Water ResourcesChapter 8

Water and Ice:Underground and on the

Surface

Movement:1. Surface-to-Air2. Air-to-Surface3. On/Beneath the Surface

Subjects you’ll be studying in this segment:•Underground water

–Groundwater–Hydrothermal sources

•Ice on the surface–Permafrost–Glaciers

•Water on the surface–Lakes–Swamps and Marshes

Underground Water•Small portion of Earth’s total water (0.5%)

•Significant source of water for humans

•But how did it get there?

Surface and Sub-surface Water:Into and Under the Ground•Precipitation adds to the surface soil water belt

•Water not taken up by plants and soil flows downward under the influence of gravity

•Once saturation is reached, water flows laterally (sideways), following topography—this movement is called subsurface flow

Subsurface Flow•At the base of a slope or at a surface depression that is lower than the water table, subsurface flow may reemerge (return flow).

Percolation•The downward flow of water through pore spaces in soil or rock under the influence of gravity is called percolation (just like water percolating through coffee grounds)

•Different types of subsurface material will hold or pass water through in different ways.

Porosity and Permeability•Porosity—A measure of the total volume of pore spaces through which liquids or gases can pass, in relation to the total volume of solid ground material–Sand and sandstone have coarse grains and open textures, making them very porous

–The more porous the material, the more water it can hold (like a sponge)

Porosity and Permeability•Permeability—How easily soil, rock fragments, or solid rock allow water to enter and pass through (how easily does the water flow?)–Dry clay is very porous (lots of spaces between particles for holding water)

–Once water is added, clay particles hold the water very tightly (water is held but can’t flow through)

–Clay is very porous, but not permeable—it is impermeable

Hydrologic Zones

Hydrologic Zones•Zone of Aeration—The soil water belt; this zone is not completely saturated—some pore spaces are filled with air, some with water.

•This is where infiltration and percolation happen—water is just passing through.

Hydrologic Zones•Zone of Saturation—All pore spaces in rock or sediment filled with water–The top of the zone of saturation (groundwater layer) is called the water table

–The shape of the water table follows topography—it is highest where elevations are highest and lowest in areas of low elevation

–This groundwater flows slowly toward depressions or lower elevations•Note: Groundwater is NOT an underground stream!

Hydrologic Zones•Zone of Saturation

–Effluent condition—The water table is higher than a surface depression; groundwater flows out onto the surface

–Influent condition—The water table is lower than a surface depression; water in the depression (a stream or a lake) seeps downward until it reaches the groundwater layer

What does a spring look like?

Hydrologic Zones•Zone of Confined Water—separated from the zone of saturation by an impermeable layer, called an aquaclude

•This underground water storage layer is called an aquifer

•Artesian well—A well drilled into the aquifer that is lower than the top of the water table and flows to release pressure, without any pumping

Aquifers and Artesian Wells

Hydrologic Zones•Waterless Zone—A few miles down, the pressure too great; pore spaces collapse and water can’t flow

Groundwater Management•A lack of careful management can endanger humans, wildlife, and vegetation

•Depletion and contamination are serious threats to global health and well-being

•Competition and conflicts over adequate, clean water supplies may become the dominant issue, world-wide.

Groundwater Management:Issues•Removal of groundwater faster than natural recharge can replace it may lead to a depleted and unusable water source

•The case of the Ogallala Aquifer

Groundwater Management:Issues

•As water is removed from the groundwater layer, it doesn’t drop the water level uniformly across the surface of the water table

•An area of empty pore spaces surrounds the well in a cone shape. This cone-shaped lowering of the water table is called a cone of depression.

Groundwater Management:Issues

•When pore spaces are left unrecharged, they collapse and the ground sinks. This ground subsidence can be significant and environmentally destructive.

The Case of Venice, Italy

The worst acqua alta in memory, the one that truly woke Venetians up to how bad things could get, occurred on November 3, 1966. The high tide that swept into all corners of the city that night lasted an astonishing 22 hours (typical high tides last six).

•Contamination of groundwater–Percolation through compromised landfills and waste dump sites carrying pollutants into groundwater sources

–Surface and buried pollutants seeping into groundwater from industry and energy sources

–Seepage from septic systems–Seawater intrusion into coastal groundwater sources turning them saline and undrinkable

Groundwater Management:Issues

Hydrothermal Activity•Occurs where underground water comes into contact with magma sources

•Temperatures as high as 400ºF; water remains liquid because of the extreme pressure of the rocks above

•Heated water dissolves minerals, especially silica, which are carried away and deposited on the surface

Hydrothermal Features•Hot springs

–Heat is dissipated evenly as the water rises to the surface, so it flows slowly

Morning Glory Pool, Yellowstone N.P.

Hydrothermal Features•Geysers

–Heat is not lost, so that water shoots rapidly to the surface as if exploding

Old Faithful, Yellowstone N.P.

Hydrothermal Features•Fumaroles (steam vents)

–Above the water table, so little water is present; only steam and volcanic gases are released from surface cracks and fissures

Green Dragon Fumarole, Yellowstone N.P.

Surface Water: Ice•Permafrost—Permanently frozen ground water; any subsoil that stays frozen for two consecutive years is considered permafrost

Melting permafrost is a serious problem

•Building foundations cracking as surface turns to mud, broken pipelines, etc. (This is why the Alaska Pipeline sits above ground)

•Once-frozen, decaying vegetation and biota releasing methane

Yukon, Canada

Pipeline in northern Russia

The Alaska Pipeline

Surface Water: Glaciers

Extent of ice sheets during last glacial maximum (the last Ice Age)

Current global extent of glacial ice

Surface Water: Ice•Glaciers

–Large, moving mass of ice, forming on or adjacent to a land surface through the accumulation and consolidation, under pressure, of snow falling at higher elevations

–The ice mass moves outward and downward from the zone of accumulation to lower elevations

–Glaciers are in constant motion

Glaciers

Glaciers•Constant motion scrapes away surface material wherever the glacier is flowing

Glacial Moraines in Northern U.S.•Glacial till (scraped material) is trapped and transported by moving ice, then deposited at the end and sides of the glacier in a chaotic jumble–The Great Plains, U.S. and Michigan

Glaciers•Two types of glaciers

–Alpine glaciers (mountain glaciers or valley glaciers)•Form in mountain valleys

–Continental glaciers (ice sheets)•A continuous mass of thick ice moving outward in all directions from the center of accumulation

•So large that they bury the entire landscape –Greenland and Antarctica

Continental and Alpine Glaciers

What will happen when the world’s glaciers melt?•Melting sea ice is increasing temperatures in the Arctic Ocean, reducing albedo and creating a positive feedback loop that is increasing warming–Melting of sea ice will not raise sea level–Melting of ice on land, which then flows to sea, has already significantly raised sea level (low-lying islands disappearing, coral forests “drowning”)•Greenland’s ice sheets melting completely would raise sea level by 6 m (~18 feet)

Lakes

Lakes•A body of water surrounded by land (no size definition)

•Many lakes, esp. in dry regions, are ephemeral (dry for part of the year)

•Water balance maintained by sfc. inflow and/or springs beneath the sfc.

•Drainage can occur by stream, or into the subsurface where aquacludes are not present

•Movement of water is always downward in elevation toward the ocean

Lakes•Lakes can be created by glaciation, crustal activity, volcanism, sinkhole collapse, etc.

•The destiny of most lakes is infilling by sediments or destruction by humans

The Destruction of the Aral Sea

The Destruction of the Aral Sea

The Destruction of the Aral Sea

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An alkali dust storm building along the shores of Owens Lake, CA

Salts blowing across Paoha Island, Mono Lake, CA

Swamps and Marshes•Associated with coastal plains (like the area surrounding S.F. and S.P. Bays), broad river valleys, and recently glaciated areas

•May be an intermediate stage during the infilling of a lake

Swamps—plant growth dominated by trees

Marshes—dominated by grasses/rushesshallow enough for plants to grow

Surface Water: Streams•Runoff—water that flows downslope along the surface is called overland flow–Runoff that flows downslope in sheets, where the ground surface is slick or solid and water can’t infiltrate easily is called sheet flow

•If runoff occupies a narrow channel confined by its banks, it is a stream or river

•Rivers and Streams flow to lowest possible elevation, powered by:

Gravity!