I slept well);*sentence procedure (e.g., adding endings to words that have to match across phrases in a sentence such as subject-verb agreement);*subordinate clause procedure (e.g., adding endings to words in a clause because of information in a main clause, such as subjunctive endings in Romance languages)


Processing is a cover term used for how syntactic and grammatical computations are made during language performance. Processing happens both .listener must :(1) access the lexicon to pull down the words they want, and (2) compute the syntactic relationships among all the words to get the sentence in the form they intend it to have.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language_processing

Processing


Projection is a concept related to linguistic approaches to understanding acquisition and was formalized in the Projection Hypothesis by Helmut Zobl.What the hypothesis predicts is that because some structures are related by markedness, the learner may not need positive evidence (input) from the environment to know (implicitly, of course) that something exists.if Z is more marked than T and the two are related, once the learner acquires Z, the learner can infer that T exists even if T hasn’t appeared in the input.

Projection/Projection Hypothesis


is a branch of psychology that investigates how people comprehend language as well as how people formulate messages in real time.slips of the tongue, malapropisms, access of the mental lexicon, and speech formulation, one important area in psycholinguistic research is ambiguity resolution during real-time comprehension= =how listeners/readers make sense of some-thing that could be interpreted .in more than one wayIn addition, psycholinguistics is concerned with the relative contribution of syntax, lexicon, and semantics in how sentences are interpreted.http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=393292&fileId=S0142716406230030

Psycholinguistics





Recasts are restatements of learners’ utterances that occur naturally in interactions. {non-native-like utterance}

Recasts


Although redundancy is an everyday term, within linguistics and SLA, it takes on a particular use. Here we mean it to be the redundancy of grammatical features, that is, features that repeat themselves in an utterance or are copies of something else.

Redundancy


Regularization, a term related to overgeneralization, is concerned with how learners in both first and second language acquisition treat irregular forms or exceptional rules.Much of language change over time is a result of regularization, as speakers (particularly undereducated or illiterate speakers, but not always) begin to weed out irregularities.{In linguistics, regularization is a phenomenon in language acquisition and language development, whereby irregular forms in morphology, syntax, etc., are replaced by regular ones. Examples are "gooses" instead of "geese" in child speech and replacement of the Middle English plural form for "cow", "kine", with "cows“}

Regularization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_acquisition

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_development

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_English

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cow


Reinforcement is most associated with behaviorism and involves the kindof feedback learners get from their environment. In the days when languagewas seen as stimulus-response, the response was the reinforcement. Both L1

Reinforcement


Repetition in SLA refers to either a learning strategy or a teaching strategy. As a learning strategy, it refers to learner self-generated repetition—for example, when studying grammar or vocabulary.

Repetition


What this means is that as a piece of new data is processed and accommodated by the developing grammatical system, that piece of data may have repercussions for the grammar. In most cases, this means that learners move from exemplar-based knowledge (knowledge in which only examples exist in the system and not rules) to rule-based system.

Restructuring


In linguistics and language acquisition, salience is used to talk about grammatical features and to what extent they catch a person’s eye or ear.Salience could be a result of phonological properties.

Salience


Scaffolding is a term used to describe what happens in some interactions with both first and second language learners. Because such learners may not have the linguistic tools necessary to express their ideas, their interlocutors may sometimes help to build the conversation or topic by providing crucial bits of language.NNS: Look.NS: Look? At what?NNS (pointing): That.NS: It’s a bug.NNS: Bug.NS: Yeah, a bug. And it’s crawling very slowly. NNS: Crawling.NS: Yeah, crawling slowly. Maybe it’s looking for foodScaffolding has been claimed to assist learners’ development. By providing needed language, scaffolding may increase the salience of some aspects of language, for example.

Scaffolding


A second language is one that is learned where the language is spoken, such as English in the United States or Japanese in Japan. A foreign language is one that is learned (primarily in classrooms) where the language is not normally spoken, such as English in Japan and Japanese in Des Moines, Iowa.

Second language/foreign language


Selective attention refers to how people attend to the stimuli around them.Under several accounts, early-stage learners selectively attend to vocabulary and chunks of the language that help them grasp meaning as quickly as possible, while ignoring grammatical devices that do not immediately aid them in getting meaning.

“Selective Attention in Information Processing : A Review of Brain

Science in SLA”

Selective attention


≠ Critical Period Hypothesis The sensitive period allows for more variation in ultimate attainment as well as variation in when we see age effects in learners. In a certain sense, then, the concept of a sensitive period is a weaker and less restrictive version of the critical period.

Sensitive period


Semantics is a branch of linguistics related to meaning. In general, there are two kinds of semantics: lexical semantics and compositional semantics. Lexical semantics refers to the meanings of words, and compositional semantics refers to how more complex meanings are built up from simpler ones.

Semantics


According to Krashen, the language learner is building up competence during the Silent Period by actively listening and processing the input data around him or her. The learner need not be speaking to be acquiring language.

Silent Period


Skill refers to the ability to perform, and in SLA, skill is generally conceptualized as speaking, listening, reading, and writing. Skill entails the interaction of two concepts or features: accuracy and fluency. Research in various domains of language use and language processing (e.g., real-time syntactic computation during comprehension of sentences), however, suggests that even very advanced L2 learners are often not as fast as native speakers at doing something, even if they are indistinguishable from native speakers in terms of accuracy.https://www.ets.org/research/policy_research_reports/tc-10-12

Skill/s


Factors related to social circumstances that may affect language acquisition.

Social factors


Sociocultural Theory is a nonlinguistic theory that has its origins in the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky.Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of human learning describes learning as a social process and the origination of human intelligence in society or culture. The major theme of Vygotsky’s theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky believed everything is learned on two levels.The major or central construct in Sociocultural Theory is mediation. Mediation refers to the idea that humans possess certain cultural tools, such as language, literacy, numeracy, and others, that they purposefully use to control and interact with their environment.ZPD refers to the distance between a learner’s current ability to use tools to mediate his or her environment and the level of potential development. In short, the ZPD is a metaphor to describe development situationaliy.

Sociocultural Theory


Sociolinguistics is a branch of linguistics concerned with social factors that affect language use and to a certain extent, language change. Sociolinguists study, for example, how context affects the choices people make with language. People may speak differently in a formal context compared with how they speak in an informal context.Because people can and do adjust their language, sociolinguists often talk of variability or variation in language use.

Sociolinguistics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variation_(linguistics)


A speech act is related to what is called “speaker intent” and thus is part of pragmatics and meaning. As a speech act, it is a threat. Traditionally, linguists talk of three kinds of speech acts: locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary1 : grammar and pronunciation2: attempt to communicate something like a promise, a warning, a compliment, a request3 : beyond communication - frighten

A speech act is an utterance that serves a function in communication. We perform speech acts when we offer an apology, greeting, request, complaint, invitation, compliment, or refusal :Speech acts


Stabilization is a concept related to development in SLA and refers to learners reaching a certain stage and apparently not progressing. Originally posited by Larry Selinker in his groundbreaking essay on interlanguage, stabilization is a precursor to fossilization.subsystems may stabilize while others continue to develop and/or show variation in learner performance.

Stabilization


is a syntactic term related to what is called movement. In syntactic theory, phrases are said to move from particular locations in a sentence to a position “higher up” in the sentence. For example, the verb kicked normally requires two arguments: an agent (the kicker) and a theme (the kickee). Wh- movement = What did John kick? John kicked what?

* Subjacency


The study of syntax deals with sentence structure

Syntax


Systematicity refers to behavior in which learners perform consistently with a particular form or structure. For systematic behavior to occur, the learner does not have to be accurate; the learner just has to be consistent.So, for example, if a learner is in the early stages of the acquisition of negation and consistently produces structures of the type no + X (e.g., no drink beer, no want go, no like soup), we would say that behavior is systematic. Systematicity stands in contrast to variability/variation, in which learner behavior with a particular form or structure is not consistent.

Systematicity


Target-like use is concerned with how learners perform with particular features of language and is mostly associated with morpheme studies and acquisition orders.

Target-like use


What this means is that learners progress from stage 1 to stage 2 to stage 3 and so on, with each stage implying the learner has traversed the stages below it—but not necessarily the stages above it. Thus, if we collect data and find evidence of stage 3 behavior in a learner, we can infer he or she has passed through stages 1 and 2 but we cannot infer that he or she is at stage 4.

Teachability


As a linguistic term, tense refers to the relative temporal reference of an event. Simply put, tense refers to whether an event occurs in the present, the past, or the future.

Tense


In SLA, transfer refers to a psychological process by which learners rely on the L1 system to construct the L2 system.*Pre-SLA research * : under behaviorism, transfer was seen as rampant; it underlay every aspect of acquisition, and the L1 was seen as the major problem to overcome;*Early SLA research * : with the appearance of the morpheme studiesand acquisition order in the 1970s, transfer came into question; it was seen as much less important;*1980s * : transfer as a concept was revived and gained ground in impor-tance, but at the same time, scholars suggested that it was constrained by universal aspects of language (e.g., markedness);*Post 1980s * : although SLA specialists generally rejected behaviorism, the field saw a resurgence of transfer as a major component of SLA, especially from those who took a linguistic perspective on acquisition as well as those who took a processing perspective. However, under Processability Theory (see processability), transfer remains constrained.

Transfer


Typological universals

Within the framework of Universal Grammar, universals are abstract principles that apply to all languages. In the framework of linguistic typology, however, universals are less abstract and are based on readily observable data. Such universals are determined by surveying world’s languages and then arriving at a conclusion about what might constitute a universal. An example of a typological universal is something like the following: in languages with prepositions, the genitive almost always follows the governing noun, while in languages with postpositions, it almost always precedes the noun.


Ultimate attainment refers to the point at which learners seem to stop progressing. We say that their grammar (linguistic system) has reached stasis.

Ultimate attainment


The role of Universal Grammar is to constrain and guide acquisition, to limit the “hypotheses” that children can make about how language behaves. Universal Grammar is innate, meaning that children are born with Universal Grammar as part of their biological makeup. The human species is thus DNA-coded for language.

Universal Grammar


Uptake is a term used in research on interaction, recasts, and other related phenomena to describe a particular learner behavior.NNS: And so he buy a car.NS: He bought a car!NNS: Yes, he bought a car.NS: Wow, how nice.In this interchange, the uptake is the learner’s response in which he says “Yes, he bought a car.” His response signals that he noticed the correct past tense form of buy.

Uptake


During U-shaped acquisition, learners’ performance suggests they are doing something rather well. Then, there is a drop off during which their performance indicates a loss of ability or knowledge. Subsequently, they regain the ability or knowledge.

U-shaped acquisition


Variability and variation stand in contrast to systematicity, that is, when learners are consistent in what they do. At the same time, there can be what is called systematic variation. This occurs when the learner uses two versions of the same form or structure but under two different conditions or meanings. Thus, one variation does not occur where the other does.

Variability/variation


Working memory is a psychological construct that refers to the “processing space” in the mind/brain when a person computes information. The term has replaced the older and now outdated concept of short-term memory.

Working memory




Education

Key Terms in Second Language Acquisition