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biology of economic agriculture
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Oil Palm
The oil palms (Elaeis)
belong to the Arecaceae, or
palm family.
They are used in commercial
agriculture in the production
of palm oil.
• The oil palm is a tropical palm tree. There are two species, the better known one is the one originating from Guinea, Africa and was first illustrated by Nicholaas Jacquin in 1763, hence its name, Elaeis guineensis Jacq. The other species is Elaeis oleifera is native to tropical Central America and South America.
• The generic name is derived from the Greek for oil, elaion, while the species name refers to its country of origin.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: PlantaeDivision: MagnoliophytaClass: LiliopsidaOrder: ArecalesFamily: ArecaceaeGenus: Elaeis
Jacq. Species:
Elaeis guineensisElaeis oleifera
• Mature trees are single-stemmed, and grow to 20 m tall. The leaves are pinnate, and reach between 3 - 5 m long. A young tree produces about 30 leaves a year. Established trees over 10 years produce about 20 leaves a year.
• Oil palm is a crop that bears both male and female flowers on the same tree, meaning they are monoecious
• The flowers are produced in dense clusters; each individual flower is small, with three sepals and three petals.
• The trunks of young and adult plants are wrapped in fronds which give them a rather rough appearance.
• The older trees have smoother trunks apart from the scars left by the fronds which have withered and fallen off.
• Each tree produces compact bunches (tandan) weighing between 10 and 25 kilograms with 1000 to 3000 fruitlets per bunch.
• Each fruitlet is almost
spherical or elongated
in shape. Generally the
fruitlet is dark purple,
almost black and the colour
turns to orange red when ripe.
Each fruitlet consists ofan oily, fleshy outer layer(the pericarp), with a single
seed (kernel), also rich in oil.
The fruit takes five to six months to mature from pollination to maturity
• A normal oil palm tree will start bearing fruits after 30 months of planting and will continue to be productive for the next 20 to 30 years thus ensuring a consistent supply of oil.
• Unlike other relatives, the oil palm does not produce offshoots; propagation is by sowing the seeds.
History of Oil Palm Cultivation in Malaysia
• The oil palm tree (Elaeis guineensis) originated from West Africa where it was growing wild and later developed into an agricultural crop.
• It was first introduced to Malaya in early 1870’s as an ornamental plant (pokok hiasan). In 1917 the first commercial planting took place in Tennamaran Estate in Selangor, laying the foundations for the vast oil palm plantations and palm oil industry in Malaysia to what it is today.
The cultivation of oil palm rapidly increased beginning in the sixties (1960s) under the government’s agricultural diversification programme which was to reduce the country’s economic dependence on rubber and tin.
Late in the 1960s,the government introduced land settlement schemes (e.g. FELDA, etc.) for planting oil palm as a means to eradicate poverty for the landless farmers and
smallholders.
Current Scenario
• The oil palm plantations in Malaysia are largely based on the estate management system and smallholders scheme.
• Today, over 4 million hectares of land in Malaysia is under oil palm cultivation producing 15 million tons of palm oil in 2008.
• Malaysia is the largest producer and exporter of palm oil in the world, accounting for 34% of the world’s traded edible oils & fats supply.
• The industry provides employment to more than half a million people and livelihood to an estimated one million people.
In Malaysia, 11% of the total land area (about 62% of the country’s agricultural land) is devoted to palm oil.
• Worldwide palm oil production during the 2005 - 2006 growing season was 39.8 million metric tons, of which 4.3 million tons was in the form of palm kernel oil.
• It is thus by far the most widely-produced tropical oil, and constitutes thirty-four (34%) percent of total edible oil production worldwide
• In Malaysia, the trees planted are mainly the tenera variety, a hybrid between the dura and pisifera.
• The tenera variety yields about 4 to 5 tons of crude palm oil (CPO) per hectare per year and about 1 ton of palm kernels.
• The oil palm is most efficient in terms of production level, requiring only 0.25 hectares to produce one ton of oil, while
• soybean, sunflower and rapeseed need 2.15, 1.50 and 0.75 hectares respectively.
Agriculture
Oil palms are grown for their clusters of fruit, which can weigh 40 - 50 kg. Upon harvest, the fleshy fruit, pericarp and seeds are used for production of soap and edible vegetable oil; different grades of oil quality are obtained from the pericarp and the kernel, with the pericarp oil used mainly for cooking oil, and the kernel oil used in processed foods.
Fruit Bunch
• For each hectare of oil palm, which is harvested year-round, the annual production averages 10 tons of fruit, which yields 3,000 kg of pericarp oil, and 750 kg of seed kernels, which yield 250 kg of high quality palm kernel oil as well as 500 kg of kernel meal.
• Palm fronds and kernel meal are processed for use as livestock (animal) feed.
• Some varieties have even higher productivities which has led to their consideration for producing the vegetable oil needed for biodiesel.
• For every 100 kilograms of fruit bunches (tandan buah), typically (biasanya) 25 - 30 kg of edible pericarp oil and 2.0 – 2.5 kg of palm kernel oil can be extracted.
Propagation
• Oil palm seeds are carefully selected and germinated under well-controlled condition in order to produce highest quality oil palm seedlings.
• In 2002, a total of 42.6 million oil palm germinated seeds were produced in Malaysia.
• These seeds are planted in nurseries where they will remain for at least 11 months before planting in the field.
Contd/-
This is a period of intensive care, when adequate irrigation, correct fertilization and immediate remedial treatment of any disease or pest attack are fundamental pre-requisites to ensure the production of healthy, well-grown seedling for transplanting in the field.
Contd/-
• Preparing for a good nursery begins with:- Preparation of land- Construction of roads and drains- Installation of irrigation system
• Producing good seedlings involves:- Selecting and planting of superior seeds- Nurturing the seeds- Culling
Nursery Management
Land Preparation
• Ideally, a nursery should be located on flat land as this would position and maintain the poly bags upright for proper growth of the seedlings. Flat land is also most suitable for performing other management and maintenance activities, which are constantly carried out in the nursery.
• In sloping areas, the steepness of a slope should not exceed 15%.
Land Preparation (contd)• The use of clay soil is preferred when
filling the polybags at the nursery. It would not break easily in polybags, a crucial criterion during transfer of seedlings to bigger polybags, or planting of seedlings in the field.
• If clay soil is unavailable at the site, it should be brought from other areas.
Land Preparation (contd)
Preparation of land for a nursery includes: (a) clearing of land, (b) loosening of soil using tractor with plough, (c) building of roads and drains, (d) installing irrigation system, and (e) erecting fences to keep away pests such as wild boars and cattle
Nurturing seeds and seedlings
Germinated seeds:Once planted in small poly bags, the period of intensive care for the germinated seeds soon begins. Adequate irrigation, correct fertilization and immediate remedial treatment of any disease or pest attack are of utmost importance for the premium growth of the
seedlings.
Seedling maintenance:
• During the first two months, the seedlings are placed under coverings to shelter it from harsh weather.
• Other maintenance involved are topping of polybags with new soils, weeding, keeping the polybags in upright position and to gradually remove the coverings from the seedlings.
Contd/-
• In the nursery, rows after rows of poly bag beds are marked with signboards, which are used to identify the age group of each row of seedlings planted.
• Each group are presented with the following information:- Number of seedlings planted- Date of planting in small polybags- Date of transfer to bigger polybags- Type of seedlings and the supplier
Watering (Irrigation)
• The oil palm seedlings are watered daily. With each seedlings requiring minimum of 1.7 liter water per day (@ a supply of 76,600 liter of water daily is essential for watering a hectare of nursery area). As such, nursery is best located
within an area with huge reservoir of water, where water is easily
accessible even during
drought season.
Contd/-
# The popular choice for watering oil palm seedlings in the nursery is by using the Overhead Sprinkler System. The system is designed to provide consistent, adequate and efficient watering. # Others would use perforated lay-flat polythene tube spray-mist system or simply by hand watering. (Expert help is needed in planning watering schedule to minimize waste caused by run-off, wind drift and evaporation).
Infrastructure (Roads & Drains)
The roads network in a nursery are planned and built as main roads (where most of the nursery transport passes), the subsidiary roads (which serves a link into the interior of the nursery) and perimeter roads (which provides accessibility for workers to carry out their daily activities at the nursery).(All roads, particularly the access road to the nursery, must always be kept in good order, to ease transportation of seedlings to plantation).
Contd/-
Nurseries located in flood prone areas should be equipped with a good drainage system. Properly prepared drains and ditches will avoid flooding in these areas and saves potential loss of seedlings
Seedlings
Planting materials:
In order to obtain high yield of crude palm oil, the most important factor at the outset is the selection of planting materials. In Malaysia, the best planting material at the present time is the cross between dura and pisifera (D x P), which is known as tenera.
The selection of seedlings by removing or destroying abnormal oil palm seedlings (or culling) at the nursery will ensure only high quality seedlings are produced for planting.
This process is vital (penting sekali) as planting of quality seedlings promises higher yield.
Culling of Seedlings:
• Culling is carried out a few times during the year the oil palm seedlings were at the nursery. Normally, the first culling started about 1½ to 2½ months after the germinated seeds were planted in the small poly bags.
• It is later repeated right before the seedlings were re-planted in bigger poly bags.
• The abnormality in seedlings planted in small poly bags is:
- Narrow leaf; - Rolled leaf - Crinkled leaf; - Twisted leaf- ‘Co lante’; - Chimaera (diseased)
Culling (contd/-)
After 3 to 4 months in the big poly bags and about a month before planting in the field, the seedlings are again culled.The abnormality in seedlings planted in big poly bags is:
- Erect habit - Flat top
- Stunted growth- Flaccid, limp appearance- Juvenile appearance- Wide internode- Short internode- Acute (narrow) pinnae
Fertilization
The Malaysian climate and many of its soils are ideally suited for oil palm cultivation; humid tropical lowland climate with about 80 inches of annual rainfall, temperature ranged between 20 - 30°C, constant sunshine for at least 5 hours per day, together with well textured volcanic, alluvial or marine clay soils.
Contd/-
However, high yields of fresh fruit bunches are not determine by these conditions alone. A promise of high fruit bunch yields comes with proper maintenance of the oil palm trees, particularly in the most effective way of applying the fertilizer and the best tool to use.
Pest and Disease Control
• In oil palm plantation, better control of diseases and pests is crucial in reducing crop losses, as most parts of the trees could be easily affected; the bunches, the fronds, the male flowers, the spears or the trunk.
• The popular approach towards this problem is by using chemical pesticides, which is not environmentally friendly.
Contd/-
• Research are constantly being conducted with the aim to intensify awareness and better integration of biological control agent in pest management, thus reducing reliance on pesticides.
• Among device recommended is pheromone trapping for trapping adult beetles (Oryctes sp), and owls for rat control.
Harvesting of Fresh Fruit Bunches
Oil palm gives the highest yield of oil per hectare of any crop. Harvesting of oil palm bunches commences 30 months after planting reaches maturity in three years, at intervals of 7 to 10 days throughout the palm's economic life which may vary from 20 to 30 years.
Contd/-
• In Malaysia, good control of the harvesting standard ensures that oil quality is maintained at a high level.
• Harvesting of the younger palm is carried out by means of a wide chisel, but when the palm grows beyond the access of the chisel, a sickle attached to a long bamboo pole is used.
• MPOB has introduced mechanized devices fit for this purpose such as, the Harvesting Machine, the Mechanized Sickle and Tuah Chop Cutter.
Transportation and handling of fruit bunches
• Injured fresh fruit bunches due to insufficient care during cutting, collection and loading for transportation to the mills could cost oil palm growers' maximum high quality oil.
Contd/-
• Between the stage when the fruit bunch is cut and the time it is put into the sterilizer in the mill, some factors need to be avoided:- Harvesting fruit bunches when the fruit is overripe- Harvesting fruit bunches before the fruit is ripe- Injuring good, ripe fruit- Keeping good fruit bunches for more than 24 hours before processing- Contamination of fruit with dust of earth during collection
