Nicholas Ostler 2013 Crossing Language Barriers: effects on the Great Faiths

Crossing Language Barriers: effects on the Great FaithsNicholas Ostler

U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post

My Tale

Great Faiths (aspire to be) universal,and are actively propagated.

Languages (as mother tongues) are largely fixed on populations

until complemented by a lingua franca.

Therefore

Great Faiths are actively converted into new languages.

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My Question

Great Faiths are actively converted into new languages: so

What are the Effects of these conversions on the Content of the Great Faiths?

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Domain for Answers

What are the Effects of these conversions on the Content of the Great Faiths?

Domain for religious conversion not limited to the history of Colonialism, or even of Imperialism.

We shall consider here three cases:

1. Roman Catholicism into Nahuatl (Mexico C16-18)

2. Buddhism in Gandhari & Sanskrit (C. Asia C1-3)

3. Christianity into Greek & Latin (Rom. Emp. C1-4)

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Where to Look? – Features of a Faith

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LinguisticFixed

Creed, Scriptures, Liturgies, Catechism

Intercessive and Discursive Prayers, Homilies; Myths, Theology, Ethical codes

Community: who are the Faithful?

Material & symbolic Tombs, Temples; Images, Rites; Calendars,

Festivals


Features of a Faith affected in practice...

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LinguisticFixed

Creed, Scriptures, Liturgies, Catechism

Intercessive and Discursive Prayers, Homilies; Myths, Theology, Ethical codes

Community: who are the Faithful?

Material & symbolic Tombs, Temples; Images, Rites; Calendars,

Festivals


Roman Catholicism into Nahuatl

(Mexico C16-18)

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Juan Diego & the Virgin• Story set in 1531, a

decade after the Conquista by Hernán Cortés

• on the hill Tepeyac,noted shrine of goddess Tonantzin, outside Mexico City

• B.V.M. reveals nepapan xochitl, ‘diverse flowers’



(Mexico C16-18)

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Tonantzin“Our Lady Mother”

identified with goddesses Cihua-coatl

“woman-serpent”Xochi-quetzal

“flower quetzal-bird”XQ’s cult had involved

flower offerings.



(Mexico C16-18)

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published in 1649, by Luis Laso de la Vega; in perfect Nahuatl, apparently by native speaker(s)

with Miguel Sánchez (Imagen de la Virgen María, Madre de Dios de Guadalupe, 1648, led off a boom in devotion to the Virgin Mary: surge in images, chapels

in 1737 the Virgin of Guadalupe was proclaimed patroness of Mexico City; in 1746 her patronage accepted throughout kingdom of New Spain.



(Mexico C16-18) This hagiography has effectively enhanced the

Scriptures for Nahuatl speakers.

Theology: Virgin Mary characterized as:

Tonantzin, “our Lady Mother“ Cenquizca Mahuiz-Ichpochtli “perfect wondrous

maiden” (i.e. Immaculate Virgin full of Grace), as well as Madre de Dios de Guadalupe

“Guadalupe”? interpreted as a divinely-inspired mis-hearing of coatla-xopeuh “serpent crushing”

Role of flowers: Mex. image (nepapan xochitl) into Spanish: Molina’s 1571 dictionary, rosa de castilla = Caxtillan xuchitl

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(Mexico C16)

Community

Includes Nahua through hypocoristic, endearing style:

"No-chpoch-tzin-é, no-xocoyohu-é, cihuapill-é, ma xi-mo-paquilti-tié, quen otimixtonalti? Cuix ticmohuelmachitia in mo-tlazo-nacayo-tzin, No-tecuiyo-é, No-pil-tzinzin-é?

“My little maiden, my youngest daughter, lady, please to be happy; how are you (lit. how did you blush) this morning? Does your beloved body feel well, my patron, my most noble one? ...”

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Buddhism through Gāndharī & Sanskrit

(C1-3)

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• The Kuṣāṇa Empire, spread from Bactria and Gandhara into India and Tarim Basin, hosted spread of Buddhism.

• Kuṣāṇa < Guishang (Chinese), a tribe of the Yue-zhi (Tokhwar), who controlled Bactria: their lingua franca was evidently not Bactrian, but Gāndharī Prakrit.

• Since 1994, massive discoveries of 77 Buddhist MS written in GP in Kharoṣṭhī alphabet



(C1-3)

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• Since 1994, massive discoveries of 77 Buddhist MS written in GP in Kharoṣṭhī alphabet

• Re-writing the Buddhist scriptures, adding to the Tipiṭaka

• C2 emperor Kaniṣka held an influential synod, (in Kashmir), appointing Sanskrit poet Aśvaghoṣa for vibhāṣā: subsequent sutras in Sanskrit

• Revering the written word – an innovation for India



(C1-3) The Lotus Sutra sings its own

praises as a physical book:

should there be one who receives and upholds, reads and recites, explains and teaches, or copies out The [Lotus] Sutra, be it even a single verse, looking upon the Sutra text with reverence as he would the Buddha himself, making various kinds of offerings of flowers, incense, beads, powdered incense, paste incense, burning incense, silk canopies, banners, clothing and music, or who even join his palms in reverence, O Medicine King, you should know that such a person has in the past already made offerings to tens of myriads of millions of Buddhas, in the presence of those Buddhas, accomplishing great vows…

Saddharmapuṇḍarika Sutra, chapter 105/9/2013



(C1-3) Languages curiously equivalent:

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English Pali Sanskrit Gandhari

dharma, law dhamma dharmaḥ dhama

the four noble truths cattāri ariya-saccāni catvāri ārya-satyāni catvari ariya-saca aṇ

suffering dukkha du khaḥ ṃ dukha

causation samudaya samudayaḥ samudaya

craving, desire ta hāṇ t āṛṣṇ ta aṣ�

ignorance avijjā avidyā avija

cessation nirodha nirodhaḥ nirosa

eightfold path a hangiko maggoṭṭ a hangika-mārgaṣṭ ḥ a ha giga magoṭ ṃ

arhat, adept arahanta arhan arahadi

nirvana, blowing out nibbāna nirvā aṇ ṃ niva aṇ

impermanence aniccatā anityatā anicada



(C1-3) Languages curiously equivalent,

yet massive changes licensed in new sūtras:

Mahāyāna – “great vehicle” [Chinese mis-hearing of mahājñāna “great knowledge”?] prominence of śūnyatā “emptiness”, Buddha-

nature bodhisattva (Buddhas to be) and compassion upaya-kauśalyā “skilful means” – pragmatism multitude of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and

paradises new personnel to some extent identifable as

Persian, Greek, Indian deities

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(C1-3) Tantalizing Buddhist scriptures

difficult to date Sanskrit “originals” usually, only date from first translation into

Chinese usually, earliest Sanskrit MS post-dates this

But: possibility of new sūtras (in whatever lang.)

enabled new creed

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(C1-3)

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• Trapuṣa and Bhallika, two Kuṣāṇa merchants, were the Buddha’s first lay disciples (upāsaka).

• Merchants were likely the main bearers of Buddhist preaching around the Kuṣāṇa empire.

• Merchant influence may underlie Buddhist doctrine of accumulating (and transferable) puṇya (merit) to achieve spiritual goals.

• Mahāyāna descriptions of paradise emphasize the sapta-ratna (“7 Treasure”s) -gold, silver, pearls, lapis lazuli, crystal, white coral (or agate), and ruby - major trade goods.

• Gandhari Prakrit would also have been the major language for trade.


Christianity into Greek & Latin (Roman Empire, C1-4)

Greek defines the community of early Christians Christ and his disciples lived in Aramaic, in the Jewish

heartland of Judaea. Paul found it politic to address religious crowds there tēi hebraïdi dialektōi τηι ἑβραιδι διαλεκτωι

But the faith was early packaged for overseas Jews, and very soon Gentiles (largely speakers of Greek). Eg. Paul’s travels in Anatolia, Greece and Rome.

Χριστιανοι (Kʰristianoi): “the ones dedicated to a Greek acceptance of the fulfilment of a Jewish promise” – Latin (-iani) added to Greek Χριστός Kʰristós, literal translation of the Hebrew יח� ש� .”Aramaic Meshiah) “the anointed one ,(Māšîaḥ) מ�

Luke:”the first to adopt the title (ca 50 AD) were believers in Antioch,” a Greek-speaking city on the edge of Syria.

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Effects of Greek on Christian creed Origen: ὁ θεος = The Father; θεος = Jesus παις θεου – son or servant of God? παρθενος – young/unmarried/virginal woman? Origen’s neologisms – θεανθρωπος, θεοτοκος

St John’s characterization of the λογος = SERMO (Tertullian, Cyprian) – conversation? = RATIO (Tertullian) – plan, proportion, measure, scheme? = VERBUM (Jerome) – word?

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Greek and Latin in the R.E.

with division into διοικησεις

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Christian Adoption of Latin C2: Scriptures translated informally (Vetus Latina) C3 mid: Church correspondence into Latin 293: Diocletian divides empire into dioceses 313: Constantine’s Edict of Milan: immunity 325: Council of Nicaea: unity of creed C4 (360-82): Church liturgy into Latin C4 (390s): Completion of Jerome’s Vulgate Bible

Theological effects consubstantialis effaces distinction ὁμο-/ὁμοιουσιος ?

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Christian Adoption of Latin Political effects on the Community

adoption of Church government in dioceses inter-penetration of civil and clerical governors sentimental adoption of pre-Christian terms

Pontifex Maximus = Bishop of Rome sacerdos = πρεσβυτερος ‘priest, elder’ sacer, sanctus = ἁγιος, ἁγνος

Church assumed ethos of the Roman Empire, replacing ethos of (Greek-speaking) sect Hellēn comes to mean “pagan”, “”unbelieving” (till C18) belief in Donatio Constantini (C8-12): Church successor to R.E.

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Effects of language conversions

on the Content of the Great Faiths

In order of Profundity

1. Change of Community A new (language) community becomes central

to the church, promoting other customs, identity.

2. Change of Scriptures is licensed If radical, this may lead to changes in creed.

3. Change of Creed may come about through imperfect translation

Only a minor effect, if at all.

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U. Bremen - Lx, Colonial & Post 5/9/2013

Education

Nicholas Ostler 2013 Crossing Language Barriers: effects on the Great Faiths