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Toward a New Universe: A Transformation of Thought

Introduction2

Search for scientific truth – science became synonymous with the idea of truth

Increasing understanding of natureSocial philosophers start to claim to have discovered

“scientific” socialismEventually developed social sciences – the study of individual

& behaviourPeople could now use their intellect to raise from barbarism to

civilizationEvidence was everywhere – railways, steamboats, telegraph &

the light bulb.Faith in continuing progress through the application of science

& reason

New Questions about the Biological Universe – Darwin3

Charles Darwin (1802 – 1882) saw change and development to be the pattern of nature.

Published “On the Origin of Species” on Means of Natural Selection.

Widespread controversy spread throughout Europe as theories of evolution conflicted with creation theories.

Darwin believed that humans & animals were not special creations from God, but evolved from common ancestors through a long process of gradual change.

People had generally thought that the age of the Earth was relatively young – Darwin’s theory meant the earth’s age was much greater do to the slow development of evolutionary change.

New Questions about the Biological Universe – Darwin4

Those species that could adapt survived, while those without the physical &/or mental characteristics could not adapt and therefore not survive.

Darwin spoke of favoured races, those that were more suited to their environment.

Change was from nature – not a deity If one accepted Darwin’s theories, peace & harmony were not

necessarily the natural way of the world.How does this relate to politics, ethics and economics?Class conflict now seemed necessary – Darwin’s theories, often

distorted, were used by those that struggle by people and nations was essential for progress.

Social Darwinism5

Malthus – nature was not benign and progress was not inevitable because increase in population would always outrun people’s limited resources

Social Darwinists believe that simple and uniform evolve to the complex and specialized.

Competition was necessary to allow those who were “fit” to emerge on top in the economic & social struggle – without government interference.

Typically hated socialism – some to the point where they don’t like public education.

Religious Thought6

New Bible studies focused on the study of ancient languages as philology (analysis of texts and language) grew

Both the Old Testament and New Testament underwent analysis that challenged its spiritual truth.

Questions of Judaism & Christianity challenged the need for religion – seen as a way for people to comprehend their place in the universe.

Religious Thought7

The Atmosphere of Darwinism added additional challenges to traditional faith – if Darwin is right, life was a process of constant change not an act of special creation, species emerged and were destroyed.

Many disagreed and adequately defended their faith, others embraced new theories and accepted evolutions as part of God’s plan and found beauty in how all living things could be interrelated.

Agnosticism maintained that ultimate truths about God were not knowable, therefore one should not waste time arguing them – Darwin belonged to this group.

Positivism & Sociology8

Society itself became an appropriate subject for scientific analysis.

Auguste Comte (1798 – 1857) affirmed “positive philosophy” to use scientific synthesis of all knowledge.

Comte termed “Sociology” that studied both social stats and social dynamics.

Through the study of history and societies one could count on progression that led to a world of peace .

Comte began a scientific religion that would honour all those that contributed to the advancements of civilization.

The Challenge to the Rational Universe9

Thinkers, writers, artists began to challenge the positive approach to knowledge & rational understanding of human nature.

Wilhelm Dilthey (1833 – 1911) believed that its important to use imagination to understand history – use spontaneous expressions of the past. Can’t just use historical documents to get to the core of human reality.

Benedetto Croce (1866 – 1952) believed that it is impossible to be completely objective when investigating the past. The researcher picks the topic and can never fully escape their own time.

Max Weber (1864 – 1920) “if something is scientific, this does not mean that it is desirable.” Science cannot tell us how to act.

Psychology & the Question of the Irrational10

Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) realized that some of his patients’ symptoms were not physical, but had their origins in the mind.

Developed psychoanalysis – study mental history of patient

Rejected view that people are rational creatures.

Distinction between the conscious & the unconscious – thus resulting in rational & non-rational motive unexplainable by conventional ways.

Childhood experiences often influenced the actions of a mature person.

Psychology & the Question of the Irrational11

Freud’s theories described sexual desires & aggressions are often repressed in a civilized world. Id – one’s basic desires Super-Ego – conscience

acquired by people living in society

Ego – everyday face (constantly caught in-between desires of the super-ego and the id)

Challenged the enlightenment view that people are guided by reason.

Psychology & the Question of the Irrational12

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 – 1900) rejected common humanity and stressed the importance for superior individuals to develop their own talents in their own way.

Christianity was a religion of the weak because it made people subordinate themselves to myths & preached self-sacrifice.

Democracy was self-defeating because it put power to the weak, crushing genius

Nationalism destroyed individualism because of the demands of the group.

Noble man – one who determines is own destiny

Common man – follows others Basically, wanted superior individuals to

develop their full potential.

Toward an Uncertain Universe – The New Reality of 191413

Two types of culture in the West in 1914Public Level – mass culture still using the old ideas of the

universe, society, and human nature Intellectual Level – new ideas amongst intellectuals, however

still being questioned & even rejectedMost people prior to 1914 believed that technology was creating

a better life for all, however the major ideological foundations of Western culture were slowly being eroded.

Everything seemed to be challenged with no new standards on the horizon.

At the turn of the century, this was not a major problem as liberal ideas seem to prevail – but major conflict was about to explode.