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Phones are different realizations of phonemes
… en ibben doe ijall meiga slidely divren azaunza, peeble stil unna unnastanz wen iu sbeek
da zem laengwijj.
Ø So even though each person pronounces sounds slightly differently, speakers of the same language understand because they recognize the sound pa)erns.
Ø These different ways that phonemes are realized by speakers are called phones…
Ø and the different versions of one phone are called allophones of that phoneme.
Transcription
• Phonemes are wri@en in slanted brackets to show idealized transcrip0ons:
/eɪtθ/ /spæt/
• Phones are wri@en in square brackets to represent actual pronuncia0on:
[eɪt̪θ] [spæt̚]
Transcription
Diacri0cs and other symbols can be used to describe different allophones of a given phoneme.
Transcription
You can use the symbols for other phonemes to express allophones different pronuncia0ons… • Like for someone from the western US: [kɑt] • Or someone from the eastern US: [kɔt] • You can use diacri0cs to express the unreleased quality of the /t/: [kɑt̚]
• Or for a Bri0sh person who leaves out the (r) in (park), but lengthens the vowel [ɑ] instead: [pɑːk]
Minimal pairs & minimal sets
Minimal pairs are two words that differ by a single phoneme:
(bet/bed), (sight/side), (pin/pen), (drug/drag) (put/pot), (look, book)
Minimal sets allow us to see pa:erns in the sound combina0ons permi@ed in a language.
(sad, sod, said, sighed, sewed, sued, seed)
Phonotactics
• “Phonotac0cs” refers to the part of phonology that deals with constraints on sound sequences and syllable structure in a language.
• “Phonotac0c constraint” refers to any specific restric0on.
Syllable Structure
• Languages differ in permissible syllable structure
• Below are some simplified examples.
Other syllable constraints
There are further constraints on which types of consonants or vowels appear in specific posi0ons. • For example, in Japanese CVC syllables, only nasals may appear on the coda posi0on.
There may also be dialectal varia0on within a language.
• For example, only some Korean speakers allow CC sequences • Dialect A: [ilk.ta] “to read” • Dialect B: [ik.ta] “to read”
Other syllable constraints
• Example: English disallows [ŋ] and [ʒ] in the onset posi0on.
• With excep0ons for loanwords like genre: /ʒɑnrə/
• English also disallows [h] in the coda posi0on.
Consonant sequences
Languages have constraints on specific sound sequences.
Such constraints ocen refer to features rather than specific sounds. • i.e. features like voicing, place of ar0cula0on, & manner of ar0cula0on.
English consonant sequences
• English allows CC and CCC clusters in onsets and codas, but they are highly restricted:
CC: clap, plow, twill, swill, grate, flow, smoke, sneak CCC: splat, scratch, strap, squirrel,
English consonant sequences
In codas, nasals may precede voiceless stops, but only if they share the same place of ar0cula0on.
Allowed: jump [dʒʌmp], stunt [stʌnt], s0nk [stɪŋk]
*Disallowed:
*jumk [dʌmk], *stunp [stʌnp], *s0ngt [stɪŋt]
Constraint violations
Prohibited/disallowed sound sequences arise for various reasons, including: • Borrowing words from other languages
tsunami [sunami] or [tsunami] • Puing affixes and words together sequen0ally.
cost + s à *sts / ocen pronounced [cɑss] next store à *stst / [nɛksstor]
Resolving constraint violations
• Delete a sound (Elision) friendship à [frɛnʃɪp] / cabinet à [kæbnɪt]
Resolving constraint violations
• Delete a sound (Elision) friendship à [frɛnʃɪp] / cabinet à [kæbnɪt]
• Insert a sound ghosts à [goʊstəz] or [goʊstəsəz] English Sprite à Korean [sɨ.pʱɨ.ɾa.i.tʰɨ]
Resolving constraint violations
• Delete a sound (Elision) friendship à [frɛnʃɪp] / cabinet à [kæbnɪt]
• Insert a sound ghosts à [goʊstəz] or [goʊstəsəz] English Sprite à Korean [sɨ.pʱɨ.ɾa.i.tʰɨ]
• Change a sound (Assimila0on) walk /wɑk/ + -‐ed /d/ à [wɑkt] English McDonalds à Chinese [mɑt̚.don.laʊ]
Notes on foreign accents
Because each language has its characteris0c phonotac0c constraints, phonological rules, and sound inventories, it can be challenging for speakers to pronounce (and perceive) the phonemes and phone combina0on of another language. Phonotac0c constraints • e.g. English allows syllable ini0al [s] + stop; Spanish does not.
Phonological rules • e.g. English aspirates word-‐ini0al stops, Spanish and French do not.
Notes on foreign accents
Different sound inventories: • e.g. French has /ʁ/, English does not.
Inability to perceive sound dis0nc0ons: • To an English speaker, foreign vowels can be par0cularly tricky to iden0fy and produce.
• e.g. [ø] and [o] and [y] and [u] sound very similar to an English speaker, whereas German speakers use them to dis0nguish separate words. (i.e. they are different phonemes to a German speaker)
• e.g. /ʃvyl/ (humid) and /ʃvul/ (homosexual) differ by one sound that doesn’t exist in English.